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Contrasting the Corporate Social Responsibility Perceptions of Generation X’ers

Submitted by

Megan Alyssa Fixen

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctorate of Business Administration

Grand Canyon University

Phoenix, Arizona

May 18, 2017

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Abstract

Limited investigation of consumer corporate social responsibility perceptions exists. The

purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, causal-comparative study was to examine

differences between CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers from a sample of Generation

X’ers in North Dakota. In this study, the researcher investigated generational perceptions

of CSR by using Carroll’s dimensions including economic, legal, ethical, and

philanthropic responsibility to determine the importance of these dimensions as perceived

by members of Generation X. The research questions helped the researcher examine if

and to what extent statistically significant differences exist between Generation X’ers,

dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and 1970s. The researcher used univariate

ANOVA procedures to examine the differences in perception for economic and

philanthropic CSR responsibilities between Generation X’ers. The researcher used Mann-

Whitney U procedures to examine the difference in perception for legal and ethical CSR

responsibilities between Generation X’ers. Although results provided support that

statistically significant differences did not exist between Generation X’ers born in the

1960s and those born in the 1970s, this study provided evidence of which CSR

perceptions Generation X’ers value most. Overall, members of Generation X place the

highest value on legal (M = 32.4), followed by ethical (M = 27.0), economic (M =20.0),

and philanthropic responsibilities (M = 16.6) respectively. These results may inform

leadership decisions regarding which dimensions to utilize in building CSR initiatives

and serve as a foundation for further scientific research.

Keywords: Corporate social responsibility, Generation X, economic

responsibility, legal responsibility, ethical responsibility, and philanthropic responsibility

Dedication

I dedicate this to the person that I admire most in this world, my mother. Thank

you for inspiring me to follow my dreams, and always giving me words of

encouragement when I need a boost to continue on this academic pursuit. Words cannot

express how grateful I am for your support. Thank you for being my biggest fan! We did

it!

vii

Acknowledgments

To my chair, Dr. Yvette Ghormley, I cannot tell you how grateful that I am for

your expertise, support, time, and guidance. I would like to thank you for going above

and beyond to encourage me. To my methodologist, Dr. Victor Landry your statistical

expertise was extremely valuable. To my content expert, Dr. Cheryl Lentz, I truly

appreciate your counsel. Thank you all for sharing your knowledge with me.

viii

Table of Contents

List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xii

List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiii

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ................................................................................... 1

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

Background of the Study .............................................................................................. 2

Problem Statement ........................................................................................................ 4

Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 6

Research Questions and Hypotheses ............................................................................ 7

Advancing Scientific Knowledge ............................................................................... 10

Significance of the Study ............................................................................................ 12

Rationale for Methodology ......................................................................................... 14

Nature of the Research Design for the Study .............................................................. 14

Definition of Terms ..................................................................................................... 17

Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations ................................................................... 19

Assumptions. ...................................................................................................... 19

Limitations and delimitations. ............................................................................ 20

Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study ....................................... 21

Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 22

Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem ..................................... 22

Theoretical Foundations .............................................................................................. 25

Consumer marketing .......................................................................................... 25

Carroll’s corporate social responsibility pyramid .............................................. 25

Review of the Literature ............................................................................................. 27

Consumer marketing .......................................................................................... 27

Corporate social responsibility ........................................................................... 33

Carroll’s corporate social responsibility pyramid. ............................................. 40

Generation X. ..................................................................................................... 46

Corporate social responsibility and Generation X ............................................. 50

Methodology ...................................................................................................... 55

Instrumentation .................................................................................................. 58

Literature review summary ................................................................................ 60

Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................... 63

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 63

Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................ 63

Research Questions and Hypotheses .......................................................................... 64

Research Methodology ............................................................................................... 67

Research Design .......................................................................................................... 68

Population and Sample Selection ................................................................................ 70

Instrumentation ........................................................................................................... 72

Validity ....................................................................................................................... 75

Reliability .................................................................................................................... 77

Data Collection and Management ............................................................................... 78

Data Analysis Procedures ........................................................................................... 79

Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................ 83

Limitations and Delimitations ..................................................................................... 84

Summary ..................................................................................................................... 86

Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results ............................................................................... 89

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 89

Descriptive Data .......................................................................................................... 90

Data Analysis Procedures ........................................................................................... 94

Results ......................................................................................................................... 99

Research Question 1 ........................................................................................... 99

Research Question 2 ......................................................................................... 101

Research Question 3 ......................................................................................... 102

Research Question 4 ......................................................................................... 104

Summary ................................................................................................................... 108

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations ........................................... 111

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 111

Summary of the Study .............................................................................................. 112

Summary of Findings and Conclusion ...................................................................... 114

Research Question 1 ......................................................................................... 116

Research Question 2 ......................................................................................... 117

Research Question 3 ......................................................................................... 117

Research Question 4 ......................................................................................... 117

Implications ............................................................................................................... 119

Theoretical implications. .................................................................................. 119

Practical implications ....................................................................................... 121

Future implications .......................................................................................... 122

Strengths and weaknesses ................................................................................ 123

Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 124

Recommendations for future research ............................................................. 124

Recommendations for future practice .............................................................. 126

References ....................................................................................................................... 129

Appendix A. Copy of Instruments and Permissions Letters to Use the Instrument ....... 155

Appendix B. Computation of Sample Size ..................................................................... 159

Appendix C. IRB Approval Letter .................................................................................. 161

Appendix D. Informed Consent ...................................................................................... 162

Appendix E. Tables for Univariate ANOVA Test .......................................................... 164

Appendix F. Tables for Mann-Whitney U Test .............................................................. 166

Appendix G. Tables for Tests of Normality ................................................................... 168

xii

List of Tables

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for CSR Perceptions ........................................................ 92

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Normally Distributed Data ........................................ 93

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for Normally Distributed Data ........................................ 93

Table 4. Shapiro-Wilk test of Normality ......................................................................... 95

Table 5. Test of Homogeneity of Variance ...................................................................... 96

Table 6. Univariate ANOVA Test Results for CSR Perceptions ................................... 106

Table 7. Mann-Whitney U Test Results for CSR Perceptions ....................................... 106

Table 8. Summary of Significance Results .................................................................... 106

Table 9. Summary of Findings and Conclusions ........................................................... 116

xiii

List of Figures

Figure 1. Carroll’s (1991) Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility .......................... 26

Figure 2. Column chart for participants in each generational cohort ............................... 93

Figure 3. Column chart for economic responsibilities .................................................... 101

Figure 4. Column chart for legal responsibilities ............................................................ 102

Figure 5. Column chart for ethical responsibilities ......................................................... 104

Figure 6. Column Chart for Philanthropic Responsibilities ............................................ 105

Figure 7. Column chart for odds ratio analysis ............................................................... 107

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

Introduction

Modern business leaders realize the important role that corporate social

responsibility (CSR) plays in the well-being of society (Raman, Wayne, & Nair, 2012).

Carroll (1979) described CSR as “The social responsibility of business encompasses the

economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations that society has of organizations

at a given point in time” (p. 500). Schwartz and Carroll (2003) indicated that Carroll’s

definition of CSR is widely accepted in the management field.

Existing research focuses on understanding the significance and impact of CSR. It

is known that CSR initiatives influence consumer loyalty (Pérez & Rodríguez, 2015), that

CSR can increase a business’s reputation among customers (Chernev & Blair, 2015), and

the CSR perspectives and needs of stakeholders are very different (McGlone, Spain, &

McGlone, 2011). Shuqin (2014) indicated that choosing the right CSR strategy could

result in financial reward.

According to Rushing (2011), the span of members of Generation X includes

those born between the years of 1960 to 1979. Because of the differences in histories and

values, Jorge Arturo, José de Jesús, and Manuel (2016) suggested that each generation

has different motivators and expectations. However, Generation X represents an

economically significant market segment worthy of a marketing focus (Philp, 2015).

Members of Generation X, with 60 million U.S. consumers, continue to increase

spending behaviors across a wide range of categories (O’Brien, 2016; Rushing, 2011).

O’Brien (2016) suggested that members of Generation X purchase art, cars, jewelry,

travel, and fine wine. The perspectives of Generation X play a critical role in establishing

current and future CSR initiatives, because consumers consider the socially responsible

behaviors of a business when making purchasing decisions (Abd Rahim, Jalaludin, &

Tajuddin, 2011).

The goal of this study was to investigate CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers

using Carroll’s CSR model. The findings could inform leadership decisions regarding

which strategies are needed to create CSR initiatives that appeal to Generation X

members. Therefore, understanding customer perspectives is crucial, because a business

will only benefit from CSR initiatives that create value for the consumer (Gadeikiene &

Banyte, 2013).

In Chapter 1, the researcher discusses the background of CSR, the problem and

purpose statements, research questions and hypotheses, and significance of the study.

Additionally discussed are the rationale for methodology, nature of the research design,

and definition of terms used in this research. Chapter 1 closes with the research

assumptions, limitations, and delimitations.

Background of the Study

Historically, financial performance was the primary criterion for evaluating a

firm’s value, with little emphasis on CSR (Raman et al., 2012). In the modern business

environment, however, CSR is significant because businesses recognize the benefits of

focusing on the perceptions and needs of stakeholders, rather than solely focusing on

wealth (Min, Ai, Choo, Wah, & Yang, 2012; Raman et al., 2012). According to

Maamoun (2013), CSR is crucial because consumers may avoid making purchases from

companies that do not demonstrate a commitment to CSR.

