Writing and research
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RES500-W06-ResearchTerminologyandThescientificMethod.pptxWeek 6
Research Terminology and The scientific Method
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RES 500 Academic Writing and Research Skills
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Research Planning
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Terms used in research
Concepts, Constructs, Definitions, Variables, Propositions/Hypotheses, Theory, Reasoning, Models
Scientific Method
Sound reasoning for useful answers
Deduction
Induction
Combining induction and deduction
Keywords, References
Learning Objectives
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Understand . . .
The terminology used by professional researchers employing scientific thinking.
What you need to formulate a solid research hypothesis.
The need for sound reasoning to enhance research results.
Terms used in research Language of Research
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Terms used in research
Concepts
Constructs
Operational definitions
Variables
Propositions/Hypotheses
Theory
Reasoning
Models
Several terms are used by researchers to converse about applied and theoretical problems.
A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain concrete, unambiguous events, objects, conditions, or situations.
A construct is an abstract phenomena for a given research project.
An operational definition defines a variable in terms of specific measurement and testing criteria.
A variable is used as a synonym for the construct being studied.
A proposition is a statement about observable phenomena that may be judged as true or false.
A hypothesis is a proposition formulated for empirical testing.
A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain or predict phenomena.
A model is a representation of a system constructed to study some aspect of that system.
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Terms used in research Concepts
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A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain concrete, unambiguous events, objects, conditions, or situations.
To Achieve Success of Research
Clear conceptualization of concepts
Shared understanding of concepts among researchers
If concepts are not clearly conceptualized and measured, we will receive confusing answers.
We must attempt to measure concepts in a clear manner that others can understand. If concepts are not clearly conceptualized and measured, we will receive confusing answers.
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Terms used in research Construct
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A construct is an abstract phenomena for a given research project.
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Terms used in research Operational Definition
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An operational definition defines a variable in terms of specific measurement and testing criteria.
How can we define the variable
“class level of students”?
Freshman < 30 credit hours
Sophomore 30-50 credit hours
Junior 60-89 credit hours
Senior > 90 credit hours
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Terms used in research Variables
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Variable is a property being studied.
It is a symbol of an event, act, characteristic, trait, or attribute that can be measured and to which we assign categorical values.
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Terms used in research Variables Types of Variables
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Dichotomous: Male/Female, Employed/ Unemployed
Discrete: Ethnic background, Educational level, Religious affiliation
Continuous: Income, Temperature, Age
For the purposes of data entry and analysis, we assign numerical values to a variable based on that variable’s properties. Dichotomous variables have only two values that reflect the absence or presence of a property. Variables also take on values representing added categories such as demographic variables. All such variables are said to be discrete since only certain values are possible. Continuous variables take on values within a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set.
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Terms used in research Variables Types of Variables
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An independent variable is the variable manipulated by the researcher to cause an effect on the dependent variable.
The dependent variable is the variable expected to be affected by the manipulation of an independent variable.
Moderating variables are variables that are believed to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the originally stated IV-DV relationship.
Whether a variable is treated as an independent or as a moderating variable depends on the hypothesis.
Example: The introduction of a four-day week (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV).
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Terms used in research Variables Types of Variables
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Extraneous variables are variables that could affect a given relationship.
Intervening Variables (IVV) are factors that affect the observed phenomenon but cannot be measured or manipulated. It is a conceptual mechanism through which the IV and MV might affect the DV.
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Terms used in research Variables Types of Variables
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Extraneous Variables (EV)
With new customers (EV-control), a switch to commission from a salary compensation system (IV) will lead to increased sales productivity (DV) per worker, especially among younger workers (MV).
Intervening Variables (IVV)
A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savings activity (DV), especially when free prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers (EV-control). The results come from enhancing the motivation to save (IVV).
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Terms used in research Propositions/Hypotheses
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A proposition: a statement about observable phenomena that may be judged as true or false.
A hypothesis: a proposition formulated for empirical testing.
A case: is the entity or thing the hypothesis talks about. When the hypothesis is based on more than one case, it would be a generalization.
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Terms used in research Propositions/Hypotheses
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Example: Brand Manager Jones (case) has a higher-than-average achievement motivation (variable).
Example: Brand managers in Company Z (Generalized cases) have a higher-than-average achievement motivation (variable).
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Terms used in research Hypothesis Formats
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A descriptive hypothesis is a statement about the existence, size, form, or distribution of a variable. Researchers often use a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis.
Example:
Descriptive Hypothesis
In Riyadh, our dates market share stands at 33%.
Research Question
What is the market share for our dates in Riyadh?
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Terms used in research Hypothesis Formats
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Descriptive hypothesis versus research question.
Either format is acceptable, but the descriptive hypothesis has three advantages over the research question.
Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to crystallize their thinking about the likely relationships.
Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to think about the implications of a supported or rejected finding.
Descriptive hypotheses are useful for testing statistical significance.
