Marketing Research I

Researching consumers in multicultural societies: Emerging methodological issues*

Stephanie Slater, Cardiff University, UK Mirella Yani-de-Soriano, Cardiff University, UK

Abstract The paper presents a critical review of the main studies in cross-cultural consumer behaviour and marketing research, and identifies the methodological issues that frequently undermine the quality of research in this area. The paper offers suggestions for addressing these issues, which are becoming even more complex due to growing Internet-based marketing research and increasingly multicultural societies. The authors discuss the relevance of cross-cultural marketing research and the challenges associated with it in the context of a changing global environment, and explain how, by understanding and addressing these concerns, marketers will be able to achieve superior marketing research findings through improved validity of results.

Keywords cross-cultural methodology; consumer research

Introduction

In order to understand the methodological problems associated with cross-cultural marketing research, the relationship between research design and culture needs to be investigated. All too often scholars and practitioners highlight the importance of understanding culture when making marketing decisions, but fail to take account of cultural differences when they design their marketing research project.

We know that the theories and models relating to marketing and consumer behaviour have been mainly developed in an Anglo-Saxon context, notably the United States and the UK. However, these theories have rarely been tested in cultures having different languages and traditions and confronted with diverse environmental conditions, such as Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The reason for the lack of this type of research lies fundamentally in the difficulties arising when any method or theory in the behavioural sciences is applied outside its area of origin (Brislin, Lonner, & Thorndike, 1973). Boddewyn (1981) provides clear evidence for this argument in his study of the first 25 years of comparative marketing. He found that in consumer behaviour studies, researchers used the research designs tested in the United States without taking into consideration the circumstances particular to other cultures.

*Both authors contributed equally to this article

ISSN 0267-257X print/ISSN 1472-1376 online

# 2010 Westburn Publishers Ltd.

DOI: 10.1080/0267257X.2010.509581

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Journal of Marketing Management Vol. 26, Nos. 11–12, October 2010, 1143–1160

During the 1980s, a healthy trend towards asserting the generalisability of the existing consumer behaviour theories and findings emerged in the United States. During this period, most theory-based empirical consumer behaviour studies involved testing of the external validity of findings (Aulakh & Kotabe, 1992). This trend continued into the 1990s. Cross-cultural marketing research gained great importance due to the globalisation of marketing activities and the cross-cultural use of advertisements (Malhotra, Agarwal, & Peterson, 1996; Manrai & Manrai, 1996). Nevertheless, at the end of this decade, the number of studies in cross-cultural marketing research remained limited (Sin, Cheung, & Lee, 1999).

In the twenty-first century, the role of cross-cultural marketing research has become increasingly critical in guiding business decision making. The increased pace of globalisation and the dramatic advancements in technology are creating new challenges for firms and researchers. From a managerial point of view, firms need to understand the cultural variation between countries and cultures to be able to devise sound marketing strategies based on these variations if they are to succeed in the global marketplace (Craig & Douglas, 2001; Malhotra, 2001). From a theoretical perspective, researchers need to conduct cross-cultural marketing research to establish the validity and generalisability of marketing and consumer behaviour theories and models. The argument that it is crucial to establish whether a theory or model can be used outside its area of origin has been raised for many years and in a number of studies. More than 40 years ago, Whiting (1968) argued that since most sociopsychological studies were undertaken within the framework of Western European cultures, it was not possible to be certain whether the discovered relationships were universally valid.

In the last 20 years, significant progress has been made regarding conceptual/ theoretical issues and empirical findings. Methodologically, however, recurrent and emerging issues are a key concern. To enable comparability of data and measurement equivalence, scholars need to establish a framework for evaluating the validity and rigour of data. This is paramount so that we can better understand and address the problems of conducting business and marketing research in global markets, which are often characterised by increasingly multicultural societies.

The objective of this paper is to draw closer attention to the main methodological issues confronting cross-cultural marketing research and the need to address them competently, since failure to do so could lead to confounding alternative explanations, limiting the usefulness of the marketing research project (Malhotra et al., 1996). The paper starts with a discussion of the two major general concerns in cross-cultural research and moves on to discuss more specific issues, both recurrent, which are unsolved or simply ignored, and emergent. The paper provides guidelines for addressing these problems. A summary of the main methodological concerns is presented in Table 1.

The cultural context

This section discusses the two major general concerns in cross-cultural research: the emic–etic issue and the independence of sample issue. These are important problems that are closely connected and need to be considered if methodological developments in cross-cultural research are to demonstrate cross-cultural generalisability.