Business leaders understand the significance of using CSR as a strategic tool,

because the purchasing intentions of consumers depend upon the ethical and moral

positions of a business (Raman et al., 2012). Carroll’s (1991) CSR pyramid model

provides a theoretical foundation to examine CSR activities, and to gain a deeper

understanding of the relationship that exists between consumers and businesses. By

understanding the associations between CSR and consumer desires, business leaders can

create specific CSR initiatives responsive to consumer preferences (Abd Rahim et al.,

2011).

Min et al. (2012) stated that little research exists regarding CSR perceptions from

the consumer’s perspective. However, literature does exist in relation to CSR perceptions

from a variety of stakeholders. Ibrahim and Parsa (2005) examined CSR perception

differences between French and American managers, finding that a significant difference

exists in managerial attitudes towards each dimension of CSR. Ibrahim, Howard, and

Angelidis (2003) examined CSR from the perspective of the board of directors. Findings

indicated that board members have stronger orientation toward philanthropic

responsibility than economic responsibility, and no significant differences exist between

groups in respect to ethical and legal responsibilities.

Abd Rahim et al. (2011) identified a need to examine the different perspectives of

CSR by age groups. Furthermore, Gadeikiene and Banyte (2013) recommended research

on perceptions of CSR factors from an older consumer segment (above 30 years of age).

Members of Generation X fall into the consumer segment above 30 years of age

(Rushing, 2011). To address the gap in literature, the researcher investigated CSR

perspectives of Generation X, dichotomizing by decade (1960s and 1970s).

According to Hawkins and Mothersbaugh (2013), members of a generation

experience a common environment. With similar histories and shared behaviors,

generations serve as unique marketing segments (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013).

Marketers realized that each generation has different characteristics and desires, and these

differences create the need to tailor marketing strategies to unique generational

preferences (Bucuţă, 2015).

Vidaver-Cohen and Brønn (2015) suggested that CSR practices relate to

consumer support. Abd Rahim et al. (2011) suggested that companies that do not meet

consumer expectations or offend consumer values risk the withdrawal of consumer

support, and business loss. Business leaders may increase consumer support by

identifying which CSR dimensions different groups of stakeholders’ value and then

developing business approaches congruent with those dimensions. Thus, information

about the preferences of Generation X might provide businesses with a sound, data-

driven basis for establishing responsive CSR initiatives.

Problem Statement

It was not known if and to what extent statistically significant differences exist

between how consumers in the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in

the 1960s and those born in the 1970s, perceive economic, legal, ethical, and

philanthropic CSR responsibilities. According to Philp (2015), Generation X represents

an economically significant age group worthy of marketing focus. However, further

research is necessary to identify CSR perceptions of consumers by age group (Gadeikiene

& Banyte, 2013).

Generational differences create a variety of marketing options because members

of a generation have values that are different from other cohorts (Schullery, 2013). A

need for further research exists to examine the different perspectives of CSR from a

consumer segment above the age of 30 (Gadeikiene & Banyte, 2013). To address the gap

in literature, the researcher investigated CSR perceptions of consumers in the age group

of Generation X using Carroll’s CSR model. Carroll’s CSR pyramid is a framework for

understanding economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic perceptions. Therefore,

Carroll’s CSR pyramid suited the needs of this study.

Given that members of Generation X represent a large population of

approximately 60 million U.S. consumers (O’Brien, 2016), business leaders could benefit

from understanding Generation X CSR perceptions. Members of a generation see

themselves as a distinct group (Klara, 2016). Each generation has different characteristics

and desires, and these differences create the need to tailor marketing strategies to unique

generational preferences (Bucuţă, 2015). Gadeikiene and Banyte (2013) indicated that the

effectiveness of CSR initiatives increased when providing consumer value, which is the

consumer’s perception of the various benefits of a market offering (Perreault, Cannon, &

McCarthy, 2009). By understanding generational perspectives, a business can then create

strategies that appeal to this specific market segment (Abd Rahim et al., 2011).

This study may contribute to an increased understanding of which CSR

dimensions members of Generation X value most. Consumers desire CSR initiatives that

provide value (Gadeikiene & Banyte, 2013). To react and respond to desires

appropriately, a business needs an understanding of consumer perspectives (Lyons &

Kuron, 2014). Businesses may use data from this study to attract consumers through

targeted CSR initiatives. According to Vidaver-Cohen and Brønn (2015), consumers are

more likely to support a firm that engages in CSR related activities. Ultimately, CSR can

be a source of competitive advantage that can result in superior business performance

(Julie Juan & Xuan, 2013).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, causal-comparative study was

to examine the differences between CSR perceptions of consumers in the age group of

Generation X from a snowball sample in North Dakota (ND). According to the United

States Census Bureau (2015), the total population of ND is 756,927. Economic, legal,

ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities defined the dependent variable CSR.

Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s defined the dichotomous

independent variable.

The beliefs and attitudes of stakeholder’s influence purchase decisions

(Armstrong & Kotler, 2013). According to Schullery (2013), each generation is diverse in

interests, needs, and values. Perceptions of CSR dimensions such as economic, legal,

ethical, and philanthropic responsibility may vary because of diverse interests of clients.

Moreover, understanding consumer perspectives might improve the ability of a business

to build long-term consumer loyalty.

The researcher focused exclusively on Generation X’ers to analyze CSR

perceptions of one specific age group. Members of Generation X, with 60 million U.S.

consumers, are worthy of marketing focus because of their increasing spending behaviors

across a wide range of categories (O’Brien, 2016; Rushing, 2011). Generation X is a

major consumer force in the market for items such as appliances, cars, travel, and

products for children (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013). The results of this study could

prompt businesses to consider stakeholder perspectives when designing CSR initiatives.

Because stakeholders value CSR behaviors, businesses have an opportunity to improve

their reputation and increase profits by engaging in CSR activities (Dusuki & Yusof,

2008). Furthermore, a business can appeal to a specific group by acting in a manner

congruent to consumer values; while at the same time meeting their own business

objectives (Abd Rahim et al., 2011).

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The researcher examined the differences between perceptions of Generation

X’ers. The four primary research questions addressed were:

RQ1: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive economic CSR?

H10: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive economic CSR.

H1a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive economic CSR.

RQ2: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive legal CSR?

H20: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive legal CSR.

H2a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive legal CSR.

RQ3: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive ethical CSR?

H30: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive ethical CSR.

H3a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive ethical CSR.

RQ4: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR?

H40: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR.

H4a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR.

The researcher used a survey instrument based on Carroll’s four-part CSR model

to assess CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers. The survey instrument allowed

participants to allocate up to 10 points to each set of four statements. Each statement on

the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument represents one of the four dimensions of CSR

(Aupperle, Hatfield, & Carroll, 1983). Numerical allocations of points indicated the

perceived importance of each CSR dimension. The researcher organized data according

to the numerical allocation given to each CSR dimension between members of

Generation X.

CSR (dependent variable) included economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic

responsibilities. The researcher used the dependent variable separately four times because

there are four independent events. The dichotomous independent variable included

Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s. The researcher applied

Mann-Whitney U tests and univariate ANOVAs to examine the differences in Corporate

Social Responsibility Orientation (CSRO) perceptions between consumers in the age

group of Generation X and address each research question.

In this study, the collected data showed both normal and non normal distributions.

The researcher conducted two univariate ANOVA tests to analyze data and address RQ1

and RQ4. Laerd (2016) indicated that in order to conduct a univariate ANOVA the

dependent variable should be normally distributed. Furthermore, the researcher

conducted two Mann-Whitney U tests to analyze data and address RQ2 and RQ3.

According to Triola (2010), the Mann-Whitney U test does not require normally

distributed data. Therefore, the univariate ANOVA and the Mann-Whitney U test were

appropriate to analyze data.

Advancing Scientific Knowledge

Understanding consumer perceptions of CSR activities is essential when

designing business initiatives. Gadeikiene and Banyte (2013) investigated the effects of

consumer’s support for CSR by analyzing consumer perceptions of CSR attributes from

the perspective of participants age 20-29, recommending a need for further research on

perceptions of CSR factors from the older consumer segment (above 30 years of age).

Abd Rahim et al. (2011) identified a need to examine the different perspectives of CSR

by age groups. Because each generation may have different attitudes (Kraten, 2016), a

gap in literature exists. Addressing the gap in literature, the researcher used Carroll’s

CSR pyramid as a foundation to investigate CSR perspectives of Generation X,

dichotomizing by decade (1960s and 1970s).

Campbell, Campbell, Siedor and Twenge (2015) indicated that research about the

differences between people’s perceptions is meaningful, and generational groupings are

useful in market segmentation. According to Turkina and Surzhko-Harned (2014), the

forces that influence a generation are different, and these forces stimulate different

consumer behaviors. Historical, social, and political experiences differ for each

generation, and can potentially create different consumer attitudes and values (Hawkins

& Mothersbaugh, 2013).

According to Gadeikiene and Banyte (2013), consumers’ feelings about CSR

behaviors are not evident. This research may provide data regarding which dimensions of

CSR Generation X’ers perceive to be most valuable. The researcher used a survey

instrument based on Carroll’s CSR pyramid to assess perspectives of Generation X’ers.