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Terms used in research Hypothesis Formats
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A relational hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two variables with respect to some case. Relational hypotheses may be correlational or explanatory (causal).
A correlational hypothesis is a statement indicating that variables occur together in some specified manner without implying that one causes the other.
A causal (explanatory) hypothesis is a statement that describes a relationship between two variables in which one variable leads to a specified effect on the other variable.
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Terms used in research Hypothesis Formats
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Example:
Correlational
Young women (under 35) purchase fewer units of our product than women who are older than 35.
Causal
An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income saved.
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Terms used in research Hypothesis Role of Hypothesis
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Guide the direction of the study
Identify relevant facts
Suggest most appropriate research design
Provide framework for organizing resulting conclusions
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Terms used in research Hypothesis A Strong Hypothesis
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A Strong Hypothesis has the following characteristics:
Adequate
Testable
Better than rivals
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Terms used in research Theory
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A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain or predict phenomena.
To the degree that our theories are sound and fit the situation, we are successful in our explanations and predictions.
Theories versus hypotheses?
Theories tend to be complex, abstract, and involve multiple variables.
Hypotheses tend to be simple, limited-variable statements involving concrete instances.
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Terms used in research Reasoning
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Terms used in research Reasoning
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inductive and deductive reasoning.
A model may originate from empirical observations about market behavior based on researched facts and relationships among variables.
Inductive reasoning allows the modeler to draw conclusions from the facts or evidence in planning the dynamics of the model.
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Terms used in research Model
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A model is a representation of a system constructed to study some aspect of that system or the system as a whole.
Models versus Theories
a model’s role is to represent or describe
A theory’s role is to explain.
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Terms used in research Model Types of Models
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Models may be descriptive, predictive, and normative:
Descriptive models used for complex systems as they allow for the visualization of numerous variables and relationships.
Predictive models forecast future events and facilitate business planning.
Normative models are used for control, because they indicate necessary actions.
Models allow researchers to specify hypotheses that characterize present or future conditions.
Example: Study the effect of advertising on consumer awareness or intention to purchase.
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Scientific Method
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Good research has the following characteristics:
Direct observation
Clearly defined variables
Clearly defined methods
Empirically testable
Elimination of alternatives
Statistical justification
Self-correcting process
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Scientific Method
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Good Research is based on sound reasoning because reasoning is essential for producing scientific results.
Empirical testing denotes observations and propositions based on sensory experiences and/or derived from such experience by methods of inductive logic, including mathematics and statistics.
Researchers using empirical testing attempt to describe, explain, and make predictions by relying on information gained through observation.
Scientific method is described as a puzzle-solving activity.
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Scientific Method Role of Researchers
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Encounter problems
State problems
Propose hypotheses
Deduce outcomes
Formulate rival hypotheses
Devise and conduct empirical tests
Draw conclusions
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Scientific Method Curiosity
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Important discoveries in research to a common trait of entrepreneurs: curiosity.
Where the world would be without curiosity?
Curiosity is “what makes us tick.”
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Scientific Method Sound Reasoning
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Exposition
Argument
Induction
Deduction
Types of Discourse
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Scientific Method Sound Reasoning
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Exposition consists of statements that describe without attempting to explain.
Argument allows us to explain, interpret, defend, challenge, and explore meaning.
Types of argument:
Deduction is a form of reasoning in which the conclusion must necessarily follow from the premises given.
Induction is a form of reasoning that draws a conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence.
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Scientific Method Sound Reasoning Deductive Reasoning
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Example:
Inner-city household interviewing is especially difficult and expensive
This survey involves substantial inner-city household interviewing
The interviewing in this survey will be especially difficult and expensive
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Scientific Method Sound Reasoning Inductive Reasoning
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Example:
Why did not sales increase during our promotional event?
Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock to fill customer requests during the promotional period
A strike by employees prevented stock from arriving in time for promotion to be effective
A hurricane closed retail outlets in the region for 10 days during the promotion
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Scientific Method Sound Reasoning Deduction and Induction
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Induction and deduction can be used together in research reasoning. Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask, “Why is this?” In answer to this question, we advance a tentative explanation or hypothesis. The hypothesis is plausible if it explains the event or condition (fact) that prompted the question. Deduction is the process by which we test whether the hypothesis is capable of explaining the fact.
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Research Planning Key Terms
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Argument
Case
Concept
Conceptual scheme
Construct
Deduction
Empiricism
Exposition
Hypothesis
Correlational
Descriptive
Explanatory
Relational
Hypothetical construct
Induction
Model
Operational definition
Proposition
Sound reasoning
Theory
Variable
Control
Dependent (DV)
Extraneous (EV)
Independent (IV)
Intervening (IVV)
Moderating (MV)
References
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Business Research Methods by Donald R Cooper, 12th Edition.
Chapter 3 - Thinking Like a Researcher, PP 48-73