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Table 1 Literature review summary of cross-cultural methodological concerns.

Methodological concern Rationale Key studies

Cultural dimension

Highlights differences in social values and culture and provide us with an explanation as to why companies who wish to exploit market potential need to consider cross-cultural influence.

Chang (2003); Chong and Park (2003); Geletkanycz (1997); Hofstede (1980, 1991); Malhotra (2001); McCort and Malhotra (1993); Saka (2004); Trompenaars and Hampden Turner (1997);

Generalisability To achieve generalisability of existing psychological knowledge, theory, laws and propositions.

Berry (1980); Berry, Poortinga, Segall, and Dasen (1992); Evans et al. (2004); Haeckel (2001); Mitchell (2001); Sekran (1983); Triandis (1980); Triandis, Malpass, and Davidson (1972); Woodside (2005)

Comparability To ensure valid comparisons of datasets across countries/ cultures.

Aulakh and Kotabe (1992); Bhalla and Lin (1987); Boddewyn (1981); Douglas and Craig (1983, 2007); Malhotra (2001)

Metric equivalence

The psychometric properties of two or more data sets from two or more cultural groups exhibit essentially the same coherence of structure.

Berry (1980); Davis, Douglas, and Silk (1981); Heeler and Ray (1972); Sekaran (1983)

Functional equivalence

Similar activities should have similar functions in different societies if parameters are comparable.

Berry et al. (1992); Soriano and Foxall (2002)

Conceptual equivalence

Subjects need to have an equal understanding or interpretation of the meaning of behaviour, product, or stimuli.

Barnard (1982); Berry (1980); Brislin, Lonner, and Thorndike (1973); Streiner and Norman (1995); Malhotra et al. (1996); Small et al. (1999)

Translation equivalence

The scales and other verbal stimuli should be translated so that they can be understood in different cultures and have equivalent meaning.

Response bias The instrument should produce answers that are free of response set bias.

Baumgartner and Steenkamp (2001); Caruanna et al. (1998); Heide and Gronhaug (1992)

Return rate Internet survey return rate could be lower than traditional methods as respondents become more apathetic to these studies.

Backmann et al. (2000)

(Continued )

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The emic–etic issue

Cross-cultural research has two objectives. One is to describe a culture by studying specific behaviours or concepts from within such culture; this is the emic approach. The other objective aims at theory building, that is, to make generalisations across cultures that take into account all human behaviour; this is the etic approach (Berry, 1990; Douglas & Craig, 1983; Triandis, Malpass, & Davidson, 1971). The importance of comparative marketing studies is that they have the potential for enriching the understanding of what marketing is all about by helping to refine and check the generality of our existing marketing concepts, hypotheses, and theories (Berry, 1980; Boddewyn, 1981). Triandis (1980, p. 3) stated that ‘it is imperative to establish cross-cultural generalities in order to understand whatever cultural differences are observed’. When researchers apply an etic approach, they are imposing constructs developed in one culture to all cultures (Berry, 1990; Douglas & Craig, 1983; Triandis et al., 1971). When constructs are imposed in this way, they are referred to as the ‘imposed etic’ (Berry, 1969, 1990) or ‘pseudo etic’ (Triandis et al., 1971). This is the case when theories and models developed in the United States are applied outside their area of origin. The problem is that the concepts that are been tested may have different meanings in non-Western cultures. A derived etic approach is essential to enable understanding of cultural variations, and it is achieved when researchers adapt their constructs to fit the relevant culture under study (emic approach) (Rogoff, 2003).

Personal construct theory (Kelly, 1955) offers support to the claim that individuals perceive their environment differently and that this has implications for construct elicitation. Translation from one language to another may not mean that words are perceived by the recipient as having the same meaning. Etic characteristics have also

Table I. (Continued)

Methodological concern Rationale Key studies

Ethical issues in preventing subject fraud

Subject fraud can be avoided by installing cookies. in respondents’ browsers or by using passwords, but these practices would compromise confidentiality and anonymity (unethical).

Siah (2005)

Sample representation

Respondents not representative of target population.

Spyridakis et al. (2005)

Multicultural issues

Research in multicultural contexts should be sensitive to groups’ ethnic or racial differences to understand better the meaning of their consumption behaviour.

Cleveland and Laroche (2007); Fletcher (2006); Jamal (2003); Nevid and Sta. Maria (1999); Villegas and Shah (2005);

Emerging issues in international research

Emerging issues in cross-cultural marketing research, particularly in developing environments.