An understanding of different CSR values can increase a business leader’s ability to

design marketing strategies based on the dimensions of CSR most desirable to a

stakeholder group (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). Juščius, Šneiderienė, and Griauslytė (2013)

indicated that fulfilling the needs and expectations of consumers increases business

success. According to Julie Juan and Xuan (2013), each dimension of CSR has the

potential to increase business performance by providing benefits to the consumer,

building brand image, and increasing profit. Understanding consumer perspectives is

crucial, because a business will only benefit from CSR initiatives that create value for the

consumer (Gadeikiene & Banyte, 2013).

Min et al. (2012) indicated that little research exists about CSR perceptions from

the consumer perspective. Accordingly, Öberseder, Schlegelmilch, Murphy, and Gruber

(2014) confirmed that the ways in which consumers perceive CSR remain unclear. Data

from this study may contribute to existing research by addressing CSR values from the

consumer perspective. In addition, the current study expanded on the current body of

literature by providing information about CSR perceptions from one specific consumer

segment.

Carroll’s CSR model was the foundation for examining the differences between

Generation X’ers. Aupperle, Carroll, and Hatfield (1985) indicated that researchers use

Carroll’s CSR dimensions to measure and test CSRO participant perceptions. Carroll’s

CSR model is a framework for understanding economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic

perceptions (Carroll, 1991). According to Carroll (1979), economic, legal, ethical, and

philanthropic responsibilities are the components that comprise total CSR. The design of

the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument used in this research addressed each of the

four CSR dimensions in Carroll’s CSR model. Study findings extended Carroll’s CSR

model by providing data about the CSR perceptions of a specific consumer segment.

Consumer attitudes toward a business affect their purchase intentions (Kang & Hustvedt,

2014). Therefore, research on consumer perceptions is purposeful. Management can use

the information from this research as a basis for incorporating Carroll’s CSR dimensions

into business goals and objectives. Data from this study revealed which CSR dimensions

Generation X consumers considered most valuable based on Carroll’s CSR pyramid and

the study parameters.

Significance of the Study

Abd Rahim et al., (2011) stated that CSR responsibilities benefit businesses, and

society at large. CSR has the potential to enhance competitiveness (McGlone et al.,

2011). Therefore, investigating consumer perspectives, and responding to perspectives is

sound business practice. Tewari and Pathak (2014) indicated some consumers might

desire businesses to behave ethically, while others place a higher value on contributions

to charitable causes. Joireman, Smith, Liu, and Arthurs (2015) suggested that socially

responsible strategies might involve donating money to a worthy cause or supporting an

environmental campaign. Moreover, Reisenwitz and Iyer (2009) posited that businesses,

which tailor strategies to align with the needs of their target population, will increase

their chances for sustainability through increased profits.

Understanding consumer perceptions of CSR activities is essential to design

initiatives that are meaningful to the customer. A need exists for further research on CSR

factors (Abd Rahim et al., 2011; Gadeikiene & Banyte, 2013). This research addressed a

gap in the literature regarding the different perspectives of CSR by age groups. The

researcher investigated the differences between CSR perceptions of one dichotomous age

group, Generation X’ers.

Marketers realized that each generation has different characteristics and desires,

and these differences create the need to tailor marketing strategies to unique generational

preferences (Bucuţă, 2015). Furthermore, Catano and Morrow Hines (2016) indicated

that generational values could differ. Generation specific research on CSR perspectives

has the potential to uncover effective marketing strategies. Campbell et al. (2015)

indicated generational groupings are useful when explaining different perceptions.

Furthermore, Hawkins and Mothersbaugh (2013) demonstrated that the components,

which shape the lives of each generation, are different, and these differences motivate

different consumer behaviors. Forces that influence consumer behavior also affect buying

behavior (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013).

Tewari and Pathak (2014) suggested that further research on CSR is necessary.

Existing literature focused largely on how CSR practices relate to employees (Catano &

Morrow Hines, 2016; Ciprian-Dumitru, 2013). Limited research exists on CSR practices

from the consumer perspective (Min et al., 2012). Although research exists on the value

of understanding the relationship between stakeholders and CSR, no research exists on

the CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers. The current study could provide business

leaders with valuable information about which CSR dimensions Generation X’ers value

most based on a theoretical foundation considered seminal in the field of management.

Furthermore, this study contributed to existing literature by providing information about

CSR perceptions from one specific consumer segment.

Rationale for Methodology

The researcher used a quantitative methodology. Quantitative data represents a

count or measurement of numerical data (Triola, 2010). Researchers use numerical data

in quantitative research to test a hypothesis (Park & Park, 2016). Furthermore,

quantitative researchers identify causal relationships or explain differences (Page, 2012).

Because the researcher used numerical data to examine the differences between the

perceptions of Generation X’ers, a quantitative methodology was appropriate to address

the problem statement and research questions that addressed if and to what extent there

are significant differences between how consumers in the age group of Generation X

perceive CSR responsibilities.

The goal of quantitative research is to demonstrate a representation of how

consumers think with valid and reliable data (Barnham, 2015). According to McCusker

and Gunaydin (2015), quantitative researchers require larger sample sizes and often use

survey instruments to collect data. The current study has a large sample size and included

a validated survey instrument as the data collection tool, aligning with a quantitative

method. In addition, data collected in this study were numerical in nature.

Nature of the Research Design for the Study

The researcher used a quantitative, non-experimental, causal-comparative design.

According to Schenker and Rumrill (2004), causal-comparative designs may be used to

examine the differences between pre-existing groups, without inferring causality. In this

study, the dimensions of CSR (continuous dependent variable) were between Generation

X’ers born in the 1960s, and those born in the 1970s (dichotomous independent variable).

Schenker and Rumrill (2004) suggested that a causal-comparative design is

appropriate when there can be no manipulation of the independent variable(s). The

researcher examined the differences in CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers. Generation

X is an intact group, which eliminates the possibility of manipulation. In addition, causal-

comparative designs regularly use a continuous dependent variable (Schenker & Rumrill,

2004), which aligned with this study.

According to Fitzgerald, Rumrill, and Schenker (2004), a correlational design is

appropriate to examine relationships between variables. In addition, correlational

research may be used to discover prevalence (Curtis, Comiskey, & Dempsey, 2016).

Therefore, a correlational design was not appropriate for the current research because the

objective was to examine the differences between the CSR perceptions, as opposed to a

relationship between Generation X’ers and CSR perceptions.

A quasi-experimental design involves the use of nonrandomized intervention and

a control group (Schweizer, Braun, & Milstone, 2016). A quasi-experimental design is

appropriate to investigate cause and effect relationships (Rockers, Røttingen, Shemilt,

Tugwell, & Bärnighausen, 2015). A quasi-experimental design was not appropriate for

this study because the objective was to investigate CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers

born in the 1960s and 1970s, as opposed to a cause and effect relationship.

The target population for this study was Generation X, and Generation X’ers

living in the state of ND comprised the study sample. The researcher distributed an

anonymous survey based upon Carroll’s four-part CSR model with 10 questions to 300

Generation X consumers to address the research questions. The design of the survey

instrument included each of the four CSR dimensions in Carroll’s pyramid (Dusuki &

Yusof, 2008). The survey instrument included a 10-point Likert scale. Participants

allocated points based on importance of each statement. The lower the number allocated,

the less important the CSR dimension is to the participant. The researcher distributed one

hundred and fifty (150) surveys to a snowball sample of Generation X’ers born in the

1960s (1960-1969) and 150 surveys to those born in the 1970s (1970-1979). The

researcher received a return of 165 surveys; 9 surveys were discarded because of

incomplete or incorrect data, achieving a final sample size of 156.

Snowball sampling is a chain referral recruiting mechanism that allows the

researcher to recruit participants of a hard to reach target groups (Sadler, Lee, Lim, &

Fullerton, 2010). Sadler et al. (2010) indicated that specific age groups could be difficult

to reach. Furthermore, snowball sampling is an effective technique when private or

sensitive matters are involved (Waters, 2015), such as age. In this research, participants

were required to be a member of the specific age group Generation X, born in the 1960s

or 1970s. Therefore, snowball sampling suited the needs of this study because the

researcher relied on initial participants to recruit other members of the hard to reach

target group, Generation X. The researcher gained access to the snowball sample of

participants through social media, word of mouth, and physical distribution of the survey

to individuals born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s. The researcher did not use

coercion or other pressures in recruiting participants. Because research was not personal

or sensitive, the researcher asked participants to refer other potential recruits, however,

they had the option to decline. Participants indicated consent by signing the informed

consent document. Privacy was not an issue, because no personal identifiers existed.

Participants allocated up to, but not more than 10 points to each set of four

statements, based on the perceived importance of CSR dimensions. Numerical allocations

for each statement that represented a CSR dimension and served as a measurement of

perspectives. The researcher used descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze data to

address the research questions.

Definition of Terms

Analysis of variance (ANOVA). The ANOVA is a parametric test to examine the

equality of means by analyzing variances (Triola, 2010).

Carroll’s CSR pyramid. Carroll’s (1991) CSR pyramid provided a basis for

understanding the constantly changing nature of a businesses’ economic, legal, ethical,

and philanthropic performance. The pyramid is a useful method for graphically

displaying the components of the CSR construct (Schwartz & Carroll, 2003).

Corporate social responsibility (CSR). Carroll (1979) defined CSR as “The social

responsibility of business encompasses the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary

expectations that society has of organizations at a given point in time” (p. 500).

Corporate social responsibility orientation (CSRO). Corporate social

responsibility orientation is the attitude that a person has toward the economic, ethical,

and philanthropic responsibilities of a business (Angelidis, Massetti, & Magee-Egan,

2008).

