Critical Thinking Research

Research in Social Psychology

Research in Social Psychology begins with an observation. Observations can be made in a variety of ways. A Social Psychologist may read about a particular topic in a professional journal or may simply observe human behavior in the environment and decide to pursue a research project on their observation. In addition, a researcher may choose to simply REPLICATE another researcher’s work. Replication is very common in research. Its purpose is to evaluate the reliability of the research results. Reliability is the assessment of whether the results obtained from a specific research project are consistent. Replication is a method to evaluate whether other researchers can obtain the same results as the original researcher thereby confirming reliability.

Observations lead to the creation of a THEORY. A theory is a general statement of belief about the relationship between variables. VARIABLES are any characteristic, trait, quality or behavior that can vary (have a range). Theories speculate on a possible link between different variables. For example, a Social Psychologist might suggest a theory regarding aggression which states: Gender influences aggression. Since gender (Male or Female) can vary and type and level of aggression can vary this statement fits the criteria for a theory. In addition, it is a general statement that does not propose a specific relationship. Theories tend to be prediction of what we believe to be true regarding a behavior. Theoretical perspectives are theories about why all behavior happens. For example, the sociocultural perspective suggests that social behavior relates to culture while the evolutionary perspective suggests that biological factors contribute to universal mental characteristics. Theories are an attempt to explain the occurrence of the behavior. For a researcher a theory can influence their entire career. They may do multiple research projects dedicated to the development of information about their theory.

From the theory, the Social Psychology researcher will then formulate a HYPOTHESIS. Every individual research project will have a different and specific hypothesis. A hypothesis is a specific statement of the relationship between variables that can be tested. For instance, from the theory stated above, the hypothesis could be: Men (more specific than just gender) are more (more specific) aggressive than women. The hypothesis must be testable. This means that a hypothesis must be able to be researched. The specifics of the research are based on the hypothesis. The results of the research refer to the hypothesis. Whether the research is valid or reliable depends on the stated hypothesis and how it was tested. The hypothesis statement guides the research in terms of who will be tested, how they will be tested and for what the subjects will be tested. Sometimes the researcher will formulate a question based on the hypothesis. Again, this aids in the development of the research by creating a research question that can be answered by the specific research to be undertaken. For example, we could ask: Are younger men more aggressive than older men? Or are men who describe themselves as “masculine” more aggressive than men who do not? Both the hypothesis and/or the question can also be described as the PURPOSE of a particular research project. In identifying the hypothesis and question the research will be required to operationally define the specific conditions and behaviors to be tested. An operational definition provides a very specific understanding of exactly what the researcher is studying. In the examples above the researcher would need to define what behavior represents aggression. What age represents younger. And what exactly does “describing themselves” mean? Each operational definition moves the research toward the specific research sample, method and design needed to test the hypothesis.

Once the hypothesis has been identified the researcher decides on a METHOD. A method is the tool the researcher will use to gather data on his/her hypothesis. There are many methods from which the researcher may choose (see your text chapter two). However, specific types of research usually use the same method. The researcher chooses the method that is best for the type of research they are conducting. There are two general categories of research: Field (Descriptive) and Laboratory (experimental) .

Field (Descriptive) research is research done outside of a laboratory. Field methods include surveys, natural observations and case studies. Field methods do not control for variables as well as do Laboratory (Experimental) methods and therefore they obtain a different type of result.

Results obtained from Field/Descriptive method are called correlations. Correlations are statistical results based on data collected using methods specific to descriptive/field research. Research that results in correlations is also known as Correlational Method. Correlations suggest a relationship that may or may not exist between the variables identified in the hypothesis. A correlation can ONLY identify if a relationship exists, the strength of the relationship and the direction the variables vary in relation to each other. CORRELATIONS CAN NOT EXPRESS CAUSE AND EFFECT (causal) RELATIONSHIPS.

Correlations are stated as a sign with a decimal (+.86 or - .42). If a correlation is stated as a 0 then that indicates NO CORRELATION exists between the variables. 0 correlation is read as no relationship exists between the variables stated in the hypothesis. A correlation without a sign is to be considered a +. The number represents the strength of the relationship between the variables. The closer the number is to 1.00 the stronger the correlation, for example, +.86. This correlation would be stated as a strong correlation as it is close to 1.00. On the other hand, -.42 might be described as a moderate or modest correlation while +.20 would be described as a weak correlation. The fact is, you must know the number to know whether the correlation between the variable is strong, modest or weak.