Craig and Douglas (2001); Malhotra and Peterson (2001); Stening and Zhang (2007)

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been found to influence behavioural intent. For example, Triandis et al. (1971, p. 30) describe the way ‘superordination–subordination’ mimic behaviours that show status whereas ‘intimacy–formality’ are symbolic of interpersonal familiarity. In cultures such as Japan, status has historically been influenced by Confucian philosophy (Chen, 1995) and will therefore impact on the way Japanese society perceive and respond to certain questionnaire constructs. Cultural variables impact on scale reliability. The meaning associated with the data set in question becomes invalid because of differences in the way the two cultures associate meaning.

The emic–etic dilemma asks whether behaviour has to be understood in the context of the culture in which it occurs (emic approach) or whether cultural differences can be conceived of as variations of a common or universal theme (etic approach) (Berry, 1990; Douglas & Craig, 1983; Triandis et al., 1971). The emic–etic dilemma continues to challenge the field of psychology by posing the central question on how generalisable psychological findings are (Lonner, 1999). It also raises important questions about the design of a measurement tool that has universal application across the cultures under investigation. A number of papers address this problem, offering potential solutions.

Osgood suggests one way of dealing with semantic differentials is to use a universal construct and then use emic constructs to measure it (Osgood, 1965; Triandis et al., 1971, p. 7). Tucker (1966) also offers a potential solution to the emic–etic dilemma. He proposed that one way to alleviate bias is to adopt a three-mode factor analysis to study the intercorrelation patterns of sample respondents. The emic–etic approach requires ‘respondent factors’ to be analysed as part of the research process, as this provides the researcher with information that functions to identify the behavioural orientation of respondents (Triandis et al., 1971).

Another solution to the emic–etic apparent contradiction suggests that the emic approach could become a rich potential source for understanding the etic underpinnings in cross-cultural research, that is, formulating universalistic theories and hypotheses that can be tested. This presupposes that each culture is not so unique that comparison among cultures is futile or totally meaningless (Sekaran, 1983, p. 65). Finally, Berry (1990) suggests combining the two approaches rather than applying emic dimensions of one culture to other cultures, which requires researchers to get familiar with the relevant differences in each culture, putting aside their own cultural biases (Berry, 1990).

Whilst there is no ‘one size fits all’ approach to address the emic–etic issue, if cross- national etic factors and culture-specific emic factors are not given appropriate attention in the design process, data interpretation is likely to yield results that lack meaning. When rigour and relevance are lost, the value of the issues under examination becomes questionable. The next section discusses another major concern in cross-cultural research – the independence of sample issue.

The independence of sample issue

The cultural studies conducted by scholars such as Hofstede (1980, 1991) and Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997) highlight differences in social values and culture, and provide us with an explanation of why companies who wish to exploit market potential at a global level need to consider cross-cultural influence. However, independence of samples in relevant cultures represents another major challenge for cross-cultural researchers. The problem happens when values and behaviours become transfused among cultures to the degree that it is difficult to differentiate the emic from the etic (Sekaran, 1983). This problem is particularly relevant in the present age

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of globalisation and rapid technological advances, as people around the globe have been adopting similar values and behaviours (Nasif, Al-Daeaj, Ebrahimi, & Thibodeaux, 1991). The borders among cultures are becoming blurred due to cultural diffusion (or cultural convergence), and therefore the samples taken from different cultures might not be independent, leading to biased results (Yeganeh, Su, & Chrysostome, 2004).

Sir Francis Galton was one of the first scholars to question the validity of statistical inference from cross-cultural surveys (Naroll, 1961; Strauss et al., 1995; Tylor, 1889). His case was based on the non-independence of observations in the sample, leading to spurious correlation because of autocorrelation. Galton argued that if sample independence could not be achieved or methods of correction were not applied, then the research findings were of no value. The non-independence of observations in this and other non-experimental questionnaire-based research became known as Galton’s problem.

In the context of cross-cultural research relating to heredity, Galton argued that the cultural similarity observed in a sample could be related to cultural diffusion. For instance, asking two people from the same family the same question does not provide the researcher with responses that are statistically independent. Similarly, cross- cultural sample clusters may not control for factors such as borrowing and common descent. Galton’s problem is that the issue of sample group independence is essential for valid cross-cultural research, but is never achievable in practice. Galton’s problem, therefore, is often cited as a criticism of empirical comparative studies of culture: the results are inherently uninterpretable. It undermines all cross-cultural research, forcing researchers to make important methodological decisions.