Dichotomy. Dichotomy is two separate parts of a whole (Tsvetkov, 2014).

Economic responsibilities. The economic responsibilities of a business are to

provide goods or services to society while striving to make a profit (Carroll, 1991).

Ethical responsibilities. Ethical responsibilities represent standards, norms, or

expectations concerning fairness and justice (Abd Rahim et al., 2011).

Forced-choice survey instrument. A forced choice format requires participants to

allocate a set amount of points to a set of statements to resolve potential issues of social

desirability bias (Aupperle et al., 1983). Because only 10 points were available to allocate

in the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument in this study, participants were forced to

assign less points to some dimensions.

Generation. A generation is a group of people who are born in the same period

and have experienced a common social, political, historical, and economic environment

(Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013; Holumyong et al., 2015).

Generation X. Generation X is a group of people who were born between the

years of 1960 and 1979 (Rushing, 2011). Generation X served as the focus population for

this study.

Legal responsibilities. The legal responsibilities of a business are to embrace

notions of fair operations and work within the framework of the law (Abd Rahim et al.,

2011).

Mann-Whitney U Test. The Mann-Whitney U test is a non-parametric test used to

examine differences between two independent groups of data that have non-normal

distribution (Mann & Whitney, 1947).

Philanthropic responsibilities. According to Carroll (1991), philanthropic

responsibilities are corporate actions in response to society’s expectation that businesses

should be good corporate citizens. Philanthropic activities include financial contributions

or contributions to the community (Abd Rahim et al., 2011).

Shareholder. According to Queen (2015), shareholders pursue profit

maximization, and make decisions that increase business value. Shareholders strive for

high return on their investments (Darškuvienė & Bendoraitienė, 2013).

Stakeholder. Stakeholders can be internal or external to an organization.

According to Darškuvienė and Bendoraitienė (2013), stakeholders include anyone

affected by the actions of a business. A business has certain responsibilities to

stakeholders, and not strictly to shareholders (Mansell, 2013).

Snowball sampling. Kandola, Banner, O’Keefe-McCarthy, and Jassal (2014)

stated that snowball sampling occurs when initial participants refer other potential

participants. In snowball sampling, participants tell acquaintances about the study to help

the researcher gather the desired amount of participants (Emerson, 2015). Snowball

sampling is effective when the researcher aims to gather data from a small subgroup of an

overall population (Emerson, 2015).

Quantitative data. Data that can be verified, quantified and statistically

manipulated is quantitative data (Triola, 2010).

Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations

Assumptions. The following assumptions were inherent in this study:

1. Survey participants in this study honestly allocated points to statements based on perceptions of relative importance. According to Rocco and Rountree (2010), ensuring anonymity reduces the possibility that participants may feel pressured to provide socially desirable responses. Participants in this study were anonymous, because no name or identifying factors existed within the survey instrument design. In addition, participation in the study was voluntary, and participants could decline research inclusion prior to completing the survey. Triola (2010)

indicated that voluntary participation allows the researcher to draw valid conclusions about a specific target group.

2. A sample size of 156 had sufficient power to allow for adequate statistical analysis. Triola (2010) suggested that a sufficient sample size is critical for valid results. Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, and Buchner (2007) indicated that a minimum sample size of 52 is necessary to achieve a .80 power, and a .35 effect size for a one-tailed univariate ANOVA test with a .10 alpha. In addition, based on the G*Power 3 sample size calculation, a sample size of 156 is necessary to achieve a .80 power, and a .35 effect size for a one- tailed Mann-Whitney U test with a .10 alpha. According to Kaul, Schieler, and Wolf (2016), a .10 significance level is commonly accepted. Larson-Hall (2010) recommended using a .10 alpha in the social sciences. Therefore, a .10 significance level was chosen to protect against false negatives more than false positives. Landry indicated that false positives are generally not an issue in perception-based studies (personal communication, October 22, 2016). A .10 significance level results in a 90% confidence level, which is a common choice to provide a balance between precision and reliability (Triola, 2010).

3. The survey instrument for this study accurately assesses CSRO. The four CSR dimensions outlined by Carroll can be reliably and validly measured (Aupperle et al., 1983). The CSRO forced-choice survey instrument addresses each of the CSR dimensions outlined in Carroll’s CSR pyramid, and is validated (Dusuki & Yusof, 2008; Smith & Blackburn, 1988). Aupperle et al. (1985) stated that the CSRO survey instrument is a robust tool in the analysis of CSR perceptions. According to Schwartz and Carroll (2003), the survey instrument based on Carroll’s four-part CSR model accurately provides an overall measurement of CSR.

Limitations and delimitations.

1. In this study, a limitation was the researcher only examined responses from members of the defined age groups (those born in the 1960s, and those born in the 1970s) known as Generation X’ers residing in the state of ND. Collecting data from participants in the same geographic area may result in a sample that has similar ethnic backgrounds or socioeconomic statuses (Emerson, 2015). Carter and Lubinsky (2015) suggested that limited generalizability can be a threat to the applicability in other times and settings. Therefore, the characteristics of consumers living in ND could affect the generalizability of the study.

2. A delimitation in this study was that the researcher examined only the age cohort of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s, as the sole cause for the differences in CSR perceptions. Other factors could influence CSR perceptions including gender, race, or age groups (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). Triola (2010) stated that validity refers to how well the data measures what it is intended to measure. Examining a variety of characteristics could increase the validity of findings.

3. A delimitation in this study was that the researcher only examined perspectives of members of Generation X. Focusing on Generation X’ers was significant because they represent a portion of one of the largest demographics in the United States (Rushing, 2011). According to Abd Rahim et al., (2011), a need exists for future researchers to examine the CSR perspectives of a variety of age segments.

Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study

A broader CSR concept is developing (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). Modern

businesses focus on the needs of stakeholders, society, and the environment. Studies

indicated that CSR behaviors result in corporate benefits that include consumer loyalty

and positive reputation (Raman et al., 2012; Vidaver-Cohen & Brønn, 2015). Although

increased stakeholder support may result in a competitive advantage, limited research

existed to understand CSR from the stakeholder perspective (Hillenbrand, Money, &

Ghobadian, 2013).

Despite the extensive literature on the benefits of CSR, a gap exists about the

CSR perspectives of different age groups (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). Gadeikiene and

Banyte (2013) recommended a need for further research on perceptions of CSR factors

from an older consumer segment (above 30 years of age). Because prior research did not

focus on generational differences in CSR perceptions, the researcher examined the CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers.

Chapter 2 contains the theoretical framework for this research, as well as a review

of the literature on the history of marketing, Carroll’s CSR pyramid, CSR, Generation X,

and CSR and Generation X. Chapter 3 contains the methodology, which includes the

research design, study population, as well as data collection and analysis procedures for

this study. Chapter 4 includes description of the study results. Chapter 5 includes

description of the implications of the study, and recommendations for future research.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem

The goal of this study was to compare the CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers.

This chapter includes an examination of the current and historical research of several

main concepts. The literature review for this multi-disciplinary study was from peer-

reviewed publications on consumer marketing, CSR, Carroll’s CSR pyramid, Generation

X, and the relationship between Generation X and CSR. This chapter includes the

background of the study, review of theoretical foundations, history and existing research

that is relevant to the study, methodology, and instrumentation.

The key terms consumer marketing, CSR, Carroll’s CSR pyramid, and Generation

X guided the literature search for scholarly articles from EBSCOhost and Google scholar.

Peer-reviewed journal articles published in or after 2011 located by the EBSCOhost and

the Google scholar search engine provided the primary literature reviewed for this

research. Four textbooks provided the background for the theoretical foundation and the

key concepts and terms.

An introduction to marketing concepts was essential in this literature review.

Armstrong and Kotler (2013) suggested that the marketing process includes

understanding the customer, creating customer value, and establishing strong customer

relationships. Effective marketing enhances the ability of a firm to obtain a competitive

advantage (Sanchez-Gutierrez, Mayorga-Salamanca, & Gonzalez-Uribe, 2014).

Marketing subthemes discussed include (a) the history of marketing, (b) modern day

marketing, (c) generational segmentation, and (d) the need for the study.

This chapter includes an analysis of the evolution of CSR, as well as the lack of a

concrete definition. Interest in the CSR concept and the business commitment to socially

responsible activities continue to increase (Dusuki & Yusof, 2008). Subthemes of CSR

concepts related to this proposal include (a) CSR, (b) development of CSR concept, (c)

CSR through the decades, (d) modern CSR, and (e) CSR practices.

Carroll’s CSR pyramid was the theoretical foundation for the study. Carroll

(1979) identified the four components of CSR as (a) economic, (b) legal, (c) ethical, and

(d) philanthropic responsibilities. Carroll later categorized these dimensions into the

pyramid of corporate social responsibility as a way to graphically display dimensions

(Schwartz & Carroll, 2003). This chapter also includes a detailed explanation of each

CSR dimension.

Another key theme for discussion was Generation X, which is the sample for the

study. According to Rushing (2011), members of Generation X were born between 1960

and 1979. Generational groupings are an effective method for determining the differences

between people (Campbell et al., 2015). Supporting literature reviewed includes (a)

Generation X, (b) characteristics of Generation X, (c) Generation X as a powerful

marketing segment, (d) Generation X’ers as stakeholders, and (e) the importance of

examining CSR from the perspectives of Generation X.