The sign (+ or -) indicates the direction the variables travel in relation to each other. A plus sign (or no sign) indicates that the variables travel together, in the same direction, therefore, as one variable increases the other variable increases or as one variable decreases the other variable decreases. A minus sign indicates that the variables are traveling in opposite directions; as one variable increases the other decreases. For example: Based on a hypothesis that stated there is a relationship between performance and the presence of others; research results in social facilitation described in chapter one demonstrated that the presence of others enhances performance. Therefore, the results of this study probably yielded a + correlation since as the presence of others increased, performance increased. On the other hand, research into bystander effect suggests a hypothesis that states that the presence of bystanders relates to a decrease in performance thereby yielding a – correlation since as the presence of bystanders increased, performance decreased.

Field/Descriptive research uses several different methods including natural observation. A NATURAL OBSERVATION is a method that is most often used for research with children and animals. Natural observation provides a method to study behavior in a natural setting. The advantages of this method are that it provides a great deal of firsthand behavioral information. The subject’s behavior is more natural, spontaneous and varied than behaviors taking place in the laboratory. Natural observation is considered a rich source of hypotheses. The limitations are that the presence of an observer may alter the subject’s behavior as suggested in the last paragraph. Subjects that know they are being observed have a tendency to not act naturally, which compromises the basic intent of this method of research. Consider how you drive when there is a policeman driving behind you.

In addition, the observer’s recording of the behavior may reflect a pre-existing bias. OBSERVER BIAS/experimenter bias is an issue with all research. It includes issues associated to the choice of subjects and includes the accuracy of the recorded data. If a researcher has an expectation of performance by a specific type of subject he/she may choose that type of subject for their research in an effort to guarantee a result that agrees with their hypothesis. Additionally, in natural observation the observer is recording the behavior of the subjects. The researcher’s point of view or biases may influence how accurately they record the behavior of the subject. Finally, one other limit to Natural Observation is that it may not be as generalizable as other forms of research.

In research, the purpose of the study is to relate the results to a group. The group, to whom a researcher applies their results, is known as the population . For a selected research project, the population is specific and may vary from other research projects. The subjects studied, the sample, MUST REPRESENT THE POPULATION. This representative sample enables the researcher to generalize his/her results beyond the specific sample they studied to the larger population. It works like a buffet. At a buffet, you try the apple pie (the population of apple pie), you take a sample, a slice of the pie. You assume your slice of pie represents the entire pie. If your sample of pie is sweet, you assume the whole pie is sweet because you have generalized from the slice of pie to the whole pie, from specific slice to general pie. Similarly, in research, the sample represents a population. The researcher can generalize the results of a study beyond the limited sample of 25 people to the larger population of 200 people. Samples must represent the population in size. Meaning that if the population is large, the sample must be large. If the population is small, the sample can be small. The key is to represent the population. The sample must represent the population in composition. If the sample is men, then the population represented is men. If the sample is 17 year old men who live in California and drive motorcycles, then the population represented is adolescents who live in California and ride motorcycles. Finally the sample should be random. Random implies that the sample was chosen in a way that would eliminate Observer bias and would, in fact, better represent the population because the sample would include a similar percentage of chance for uncontrolled variables. For instance, 17 year olds who were not feeling well the day data was collected would reflect that part of the population that rides a motorcycle even when they don’t feel well.

Sample is also a mechanism to control for filter variables / confounds. Filter variables are variables, not identified as the independent variable or in the hypothesis, whose presence could alter the results of the research. The details of the sample are important in the research, as they represent not only the population, but possible confounds that could influence the results. For instance, in the study with the 17 year old men who live in California and drive motorcycles, we could state a theory which says: Adolescent motor cycle drivers have fewer accidents than do adolescent car drivers. The independent variable would be adolescence and vehicle, while the dependent variable would be accidents. The samples age and type of vehicle would be important to the results but equally important could be other variables which could contribute to the results such as, living in California verses Montana (weather conditions), years of driving experience, and participation in driver’s education. Each of these represents a filter/ confound variable that could influence the results if not controlled (having their effect filtered out).

The most popular field method is a survey. Survey method includes interviews and questionnaires. Survey method gathers data by presenting a large sample a standardized set of questions. Surveys can be done in many ways including telephone, direct mail or as a poll. The advantage of this method is the large amount of data that can be gathered quickly and inexpensively. The limitations of this method include accuracy issues. Accuracy in a survey is inhibited when the questions are poorly constructed and therefore lead to confusion on the part of the sample. Accuracy also depends on the ability and willingness of sample to answer questions accurately. This issue is known as Sampling /participant Bias. Participant occurs when a subject within the sample cannot or will not answer the survey questions honestly. The honestly of a subjects answers determine how accurately the results truly reflect attitudes and opinions.