Whilst a number of scholars agree with the need to achieve sample group independence, there are conflicting views as to whether or not Galton’s problem is solvable. A number of studies have put forward solutions, arguing that by using appropriate method design techniques, it is possible to control for diffusion (Denton, 2007; Naroll, 1961; Naroll & D’Andrade, 1963; Schaffer & Riordan, 2003; Strauss et al., 1975; Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). The Bimodal Sift method (Naroll, 1961) and the Interval Sift method (Naroll & D’Andrade, 1963) propose two solutions to the problem. These methods allow the researcher to treat the sample as independent ‘once the validity of the sift’ has been confirmed. The cluster method (Naroll & D’Andrade, 1961, p. 1054) and the matched pair method (Naroll & D’Andrade, 1961, p. 1054), whilst ‘statistically less flexible’ than the sifting methods, offer an alternative. They constitute a fairly ‘rigorous way’ (Naroll & D’Andrade, 1961, p. 1054) of measuring diffusion because they enable the researcher to distinguish between both the functional and historical associations of the culture and yield information about the importance of each association.

Galton’s original studies were important because they introduced the importance of sample independence in cross-cultural surveys. However, future cross-cultural research needs to extend the issues raised by Galton in the context of a global marketing environment. A key challenge for the future is how diffusion might be measured in multicultural societies. The issues that emerge from acculturation and the globalisation of consumer behaviour mean that culture may no longer be an appropriate unit of analysis for ‘cross-cultural’ surveys. The next section discusses the main methodological issues confronting cross-cultural marketing research and offers suggestions for addressing them.

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The issue of comparability of data and measurement equivalence

While the paper by Malhotra et al. (1996) offers an excellent account of the methodological issues associated with cross-cultural marketing, the approach is somewhat biased towards survey techniques that use numbers and can therefore demonstrate statistical relevance. A key observation of the Malhotra et al. paper is the North American emphasis that is associated with the manuscript’s research orientation. In fairness to the authors, the emphasis on North America was probably more a reflection of when the paper was written than of the author’s intention to restrict sample randomness to a certain geographical region. Nevertheless, the point is worthy of attention now that current marketing theory and business decisions have become more global in their market orientation.

The issue of comparability is critical to cross-cultural research. Comparability has been defined by Douglas and Craig (1983, pp. 131–132) as ‘data that have, as far as possible, the same meaning, interpretation, and the same level of accuracy, precision of measurement and reliability in all countries and cultures’. They add that ‘comparability of data is important irrespective of whether research is conducted in a single country, for it is important to bear in mind that research relating to a similar problem may subsequently be conducted in another country’. Bhalla and Lin (1987) concurred with these authors in that the need for comparability is a key issue confronting marketing researchers, regardless of whether the research is conducted in one country or a number of countries simultaneously.

The major methodological challenges of cross-cultural research have been underscored by Sekaran (1983) to ensure functional equivalence, problems of instrumentation, data-collection methods, sampling design issues, and data analysis. Likewise, Parameswaran and Yaprak (1987) acknowledged the need to establish construct, functional, conceptual, instrument, translation, and sampling equivalence of research measures in cross-cultural research before inferring statistical and practical conclusions. Although ‘comparability’ and ‘equivalence’ are often used interchangeably, comparability is the more generic term; equivalence refers more precisely to measurement. Lack of data equivalence could lead to wrong conclusions. Observed differences in measures might be attributed to true differences in the latent variables, although they are solely caused by differential response behaviour; or true differences might be masked by differential response behaviour and thus remain undetected, causing an uncontrollable increase in type one and type two errors (Salzberger & Sinkovics, 2006, p. 392).

Functional equivalence

Functional equivalence refers to the fact that similar activities should have similar functions in different societies if their parameters are to be compared. According to Sekaran (1983, p. 62), ‘valid cross-cultural behaviour comparisons can be made only when the behaviour in question has developed in the different cultures in response to similar problems shared by the different social or cultural groups’. For instance, bicycles are used in the Netherlands as a means of transportation, whereas in Venezuela they are used primarily for recreation or sport. In this case, functional equivalence cannot be achieved because the goals of behaviour towards the same product are different across these two cultures.

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Conceptual equivalence

Conceptual equivalence refers to the fact that subjects have an equal understanding or interpretation of the meaning of behaviour, product, or marketing stimuli. As an example, price markdowns are regular events in the United States. However, they might be seen with suspicion by consumers in developing countries. Similarly, Soriano and Foxall (2002) found that saving-up behaviour in Venezuela and England was conceptually non-equivalent. While saving up is seen as a positive behaviour in England, in Venezuela, due to high levels of inflation, it is seen negatively or as a not-desired behaviour.