The benefit of understanding the CSR perspectives of Generation X was a key

theme in this chapter. The CSR initiatives of a business play a role in the purchasing

intentions of consumers (Kang & Hustvedt, 2014). Because social responsibility has the

potential to enhance competitiveness (McGlone et al., 2011), marketers should

investigate and understand consumer perspectives, and to act in a manner that responds to

their perspectives. Subthemes discussed include (a) the overall benefits of CSR; (b) the

role of CSR in building a reputation; (c) relationships formed between customers and

businesses; (d) Generation X as engaged consumers.

An ongoing debate exists as to what the responsibility of a business is to society

(Carroll, 1991). Many businesses struggle with understanding socially responsible

behavior. Financial performance was a main criterion to measure the value of a firm, and

businesses strived to provide the highest financial return possible to stakeholders (Abd

Rahim et al., 2011; Carroll, 1991).

According to Min et al. (2012), modern businesses have an increased awareness

of the CSR concept. Businesses understand the significance of focusing on factors other

than profit maximization (Raman et al., 2012). Leaders recognized the importance of

ethical and philanthropic responsibilities (Carroll, 1991). Because consumers have high

CSR expectations, stakeholder interests are a priority for modern businesses (Min et al.,

2012).

Abd Rahim et al. (2011) proposed a need for further investigation of CSR

perceptions among different age groups. This study used the dimensions of Carroll’s CSR

pyramid to examine CSR perspectives of members of Generation X. The researcher used

a validated CSRO forced-choice survey instrument based upon Carroll’s four-part CSR

model to assess the CSR perspectives of Generation X. According to Dusuki and Yusof

(2008), the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument measures the respondent’s perceived

importance of economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic responsibilities. Although

literature exists about the concept of CSR (Aupperle et al., 1983), limited research exists

on the consumer perspectives (Min et al., 2012). Economic, legal, ethical, and

philanthropic CSR dimensions are the basis for this study. Findings from this study

extended Carroll’s CSR model by determining which CSR dimensions a specific

consumer segment values most.

Theoretical Foundations

Consumer marketing. According to Armstrong and Kotler (2013), managing

profitable customer relationships is the foundation of marketing. The goal of consumer

marketing is to attract and retain customers by delivering satisfaction (Armstrong &

Kotler, 2013). Customers expect a business to respond to their current needs (Hawkins &

Mothersbaugh, 2013). According to Hillebrand, Driessen, and Koll (2015), responsive

thinking helps businesses understand how to respond to stakeholder needs and create

value, while also remaining in control of marketing decisions.

The traditional view of marketing offers something of value to the consumer

(Hillebrand et al., 2015). To develop an effective marketing strategy, a business must

determine how to provide superior value to the appropriate target market (Hawkins &

Mothersbaugh, 2013). Because providing value to the consumer is a primary component

for success (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013), a business must understand consumer

perspectives. Knowledge of CSR perceptions may assist a business in creating CSR

strategies that provide superior value for consumers.

Carroll’s corporate social responsibility pyramid. Carroll’s (1991) CSR

pyramid model is the theoretical foundation for this study. Carroll described CSR in four

dimensions that include (a) economic, (b) legal, (c) ethical, and (d) and philanthropic

responsibility. Carroll (1991) arranged the four social responsibilities into a pyramid,

beginning with economic responsibilities as the foundation for all business activity,

followed by legal, ethical and philanthropic responsibilities respectively. Although each

CSR dimension includes classification as a separate component, the dimensions overlap

(Dusuki & Yusof, 2008). Carroll’s seminal model suggested that a business must strive to

embrace all four dimensions to fulfill its’ responsibility to society. According to Smith,

Wokutch, Harrington, and Dennis (2001), the dimensions outlined by Carroll (1979)

provide a useful way to discover how various factors may influence perceptions of the

different components of CSR. Many theorists use Carroll’s dimensions of CSR for

research purposes (Schwartz & Carroll, 2003). According to Yakovleva and Vazquez-

Brust (2012), the dimensions are relevant in the business environment. The CSR pyramid

is one of the most well known models to identify a business’s social responsibility

(Calabrese, Costa, Menichini, Rosati, & Sanfelice, 2013) (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Carroll’s (1991) Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility.

Schwartz and Carroll (2003) indicate that Carroll’s CSR pyramid holds

considerable value. According to Waller and Conaway (2011), Carroll (1991) is possibly

the most commonly cited authority in the field of CSR. Abd Rahim et al. (2011) cited

Carroll’s model when examining the importance of CSR on consumer behavior. Ciprian-

Dumitru (2013) examined how CSR affects the actions of a company in relation to their

labor force based on Carroll’s model. Tewari and Pathak (2014) used Carroll’s pyramid

of CSR as a basis for understanding CSR, and using CSR as a competitive tool.

Abd Rahim et al. (2011) proposed a need for further investigation of CSR

perceptions among different groups. This study used the dimensions of Carroll’s CSR

pyramid to examine CSR perspectives of members of Generation X. The researcher used

a validated CSRO forced-choice survey instrument based upon Carroll’s four-part CSR

model to assess the perceived value of economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic

responsibilities. According to Dusuki and Yusof (2008), the CSRO forced-choice survey

instrument measures the respondents’ perceived importance of economic, legal, ethical,

and philanthropic responsibilities. The research questions for this study are based on the

economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic dimensions of Carroll’s CSR pyramid.

Findings from the study extended Carroll’s CSR model by determining which CSR

dimensions a specific consumer segment values most.

Review of the Literature

Consumer marketing. The practice of marketing to consumers is becoming a

common trend (Luczak, 2014). Marketing managers may benefit from focusing on

consumer desires (Hillebrand et al., 2015). According to Perreault et al. (2009), modern

marketing begins with identifying the needs of a potential consumer. To increase

consumer satisfaction, a business must first understand consumer perspectives (Perreault

et al., 2009). According to Hawkins and Mothersbaugh (2013), a business can discover

consumer needs through specific research.

The purpose of consumer marketing is to gain a competitive advantage, which

requires having knowledge about consumer values and the ability to forecast expectations

(Rowley, 2012). An understanding of consumer preferences can enhance a business’

ability to make marketing decisions. Review of the consumer marketing literature

involved surveying peer-reviewed journals with key search words such as marketing,

marketing theory, and history of marketing in EBSCOhost. Four scholarly books served

as references for marketing definitions and descriptions of concepts (Armstrong &

Kotler, 2013; Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013; Kelly & Williams, 2015; Perreault et al.,

2009).

History of consumer marketing. The definition of marketing continues to evolve

since the first formal definition in 1935 (Wilkie & Moore, 2007). According to Gamble,

Gilmore, McCartan-Quinn and Durkan (2011), an ongoing debate and evaluation of the

marketing concept exists. Kumar (2015) indicated that marketing thought, focus, and

practice change over time.

During the production era in the early 1900s, businesses focused on production

because of rapid technological advances (Kelly & Williams, 2015). According to

Perreault et al. (2009), the thinking during this era included characterizations of; if we

can make it we can sell it. By the 1930s, western nations developed increased production

capabilities. In 1935, marketing included the definition, the movement of goods and

services from producers to consumers (Wilkie & Moore, 2007). Marketing focus shifted

during this decade, when businesses began to concentrate on sales because of higher

levels of competition (Perreault et al., 2009).

The focus on sales continued until the introduction of the marketing era in the

1950s (Kelly & Williams, 2015). During this decade, businesses began to shift the focus

to consumer needs (Olsen & Hadjicharalambous, 2011). In the marketing era, businesses

began to develop a variety of brands, and consumers began to understand the differences

between products (Kelly & Williams, 2015).

Contemporary businesses are in the relationship era, in which businesses are

concerned with creating value for customers in an effort to build long-term relationships

(Armstrong & Kotler, 2013; Kelly & Williams, 2015). According to Wilkie and Moore

(2007), marketing is the process of creating, and communicating customer value and

building strong customer relationships. Kumar (2015) indicated that marketing is a

concept of importance that is also a tool for increasing profitability.

Modern day marketing. Marketing is a critical component in a business’s

decision-making (Kumar, 2015). Historically, businesses focused on mass marketing that

did not specifically target any one unique group of consumers (Armstrong & Kotler,

2013). However, modern businesses strive to build consumer loyalty by creating value

for specific target segments.

Modern businesses recognize the importance of the marketing concept. According

to Perreault et al. (2009), a business should strive to satisfy the customer while still

earning a profit. Relationship marketing is a priority for businesses (Zhang, Watson,

Palmatier, & Dant, 2016). According to Perreault et al. (2009), companies such as

General Electric and Proctor & Gamble were among the first to accept the marketing

concept. Businesses recognize the need to become more competitive, which increases

attention on marketing (Perreault et al., 2009). Many businesses adopt a style of service

that positions customer satisfaction as a priority, and a foundation for developing

consumer relationships (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013).

Modern marketers understand that the management of customer relationships is

possibly the most critical area of marketing focus (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013). Building

customer relationships involves obtaining detailed knowledge about the customer,

delivering value, and increasing consumer loyalty. According to Rodriguez and

MacLellan (2013), understanding the values of each generation is essential for successful

marketing. Knowledge about the CSR perceptions can provide leaders with information

that can enhance profits.

Focuses on generational groups are useful in marketing (Knight, 2015).