Subjects can answer inaccurately for many reasons including “political correctness”, and inexperience. Political correctness is the idea that a subject would answer a question in a politically correct way. This may take the form of answering as they believe they should answer to support the researcher who may be their professor or answering as they believe it would be appropriate to answer considering cultural rules and beliefs rather that their own actual beliefs and behaviors. The sample subjects may answer inaccurately through inexperience when they choose an answer based on what they think they would do rather than what they have actually done. The sample subject may be chosen at random and may not always be chosen based on their personal experience with the subject of the study, therefore the questions asked may not relate to personal experience but require the sample subject to be hypothetical. For instance, you (as a member of the sample) are asked if you would rescue a kitten from a burning building; you respond yes. Your response could be based on the politically correct answer to give and most likely is not based on personal experience. The next day you are faced with an actual burning building with a kitten crying out for rescue. What do you do? It is often easier to be hypothetically politically correct than it is to be factually politically correct.

Surveys can also suffer from Experimenter Bias. The Experimenter may choose a particular sample to survey because he/she is aware of the potential for that sample to answer in a specific way. Political polls for instance are frequently not done in the conservative states to avoid certain results, or the researcher could go to a particular mall to gather data knowing that the mall was in a heavily Democratic county with a certain socioeconomic status. Both of these scenarios would result in a biased result if not stated as variables within the study. The Democratic county, socioeconomic status and conservative states could be viewed as filter/confound variables.

In the LABORATORY category there is only one method, an Experiment. An experiment is a method in which the researcher manipulates a variable (independent variable) under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable (dependent variable) as a result of the manipulation. This the only type of research which allows firm conclusions about causal relationships between variables. The independent and dependent variable were originally identified in the theory and refined in the hypothesis and the question. The independent variable is a condition, characteristic or event that a researcher manipulates in order to see its impact on another variable. The independent variable is the hypothesized CAUSE of a change in the dependent variable. A dependent variable is thought to be “dependent” on the independent variable for any measurable change in it’s presentation. The dependent variable represents the subject’s responses that were observed and measured, it is a BEHAVIOR . Independent variables and dependent variables are NEVER people, rather they are characteristics and traits of people. For example, if the hypothesis states: In conversations, women tend to talk more than men do. The theory would be that gender influences conversation. The hypothesis would not state I talk more or Mary talks more. It would, however, identify a characteristic of me or of Mary. In this case the characteristic is the fact that we are both women. The hypothesis identifies gender (independent variable) as a potential CAUSE for an increase in talking (BEHAVIOR ) the dependent variable. Remember a hypothesis is more specific than a theory. In this hypothesis, the increased in specifics comes from the identification of women as the specific gender in question. A second example hypothesis: You are more likely to get help in an emergency if there is a small group of onlookers rather than a large one. The theory is that group size influences helping behavior. The hypothesis is more specific in that it identifies the group size as “small” and the helping as “more”. Operational Definitions would be helpful in identifying how many individuals represent a “small” group, and to what “helping” behavior is the researcher referring. For this hypothesis the independent variable is group size which is identified as the CAUSE for the dependent variable BEHAVIOR of helping. INCLUDED IN YOUR ASSIGNMENTS ICON IS AN EXTRA CREDIT ASSIGNMENT WHICH IS WORTH 10 POINTS TOWARD YOUR TEST GRADES. IT IS AN OPPORTUNITY FOR YOU TO PRACTICE IDENTIFYING INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES.

Regardless of the method, all research, is done using a design. A design represents the how, when and where of the method. Basically, the design describes how the research was done, when the research was done and where the research was done. Because replication is an important technique in research, having a clear design is important to promote accuracy. Design is also a means by which researchers are able to control for filter/confound variables. By doing research in particular locations and at particular times, a researcher can control for many variables that could influence their study results, such as environmental factors including lifestyle differences, socio-economic status, race and even diet. For example, research done in the north eastern states of the United States may reflect different diets, cultural orientations and socio-economic status than individual who live in Arkansas. Students at Yale or Harvard, who are included as a sample in a research project, may respond differently to questions than students from UT.

Finally, a design contributes to creating reliability and validity in the research. Reliability implies consistency in measurement. Research seeks reliability by encouraging replications. Having research results proven consistent over and over again suggests that the results are significant and sound. Therefore, having a design that is clearly stated and uses dependable data collection and measurement criteria is an important key to relevant research because it promotes replication of the research. Validity identifies if the researcher measured precisely what they intended to measure. For example, in the research project stated above regarding group size and helping behavior, it is important to recognize that many factors can influence helping aside from group size. For instance, several studies have shown that gender is in fact an important variable in who will give and get help. So if the researcher did not consider gender in his design and therefore, did not control for it, he might have actually measured how gender influences helping rather than how group size influences helping. Subsequently, stating his results as group size influences helping behavior would not be valid.