Due to these types of problems, Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen (1992, p. 237) have suggested that ‘a close scrutiny of each stimulus is necessary to identify positive peculiarities in meaning or other reasons that a stimulus might be inappropriate in a particular culture and should not be used’. Furthermore, problems of conceptual equivalence are not limited to countries with different languages, but they also affect countries who share the same language. Therefore, this paper argues against the practice of directly transferring an instrument developed in the UK to the United States or from Spain to Latin America, for example. Instead, it is vital to make necessary adjustments and pretests, despite the common language base. Clinton and Calantone (1996) found conceptual problems between English-speaking countries. Equally, it is important to note that cross-cultural research issues are not limited to research in different countries but can arise in research within the same country. Advertising studies on African American and white Americans highlighted major differences in the way these two groups perceived and reacted to advertising campaigns (Bush, Smith, & Martin, 1999). A study by Soley and Reid (1983) showed similar findings. African Americans were more satisfied with the advertising content that was presented in TV commercials and magazines than white Americans. Given that the two groups were not separated by languages or significant distances, we can conclude that the differences observed were more distinctly cultural, rather than linguistic or geographical. Given that countries around the world are becoming increasingly multicultural, this problem receives special attention in the emerging methodological issues section of this paper.

Translation equivalence

A way to operationalise conceptual equivalence is to test for translation equivalence. This can be achieved using translation and back translation of instruments (Brislin et al., 1973). Berry (1980, p. 10) explained translation equivalence as ‘a technique which involves an initial translation to a target language by one bilingual person, and a back translation to the original language by another; discrepancies will often indicate the presence of conceptual non-equivalence’. Sekaran (1983) has added that the equivalence of source and target version of the instrument can be ensured with good back translations conducted by people who should be not only proficient with the different languages involved but are also familiar with the cultures in question and with the usage of the concepts and their meanings in such cultures. The problem of translation equivalence (linguistic) is a difficult one as some linguistic concepts do not translate directly into other tongues and important nuances of meanings can be put at risk (Barnard, 1982). Erkut, Alarcon, Garcia-Coll, Tropp, and Vazquez-Garcia (1999) suggest a concept-driven rather than translation-driven approach to creating bilingual measures, which requires a bilingual/bicultural research team with indigenous

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researchers from the cultures being studied, in order to reduce researchers’ cultural bias and achieve both conceptual and linguistic equivalence.

Metric equivalence

Metric equivalence exists when psychometric properties of two or more sets of data from two or more cultural groups exhibit essentially the same coherence of structure. There are two requirements for this type of equivalence: first, that statistical relationships remain fairly constant among independent and dependent variables; second, that statistical relationships among dependent variables should be patterned similarly in two or more cultural groups before comparisons are allowed. Similarity in correlation matrices or common factor structures can serve to demonstrate this type of equivalence (Berry, 1980, p. 10). Metric equivalence, however, is no guarantee of invariance. Byrne and Campbell (1999) have warned against the presumption of equivalent measurement and theoretical structure in cross-cultural comparisons because although the factorial structure of an instrument may replicate across cultures, this is no guarantee that the item measurements and theoretical structure are invariant across groups. They showed that, in fact, item score data can vary across cultures, despite measurements from an instrument for which the factorial structure has been equivalently specified in each group. Therefore, researchers and practitioners should also question the philosophical and conceptual appropriateness of an instrument that has been developed in a culture that differs from the one in which it is to be used.

Fontaine, Poortinga, Delbeke, and Schwartz (2008, p. 363) emphasise that researchers need to interpret equivalent measurements appropriately, arguing that ‘such an assessment is more than a technical, psychometric exercise’. Based on their findings from evaluating the structural equivalence of the values domain across 38 countries, they demonstrated that patterns of non-equivalence are not sampling fluctuations, but can be attributed to meaningful variations, which generate insights into the relationship between the structure of the values domain and other aspects of society and culture. One of their findings revealed that the size of the structural deviations related more strongly to societal development in the teacher than in the student samples, which means that it is critical to include non-student samples in cross- cultural research studies.