Generations include differences in experience and life obligations in addition to age

(Khor & Mapunda, 2014). According to Armstrong and Kotler (2013), generations span

over decades of time and different socioeconomic levels. According to Hawkins and

Mothersbaugh (2013), the differences that exist within a generation are often greater than

the differences between generations. Marketers often identify smaller segments within

each generation to form precise segments (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013). In this study, the

researcher used generational groupings to investigate CSR perceptions.

Turkina and Surzhko-Harned (2014) indicated that the forces that influence a

generation are different, and that these forces stimulate different consumer behaviors.

Historical, social, and political experiences differ for each generation, and can potentially

create different consumer attitudes and values (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013). During

the 1960s, for example, Martin Luther King made his famous I Have a Dream speech, the

United States sent troops into Vietnam, and Neil Armstrong became the first man to walk

on the moon. In the 1970s, the Watergate scandal began, the United States pulled out of

Vietnam, President Nixon resigned, and Mother Teresa received the Nobel Peace Prize.

Experiences of Generation X’ers have the potential to change a variety of perspectives.

Consequently, this study examines the differences between generational perspectives.

Need for current study. According to Kumar (2015), development of new

marketing knowledge that will have a lasting effect on academicians and the business

environment is necessary. Russell, Russell, and Honea (2016) suggested that consumers

directly influence corporate behavior. Kang and Hustvedt (2014) indicated that business

leaders should develop CSR marketing strategies that attract the consumers’ attention and

build trust. Strategic development can only occur after leadership fully understands

consumers (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013).

Gadeikiene and Banyte (2013) indicated that a consumer’s response to CSR

initiatives is not clear. Moreover, each CSR dimension can affect organizational

performance (Julie Juan & Xuan, 2013). Therefore, understanding the level of importance

a consumer places on each CSR dimension is vital for organizational success.

Decisions based on research are more successful than those based on intuition or

notions (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013). Marketers must develop a management

approach that utilizes available data (Kumar, 2015). According to Hawkins and

Mothersbaugh (2013), a business must collect information about specific consumers to

make wise marketing decisions. Specific data on consumer perceptions can aid an

organization in making strategic decisions that can appeal to a specific consumer

segment. Data from the study will provide businesses with information that can help with

creating refined strategies that appeal to members of Generation X.

Because of the growing interest in CSR, an opportunity exists for further research

relating to CSR perceptions (Pérez & Del Bosque, 2013). Abd Rahim et al. (2011)

identified a need to examine the different perspectives of CSR by age groups.

Furthermore, Gadeikiene and Banyte (2013) recommended research on perceptions of

CSR factors from an older consumer segment (above 30 years of age). This study goes

beyond the extant literature by examining CSR from the consumer perspective. Catano

and Morrow Hines (2016) examined generational perspectives from the perspective of

potential employees, finding that organizations that have CSR policies in place are more

attractive to the Millennial generation as a potential workplace. Ibrahim and Parsa (2005)

examined the differences in perceptions of CSR between French and American managers,

and found that there is a significant difference between the attitudes towards each

dimension of CSR. Smith et al. (2001) examined CSR from the employee perspective,

finding that employees perceived economic responsibilities to be most important. Min et

al. (2012) indicated that little research exists about CSR perceptions from the consumer

perspective. Therefore, a need for the current study exists.

Summary. Modern marketers must be skilled at managing customer relationships

and creating customer value (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013). According to Perreault et al.

(2009), leaders who focus on strategies that increase consumer satisfaction are on a path

that can lead to increased profits. An accurate assessment of consumer perceptions and

behaviors reduces the likelihood of business failure that can result from making

inaccurate marketing decisions (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013).

Social responsibility is essential in the development of modern marketing

practices (Parilti, Külter Demirgüneş, & Özsaçmaci, 2014; Yinhua Hu, 2014). CSR is a

marketing tool that may result in a competitive advantage (Tewari & Pathak, 2014).

Gaining an understanding of CSR perceptions can inform a business about what specific

marketing actions are necessary to better satisfy unique groups of customers.

Corporate social responsibility. Esmaeilpour and Barjoei (2016) indicated that

CSR is a primary issue for a business. According to Tewari and Pathak (2014), the

development of the CSR concept is considerable. The traditional view of CSR is that the

primary objective of a business is to pursue the highest profit possible (Jones & Felps,

2013). Abd Rahim et al. (2011) argued that organizations consider stakeholders to be a

critical component of organizational success. Morrissey (2015) suggested that the

concept of CSR is about focusing on stakeholder perspectives. Understanding the CSR

perceptions of stakeholders may increase sustainability and profits.

A vast literature exists about the concept of CSR relevant to this study.

Gonzálezrodríguez, Del Carmen Díazfernández, Spers, and Da Silva Leite (2016)

examined public perceptions finding that personal values directly influence consumer

perceptions of CSR. This study can extend on current research through increased

understanding of how certain consumer groups perceive CSR responsibilities. Review of

CSR literature involved an examination of peer-reviewed articles in EBSCOhost that

utilized key search terms such as corporate social responsibility, history of CSR, CSR

through the decades, profitability, and modern CSR practices. Furthermore, the literature

will include the evolution of the CSR concept.

Concept of corporate social responsibility. Both academicians and researchers

alike consider CSR a significant issue for businesses (Mushtaq, 2013). Dusuki and Yusof

(2008) indicated that CSR is a concept that continues to develop, and that an acceptable

common definition does not exist. According to Sharma (2011), the vast amount of

diverse issues associated with CSR prevents a universal definition. No general definition

of CSR exists because there are so many perspectives and viewpoints (Aupperle et al.,

1983).

According to Carroll (1991), the lack of a common CSR definition may cause

confusion about a business’ obligation to society. Because CSR includes a variety of

issues, ambiguity exists about what is right and wrong (Daft, 2014). This study uses

Carroll’s (1979) definition of CSR as economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic

expectations of society toward an organization. Carroll (1991) proposed each CSR

dimension warrants close consideration.

CSR is a concept held in high regard within the business community despite its

lack of common definition (Hack, Kenyon, & Wood, 2014). Increasingly, businesses may

experience pressure to incorporate CSR into business practices (Freeman & Hasnaoui,

2011). Clementina (2013) indicated that engaging in socially responsible behaviors may

create and strengthen the connection between the business and consumer.

Development of corporate social responsibility concept. According to Mat Saat

and Hisyam Selamat (2014), CSR is the relationship between a company and society.

Talk of CSR began in the 1930s, although scientific analysis did not develop for several

more decades (Carroll, 1979). According to Clementina (2013), the concept of CSR is a

work in progress.

Scientific analysis of the CSR concept began in 1953 with the work of Bowen,

beginning the CSR evolution (Madrakhimova, 2013). Bowen’s publication, Social

Responsibility of the Businessman, is the first conclusive book on CSR (Carroll, 1979).

During this period, those in business believed that social conscience belongs to the

businessperson, and that each person accepts responsibility for their actions beyond

profits and losses (Madrakhimova, 2013).

Davis (1960) defined CSR as actions taken that extend beyond the direct interest

of the business. Davis argued that responsibility comes along with power, although

businesses may struggle with achieving a balance between the two. McGuire (1969)

suggested that the perception of responsibilities of a business change at a rapid pace.

Executives began to realize that although engaging in a CSR activity may reduce current

profits, the ultimate result might be an increase in profits (McGuire, 1969). McGuire

predicted that the concept of CSR would become a necessity in the future.

In 1979, Carroll proposed that the CSR concept integrate the dimensions of

economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary responsibilities of business. According to

Carroll (2000), the CSR definition includes the basic economic functions of a business,

and those responsibilities that are outside of the traditional economic functions of the

business. Carroll rank ordered each responsibility in a way that shows the progression of

their importance. In 1991, Carroll organized the dimensions of CSR into a pyramid,

which serves as a model for understanding the evolution of each CSR dimension.

Opposition to the concept of corporate social responsibility. A debate exists

regarding the consequences of CSR to shareholders (Mishra & Modi, 2016). Although

giving back to society seems like a positive concept, some view social responsibilities as

simply giving away the business’s money (Rogers, 2015). Those who oppose CSR

activities worry about the distribution of profits, and believe that the more profits given to

stakeholders means fewer profits for the business investors (Shuqin, 2014). Some

theorists argued that philanthropic contributions are at the expense of the shareholders

(Okpara & Wynn, 2012).

Friedman supported the profit-maximizing approach, which is an extreme focus

on economic responsibility (Daft, 2014). According to this approach, a company should

maximize profits for shareholders (Madrakhimova, 2013). Friedman believed CSR to be

unwise because the responsibilities of a firm should relate directly to profits (Hack et al.,

2014).

Opponents of CSR believed that in addition to taking profits from shareholders,

engaging in CSR activities could raise consumer prices and lower employee wages

(Mahmood & Humphrey, 2013). A commitment to socially responsible behaviors can be

costly to a business (Daft, 2014). Leaders may be hesitant to engage in CSR activities for

fear of consuming resources and increasing costs, which would make CSR related

activities a burden to the business (Shuqin, 2014). Nwidobie (2014) examined the effect

of CSR on profit margins, and found that although CSR activities may increase company

costs, the increase may not affect profit because CSR generally compensates by

increasing sales. Ayadi, Kusy, Minyoung, and Trabelsi (2015) indicated that CSR related

activities are not a waste of corporate resources and may increase shareholder value.

According to Creasey (2015), businesses can operate in a socially responsible manner

without affecting their ability to remain competitive.

Corporate social responsibility through the decades. According to Hack et al.

(2014), the academic literature about the concept of CSR did not develop until the 1950s.

During this period of shareholder activism, different views of CSR began to emerge

(Glac, 2014). The 1950s represent the beginning of the modern era of CSR, which would

continue to evolve (Madrakhimova, 2013).

In the 1960s, businesses began to question as to whether or not they could

actually afford to ignore their social responsibilities (Davis, 1960). In the beginning of

this decade, businesses focused the majority of their efforts on making the highest profit

possible (McGuire, 1969). However, toward the end of the decade businesses realized

that they must recognize the concept of CSR (McGuire, 1969). Advocates of social

responsibility began to raise awareness of the CSR concept (Carroll, 1991).

During the 1970s, businesses began to consider CSR as a responsibility that a

business has toward stakeholders, which could result in a competitive advantage (Hack et

al., 2014). At that time, the government established policies that acknowledged

consumers, workers, and the environment as the stakeholders (Mihalache, 2013).

According to Carroll (1991), social legislation became evident in this decade with the

creation of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA), the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), and the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

The CSR concept began increasingly attracting attention in the 1980s (Hack et al.,

2014). This decade included the proposal of many new definitions of CSR, in addition to

increased empirical research (Madrakhimova, 2013). Throughout this decade, businesses

became more responsive to stakeholder interests (Madrakhimova, 2013).

By the 1990s, CSR developed into a common practice (Madrakhimova, 2013).

Building a strong reputation for a commitment to CSR became a top priority for the

world’s largest companies (Waller & Conaway, 2011). According to Hack et al. (2014),

during this decade businesses began to realize that legal and economic components are

essential foundations of CSR, and that any philanthropic or ethical activities must

advance beyond the minimum responsibility.

CSR is a key issue because of the resulting benefits to both the business and

consumer. (Madrakhimova, 2013). The concept of CSR is also the focus of a substantial

amount of scholarly attention (Lizhen Chen, Marfo, & Hu Xuhua1, 2016). As clearer

definitions of CSR continue to emerge, leaders in the 21st century recognized CSR as a

responsible way to conduct business (Hack et al., 2014).

Modern corporate social responsibility. Homburg, Stierl, and Bornemann (2013)

indicated that CSR is relevant in modern business practice. The debate about CSR

continues to increase in importance (Calabrese et al., 2013). Businesses understand the

importance of behaving in a socially responsible manner (Raman et al., 2012), and that

neglecting CSR is not acceptable business practice (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). According

to Ungureanu (2012), modern businesses must not focus solely on financial performance,

but also on social responsibility. A business has an obligation not only to strive for a

return on profit, but also to seek acceptance from the public (Hiller, 2013).

Maamoun (2013) suggested the concept of CSR is significant, because consumers

may avoid companies that do not demonstrate a commitment to CSR. Consumers may

not support a business that follows a strict economic perspective, and may develop a

stronger connection with a company that behaves in a socially responsible manner

(Clementina, 2013). A consumer is likely to be more loyal to a business that engages in

higher levels of CSR (Gadeikiene & Banyte, 2013). Furthermore, Gadeikiene and Banyte

(2013) indicated that CSR perceptions affect consumer loyalty and trust.

Consumers have a strong understanding of the socially responsible actions of a

business (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). Socially responsible behaviors influence whether or

not the stakeholder will support a business (Vidaver-Cohen & Brønn, 2015). Because the

presence of CSR behaviors increases the likelihood that consumers will feel comfortable

purchasing from a business, the perspectives of consumers have an impact on how

leaders create and respond to CSR initiatives (Okpara & Wynn, 2012).

Corporate social responsibility practices. Being socially responsible is good

business practice (DesJardins, 2016). Integrating socially responsible behaviors into

business practices can contribute to an increase in company value (Katavić & Kovačević,

2011). Galego-Álvarez, Formigoni, and Pompa Antunes (2014) indicated that socially

responsible practices continue to increase in businesses around the world.

Abd Rahim et al. (2011) suggested the obligation of a business to behave in a

socially responsible manner extends beyond the basic legal functions and improves the

quality of life for society. When establishing CSR practices, a modern business must now

consider the interests of shareholders, employees, and the community (Ungureanu, 2012).

Sharma (2011) argued that a firm has an obligation to use the resources they possess in a

manner beneficial to society.

Businesses can no longer disregard CSR because research indicated that CSR has

the potential to influence consumer actions (Creasey, 2015; Chernev & Blair, 2015).

Establishing CSR practices can enhance the ability of an organization to compete, and

therefore to increase sustainability (Julie Juan & Xuan, 2013). CSR can create consumer

loyalty, which in turn increases the value of a business (Malik, 2015).

Summary. A review of CSR literature revealed that while controversial views

exist about what constitutes socially responsible behavior, the concept of CSR in modern

business is essential. Vidaver-Cohen and Brønn (2015) suggested that limited studies

include information regarding how CSR practices affect stakeholder intentions.

Schrempf-Stirling, Palazzo and Phillips (2016) indicated that consumers judge businesses

based on the activities that they engage in beyond traditional corporate activities. To

operate successfully, businesses must commit to socially responsible practices.

According to Malik, Ali and Anwar (2015), integrating CSR into business strategies can

increase the ability of a company to build and sustain a competitive advantage.

Information from this study can increase understanding about which CSR dimensions to

build into their strategies.

Addressing consumer perceptions of CSR could be the answer to marketplace

success (Smith et al., 2001). The goal of this study is to investigate generational

perceptions of CSR by using Carroll’s (1991) dimensions to determine their importance

as perceived by members of Generation X born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s.

Daft (2014) suggested that economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities are

a basis for evaluating social performance. These four components form Carroll’s CSR

pyramid.

Carroll’s corporate social responsibility pyramid. According to Carroll (1991),

CSR includes four social responsibilities that include (a) economic, (b) legal, (c) ethical,

and (d) philanthropic. When combined, these four components represent the total social

responsiveness of a business (Daft, 2014). Carroll argued that embracing each of these

responsibilities is vital for the sake of society and for the sake of the firm (Abd Rahim et

al., 2011). The basis for this study was an examination of consumer perceptions of

economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic CSR responsibilities. An understanding of

which responsibilities a specific target values can increase competitiveness.

Carroll’s CSR pyramid is the theoretical foundation for the study. According to

Dusuki and Yusof (2008), Carroll’s CSR pyramid is widely used in existing literature to

study and develop the CSR concept. Review of literature on Carroll’s CSR pyramid

involved a survey of peer-reviewed articles in EBSCOhost that utilized key search terms

including Carroll’s CSR pyramid, economic responsibilities, legal responsibilities, ethical

responsibilities, and philanthropic responsibilities.

Economic responsibilities. Economic responsibilities are the base of Carroll’s

CSR pyramid (Ciprian-Dumitru, 2013). According to Daft (2014), economic

responsibilities involve producing a good or service in an effort to maximize profits.

Economic profits establish long-term sustainability (Clyde & Karnani, 2015). According

to Mihalache (2013), making a profit and building capital are the main objectives for a

business. Without a strong economic foundation, other responsibilities in Carroll’s CSR

pyramid become irrelevant (Carroll, 1991).

The economic component of CSR supports the idea that a business must strive to

maximize profits to remain competitive (Tewari & Pathak, 2014). According to Daft

(2014), Canada, the United States, and Europe no longer consider the profit maximizing

approach to be adequate. Focusing solely on profit can cause significant problems for a

business, as seen in the recent scandals within the mortgage and finance industries (Daft,

2014). According to Carroll (1991), a business should not focus solely on economic

responsibilities, but instead should pursue each of the four responsibilities in the CSR

pyramid.

Businesses may receive criticism for pursuing their own well-being with no

concern for their relationship with society. Focusing solely on the shareholder theory is

not acceptable in the modern business environment (Jones & Felps, 2013). Many

businesses embrace the viewpoint of creating long-term value for shareholders, while

also providing benefits to stakeholders (Queen, 2015).

Businesses often experience challenges balancing economic responsibilities with

socially responsible behaviors (Queen, 2015). Because a relationship exists between the

economic environment and the social one, the performance of a company no longer refers

only to the company’s financial performance, but social performance as well (Ungureanu,

2012). Studies indicate that socially responsible businesses can improve their long-term

finances (Madsen & Rodgers, 2015).

The existing literature includes a variety of perceptions of CSR, although these

have not represented specific generational perspectives. Abd Rahim et al. (2011)

indicated that economic responsibilities are the highest valued dimension of CSR by

consumers in Malaysia. Zhen and Aguilar (2014) compared Chinese and U.S. consumer

perspectives, and found that both groups value legal and ethical responsibilities more

than economic responsibilities. Zhen and Aguilar also found that Chinese consumers

perceive economic responsibilities to be the least important of the four CSR dimensions.

Legal responsibilities. Legal responsibilities are above economic responsibilities

in the CSR pyramid, because the two responsibilities coexist as basic concepts of free

enterprise (Carroll, 1991). The legal responsibility of a business is to fulfill their

economic goals while also complying with government and legal expectations (Daft,

2014). Businesses have an obligation to follow regulations for business operations

(Angelidis et al., 2008), and must obey laws and regulations established by government

and authorities (Mihalache, 2013).

To fulfill social obligations, a business must operate according to the law

(Mihalache, 2013). Businesses that deliberately neglect legal responsibilities are poor

performers in the legal dimension of CSR (Daft, 2014). According to Daft (2014),

examples of illegal actions by a business include knowingly selling defective goods,

committing corporate fraud, intentionally misleading consumers, or performing

unnecessary procedures.