Complementary approaches to improve comparability

Pretests

In addition to the methods already discussed, other approaches should be applied to improve comparability of data, including pretests, sample equivalence, sampling methods, and data-collection procedures. Brislin et al. (1973) state that multiple techniques should be used in all cross-cultural research, since the back translation as a single method is no panacea; all materials should be pretested with respondents similar to those of the proposed main sample, since there will always be items that simply do not work well in actual use (Brislin, 1986, p. 161). Douglas and Craig (2007) found that, in marketing, back translation is still, by far, the main method used to check translation accuracy. Because the translation process is complex, a single back translation does not ensure a valid and reliable instrument in the target language, since the objective is not that the words translate literally but that they have the same

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meaning across cultures. Therefore, a team approach is required to minimise bias. Unfortunately, although the use of pretests is particularly useful in cross-cultural research, it is not widely being employed, with less than one-third of studies conducted between 1993 and 2005 shown to have used it (Douglas & Craig, 2007).

Sample equivalence

It is important to achieve sample equivalence, given that homogeneity of the sample reduces alternative explanations of the results (Lonner & Berry, 1986) and therefore the sample should be chosen to maximise equivalence rather than, for example, representativity. Sample equivalence can be satisfied if respondents in each study share similar demographic and socio-economic characteristics. However, Sin et al. (1999) warns that unless the researcher knows well the cultures under study, sometimes subjects coming from the same sampling frame may not guarantee sampling equivalence, such as in the case of undergraduate students. In addition, sample equivalence facilitates neutral response styles and validates cross-national comparisons between countries. One problem with this type of study is that it ignores the potential cumulative effect of efforts when targeting behaviour and leads to ethnocentric evaluations (Triandis et al., 1971). It can be argued that in the Hong Kong American study, dependent variables of interest might well be factored out when using differential sampling systems. For these reasons whilst scholars need to eliminate non-equivalence variables, methodological design procedures need to ensure that when controlling for non-equivalence researchers do not neutralise the key variables of interest to users of the research given an important aim of market research is to probe for market differences.

Sampling methods and data-collection procedures

Sampling methods and procedures for data collection are also essential aspects in improving comparability of data. In some developed countries, particularly in the United States where consumer research is a major function of business, the collection of data tends to be highly professional. However, this is not true in developing countries, where, in addition to the lack of a research tradition, cultural factors play an important role in the collection of information. This includes attitudes towards security and privacy (e.g. people are wary of strangers and might not feel comfortable providing information about themselves) and issues of accessibility (e.g. boundary walls).

Quota sampling in marketing research has been used widely both in developed and developing countries (Malhotra & Peterson, 2001) and can be combined with other methods. Webster (1966) studied five Western European countries, employing probability sampling in four countries from readily available lists, and quota sampling in one country where random sampling needed the purchase of a special list at a very high price. She argued quota sampling could produce acceptably correct and meaningful results comparable with those obtained by probability sampling in other countries, and that sameness of method of collection by no means assures comparable data for analysis. Webster (1966) stated that data are comparable if they have the same degree of reliability and one has used the most efficient rather than the same method of data collection in each country.

Dunn (1974) extended Webster’s (1966) arguments by pointing out that if the local alternative methods are all equally good, one should use the same methods in one or more countries, but if they may lead to some bias, one might deliberately choose

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different methods to check whether and how potential bias operates. A crucial point has been made by Osgood, May, and Miron (1975) in that the purpose of the research determines the sampling strategy, that is, whether the investigator wants representativeness within each country or equivalence across countries. They warn that maximising representativeness within a country usually means minimising equivalence between countries and vice versa. In a cross-cultural study, it is possible to use one method such as quota sampling in a developing country, and another method such as a random walk in a developed country. An advantage is achieved when comparing results between the two studies, as ‘the differences in sampling methods can also be utilised to provide a check on the reliability of results and the potential bias inherent in different methods’ (Douglas & Craig, 1983, p. 219). If different methods in different countries produce similar results, it means that the measurement instrument utilised is reliable. Hence, it may be not only possible but also desirable to use different sampling techniques in different countries to achieve sample equivalence and representativeness (Malhotra & Peterson, 2001). This is particularly relevant today, as marketing researchers must develop the capability to conduct research that spans diverse research environments to benefit from growth opportunities outside developed countries (Craig & Douglas, 2001).

Emerging trends and methodological issues

Internet-based research

The accelerated growth of the Internet has opened many new opportunities for academic and marketing research reaching populations all around the world. Research has shown that web surveys and experiments are faster, easier, cheaper, and more flexible compared to traditional methods (McCullough, 1998; Pitkow & Recker, 1995). However, there are methodological and ethical issues that must be addressed if the medium is to provide meaningful information. The main issues include sampling and generalisability of results, participant behaviour (such as drop- out rates for panels, incomprehension, response set bias, low response rate, and subject fraud), data integrity (e.g. caused by technical problems), and ethics (keeping privacy, anonymity, confidentiality, and avoiding stress related to sensitive questions).

The Internet, as a research device, is growing, and the quality of the research depends on the perceived credibility and trust both participants and researchers have in this medium (Montgomery & Richie, 2002; Siah, 2005; Spyridakis, Wei, Barrick, Cuddihy, & Maust, 2005).

There is a lack of consensus on the pre-eminence of the Internet as a research medium in the future. Wilson and Laskey (2003) found that most of the companies in the UK had used online studies in the previous year, but only as an additional supporting methodology rather than as a substitute to traditional approaches in certain special types of research (e.g., website evaluation). They also found that research companies had concerns about the weaknesses already mentioned, in particular, the issue of representativeness, given the nature of Internet sample frames.

Recent research in social marketing studying UK adolescents argues that Internet- based research has the potential to generate data that are comparable to those generated by conventional research methods and with improved efficiency in terms of time, cost, quality, and quantity of responses (De Meyrick, 2007). Tingling, Parent, and Wade (2003) believe that the Internet survey is an under-exploited resource,

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arguing that it can be used to reduce potential bias by randomly assigning choices along the screen and/or by generating more complex randomised display patterns than allowed in paper surveys. The Internet offers a whole new way of engaging with consumers. It is therefore not surprising that in twenty-first century marketing, well- known brands such as British Airways, Philips, and O2 are launching their own community websites to engage consumers and gauge their responses to new products, designs, and advertisements (Benady, 2008). However, website content, design, and structure needs to take into account cultural sensitivity to improve its communication effectiveness both at global and multicultural levels (Fletcher, 2006).

Diverse marketing-research contexts

Technological advances improve the basic infrastructure of developing nations opening up new marketing opportunities for global companies. Emerging economies such as China and India offer immense market potential. Marketing researchers need a clear understanding of these potential markets in order to be able to conduct valid research studies. They should also be careful not to interpret and generalise results based on their own cultural experience in developed countries. Chinese, for example, think in a holistic way, whilst Westerners think in an analytical way (Needham, 1978; Nisbet, 2003) posing a challenge to data interpretation (Stening & Zhang, 2007). Consumer behaviour needs to be studied and interpreted by researchers from the culture being studied, who deeply understand the context of consumption.

The global and multicultural perspectives of consumer behaviour research

The twenty-first century is seeing a growing trend towards more countries becoming increasingly ethnically diverse. For example, citizens in the United States and the UK are multicultural in their ethnicity. Although there is a great emphasis on international marketing, little research has been conducted to understand diversity within a specific country (Nevid & Sta. Maria, 1999). Cleveland and Laroche (2007) argue that it is no longer appropriate to use countries as the cultural unit of analysis or market segmentation, since most of the world’s countries are already highly multicultural. Globalisation thus seems to reduce the homogeneity of consumer behaviour within countries, while increasing commonalities across the globe.

Findings from recent multicultural research have shown interesting results. Two Hispanic groups (Cuban American and Mexican American), which traditionally have been treated as one group, have shown differences affecting advertising effectiveness (Villegas & Shah, 2005). Jamal (2003) found groups of different ethnic backgrounds in the UK engage in culture swapping to taste different cultures. This could cause a traditional ethnic segmentation approach ineffective, as consumers do not conform to any one specific segment.

Summary and conclusions

This paper presents a critical review of the main studies in cross-cultural consumer behaviour and marketing research. It identifies both recurrent and emerging methodological issues, which are often undermining the quality of research, and offers suggestions for addressing these issues. The main thesis of the paper is the heightened importance of this area of research in twenty-first century marketing, characterised by an increased pace of globalisation, the exponential growth of the

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Internet, diversity of marketing-research contexts, and growing multicultural societies. The paper is an attempt to encourage researchers towards a more sensitive awareness of the methodological issues associated with cross-cultural research design both at the global context and within individual multicultural societies such as the UK and the United States. We argue that by understanding and addressing these issues, it is possible to achieve superior marketing research findings through improved validity of results.

A major criticism of cross-cultural studies in the area of consumer behaviour is that researchers transfer theories, conceptual frameworks, and models from one culture to another without previous appropriate validation. A key issue in the cross-cultural discussion is whether behaviour should be understood in the cultural context in which it takes place (emic approach) or whether cultural differences can be thought of as variations of a universal theme (etic approach). Galton’s problem recognised that sample group independence is central to cross-cultural research but is never achievable. Particularly problematic is the issue of cultural diffusion (or cultural convergence) taking place today and how to minimise the bias it can introduce in research.

In the present study, we found that although in the last 20 years significant progress has been made regarding conceptual/theoretical issues and empirical findings in cross- cultural marketing research, recurrent and emerging methodological issues are a key concern. Despite the increasing recognition of the need to demonstrate cross-cultural generalisability of theories and findings, applying a conceptual framework and research design outside its original context continues to be challenging. This is because of the comparability issues that surround all consumer research, and today’s global environment and multicultural societies, which present new opportunities, as well as challenges.

The paper highlights the main methodological difficulties concerning cross-cultural research in a changing global environment and discusses how they can be overcome. Data comparability is of uttermost importance if scholars are to ascertain cross- cultural research is to be useful. We argue that this can be achieved by ensuring various types of data equivalence (conceptual, functional, translation, and metric) and by employing other complementary approaches to improve comparability (sample equivalence, pretests, appropriate sampling methods, and procedures for data collection). A strong emphasis should be placed on pretesting and the researcher’s judgement to detect response set bias and other threats to measurement equivalence. Consequently, it seems plausible for scholars to consider a method design that encapsulates the use of multiple methods. This approach widens the degree of interpretation that can be attached to the research findings because method design focuses on generating datasets of measurement equivalence (Horn & McArdle, 1992; Vandenberg, 2002).

Cross-cultural research has become problematic, as many approach the design without proper foundation. Greater attention to measurement constructs will enable marketers to achieve superior research through improved cross-cultural research design. Concentrating on cultural variation-sensitive methodologies for market research will enable marketers to become more aware of cultural diversity. The next profitable direction for cross-cultural research requires measurement constructs to combine etic and emic indicators given the significance of cultural variation. This approach offers an opportunity for researchers to improve scale items and re-evaluate the way marketing research theory is built and enacted in globalised and multi-cultural environments.

Slater and Yani-de-Soriano Researching consumers in multicultural societies 1155

The growth of the e-commerce industry has increased the complexity associated with conducting cross-cultural studies. Internet research techniques are now, for some companies, the dominant medium through which they conduct their marketing research. The Internet raises distinctive cross-cultural and equivalence issues whilst it mitigates some of the problems outlined with some of the traditional techniques, such as sample equivalence.

Twenty-first century marketing research should enable companies to take advantage of emerging opportunities in a fast-changing and increasingly diverse marketplace in both the global and local contexts. Advances in technology facilitate but make more complex the collection of data at the global level. Future research directions in consumer research need to be more inclusive of people of different racial and ethnic backgrounds in order to be able to understand ethnic differences in relation to norms, attitudes, cultural expectations, and acculturation status, which can have an effect on consumer behaviour, and important implications for marketing strategy.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the editor(s) and the reviewers for their invaluable suggestions,

support, and extensive feedback during the writing of this manuscript. They would also like to thank Martin Evans and Professor Mike Wallace for the constructive criticism they offered on

earlier drafts.

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About the authors

Stephanie Slater is a lecturer of international marketing, business, and strategy in the Business School at Cardiff University. Dr Slater has worked in academia and industry and her background is multidisciplinary. Her research interests focus on distribution channel relationships and cross-border inter-firm alliances with a special interest in Asian management strategy. Her most recent research activities include projects that explore the leadership style of UK firms, consumerism, institutional theory, and the resource-based view. She has a number of articles in development and reviews papers for both conferences and journals.

Corresponding author: Dr Stephanie Slater, Lecturer in International Marketing, Strategy and Business, Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University, Aberconway Building, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU, UK.

T þ44(0)29 2087 6949 E [email protected]

Mirella Yani-de-Soriano holds an MBA from Bryant College, RI, in the United States, and a PhD from Keele University in the UK. Her international academic experience spans two decades, and she has also held management positions at several business corporations. She teaches consumer behaviour to postgraduate students at Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University. Her research focuses on cross-cultural consumer behaviour in three main areas: the interplay of emotions, cognitive style, and behaviour in consumer choice; attitudes and behaviour in a societal marketing context; and technology-based-services consumer behaviour. She has published her work in a number of publications, including Journal of Business Research, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Journal of Consumer Behaviour, and Journal of Management History.

T þ 44 (0) 29 2087 5699 E [email protected]

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