Legal requirements include the responsibilities of the business that are expected

by society as well as legal principles (Schwartz & Carroll, 2003). According to Abd

Rahim et al. (2011), the behaviors expected by society may not be included in legal

responsibilities. Many businesses unconscientiously operate in accordance with CSR,

regardless of established laws or regulations (Abd Rahim et al., 2011).

Abd Rahim et al. (2011) examined CSR from the perspectives of Malaysian

consumers based on Carroll’s CSR pyramid. Results indicated that Malaysian consumers

perceive legal responsibility to be the least significant CSR dimension (Abd Rahim et al.,

2011). Dusuki and Yusof (2008) also examined the CSR perspectives of Malaysian

consumers, finding that legal responsibilities are the second least important CSR

dimension. According to Abd Rahim et al, lack of regard for rules and regulations in this

geographic area could be a reason for perceiving legal responsibilities to be unimportant.

Ethical responsibilities. Ethical responsibilities include those outside of the

economic or legal responsibilities (Tewari & Pathak, 2014). According to Carroll (1991),

ethical responsibilities include the standards and expectations that indicate a concern for

what stakeholders consider fair. Ethical responsibilities include the actions and behavior

of a business to protect stakeholder rights (Carroll, 1991).

Ethical decision making in a business has become increasingly important

(Richards & Alder, 2014). Abend (2013) recommended paying attention to ethical

decisions of the past to increase decision-making abilities of today. According to Carroll

(1991), acting in a manner that aligns with consumer expectations and ethical norms is

essential.

Society expects a business to uphold ethical responsibilities (Tewari & Pathak,

2014). Daft (2014) suggested that consumers may consider a business unethical when a

decision provides a gain for the business at the expense of others. Kish-Gephart, Detert,

Trevino, Baker, and Martin (2014) indicated that self-interest can, and usually does, play

a role in motivating individuals.

Dusuki and Yusof (2008) examined Malaysian stakeholder perspectives, and

found that ethical responsibilities are the second most valued dimension of CSR. Several

years later, Abd Rahim et al. (2011) studied CSR perspectives of Malaysian stakeholders,

and found that ethical responsibilities are the third most important dimension of CSR.

Zhen and Aguilar (2014) examined consumers in both the United States and China, and

found that both groups value ethical responsibility more than economic and philanthropic

responsibilities.

Philanthropic responsibilities. Philanthropic responsibilities differ from ethical

responsibilities because they are neither moral nor ethical expectations (Mihalache,

2013). According to Carroll (1991), philanthropy is actions in response to expectations of

society that a business be positive corporate citizens. Philanthropic responsibility

encourages a business to promote high levels of concern for the well-being of society

(Ciprian-Dumitru, 2013). Although philanthropy is a discretionary responsibility, societal

expectations are always present (Tewari & Pathak, 2014).

Philanthropic responsibility includes active volunteerism, donation, and

sponsorship (Tang, Gallagher, & Bie, 2015). Philanthropic activity may involve making

contributions that have no return on investment (ROI) to the company (Daft, 2014).

Philanthropy can be beneficial to an organization because it promotes a positive image of

the company (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). According to Carroll (1991), consumers prefer

businesses that donate their time and money to humanitarian purposes.

Although philanthropic responsibility is a desirable dimension, some consider this

responsibility less significant than other dimensions of CSR (Okpara & Wynn, 2012).

Although the literature depicts corporate philanthropy to be an ineffective measure of

CSR performance, empirical research shows that philanthropy is widely practiced in

many businesses (Liket & Simaens, 2015). Engaging in philanthropic behaviors can lead

to sustainable business growth (Katavić & Kovačević, 2011).

According to Abd Rahim et al. (2011), consumers in Malaysia perceive

philanthropic responsibility to be the second most important dimension of CSR. The

reason Malaysian stakeholders place high importance on philanthropic responsibility is

that Malaysian consumers generally place a high value on contributions to society (Abd

Rahim et al., 2011). Zhen and Aguilar (2014) indicated that consumers in China and the

United States value legal and ethical responsibilities more than philanthropic

responsibilities.

Summary. A review of literature reveals that Carroll’s definition of CSR is

widely accepted in the management field (Schwartz & Carroll, 2003). According to

Dusuki and Yusof (2008), Carroll’s CSR pyramid is a dominant model in business and

scholarship. Extensive use suggests that Carroll’s CSR pyramid may be the leading

model for CSR (Schwartz & Carroll, 2003).

Perceptions of the CSR concept may differ around the world (Freeman &

Hasnaoui, 2011). Understanding how consumers perceive each of Carroll’s CSR

dimensions may be beneficial in developing effective CSR strategies. Pérez and Del

Bosque (2013) indicated that CSR perceptions might differ by age group. As proposed in

this study, the CSR perspectives of Generation X will provide business leaders with data

for a large, specific segment of the American population.

Generation X. Members of a generation share similar life experiences (Schullery,

2013). These similarities may include technology, economic conditions, and world events

(Schullery, 2013). Although some argued that assigning characteristics and values to

groups based specifically on their birth years might be inaccurate, Newbern and Suski

(2013) concluded that the consideration of generational perspectives is valuable.

Understanding the values of a specific generation can be challenging for business

leaders (Marino, 2014). Forces that shape the lives of a generation influence their

behaviors (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013). Holumyong et al. (2015) indicated that

generational perceptions could vary. By gaining an understanding of generational

perspectives, a business can work to meet their own objectives in addition to contributing

to society (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). For the following section, the survey of the literature

in EBSCOhost included the keywords Generation X, generations, generational

differences, and Generation X and CSR. Scholarly books also served as a reference for

definitions and concepts (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013; Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013).

In this study, the researcher focuses on the CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers born in

the 1960s and those born in the 1970s.

Characteristics of Generation X. Speculation exists on the span of years for

members of Generation X. According to Davis (2014), members of Generation X

included the years 1965 to 1981; Seipert and Baghurst (2014) stated the years were 1960

to 1980; and Rushing (2011) argued the years were 1960 to 1979, which are the years for

the proposed study. Members of this group currently range in age from to mid-30s to

mid-50s.

Regardless of the small variances in age ranges that define Generation X, analysts

agree that this generation differs significantly from previous generations (Miller &

Washington, 2014). Generation X is a diverse population and more open to diversity than

generations before (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013). Mothers entering the workforce,

and single-parent households were common for members of Generation X (Davis, 2014).

Members of Generation X are possibly the most educated generation in the

history of the United States, which contributed to the growth of dual income housing

(Miller & Washington, 2014). Because of their education, members of Generation X

represent a population with purchasing power (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013). Generation

X’ers focus on their families, careers, and hobbies (Marino, 2014).

Members of Generation X tend to have lower expectations than those of other

generations, which could be a result of the declining economy during the period when

members of Generation X reached adulthood (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013).

Contributing to these economic troubles were layoffs and downsizing of corporations

(Schullery, 2013). Downsizing created a lack of job opportunities for Generation X until

the mid-1990s when the economic boom began (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013).

Generation X’ers as a powerful marketing segment. Generation X includes 60

million members in America alone (O’Brien, 2016). Philp (2015) indicated that

Generation X represents an economically significant market segment worthy of

marketing focus. Generation X’ers have a substantial annual purchasing power

(Armstrong & Kotler, 2013). This generation is a major consumer force in the market for

items such as appliances, cars, travel, and products for children (Hawkins &

Mothersbaugh, 2013). According to Armstrong and Kotler (2013), Generation X’ers

spend 62% more on housing, 50% more on apparel, and 27% more on entertainment than

other generational groups. Because of the spending potential, many businesses consider

Generation X to be a powerful target segment (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013).

The careers of Generation X continue to develop, providing them with an

increased disposable income (Reisenwitz & Iyer, 2009). Members of Generation X are

active participants in the working class (Khor & Mapunda, 2014). Because of secure

positions and increased disposable income, Generation X’ers have financial freedom.

Generation-specific focused data may provide a business with the opportunity to build

loyal consumers within this group.

Generation X’ers as stakeholders. According to Carroll (1991), stakeholders

describe a population that has an interest or a claim in the actions of a business. Yılmaz,

and Yılmaz (2016) suggested that successful CSR initiatives rely on stakeholder

engagement. Members of Generation X are stakeholders of a business. Hawker and

Edmonds (2014) argued that stakeholder management is a key component in a

competitive strategy. Meeting the needs of various stakeholders can be a challenge that is

associated with stakeholder management (Carroll, 1991).

A business must strive to cooperate with stakeholders to enhance sustainability

(Hawker & Edmonds, 2014). Gadeikiene and Banyte (2013) indicated that the success of

a business depends on their ability to create meaningful value for its consumers; who are

an extremely important stakeholder group. The socially responsible initiatives of a

business can create strong positive reactions in the eyes of the consumer as a stakeholder

(Mat Saat & Hisyam Selamat, 2014).

According to Min et al. (2012), substantial literature exists on the importance of

CSR; however, little research exists from the consumer perspective. According to

Rosario, Carmen, and Biagio (2014), the success of CSR activities of a firm can depend

on stakeholder perceptions of the business. A business that understands the role of CSR

can create strategies that may increase competitiveness (Min et al., 2012).

Examining corporate social responsibility from the perspective of Generation X.

According to Hillenbrand et al. (2013), the majority of existing research on CSR focuses

on the perspective of the organization, with limited attention on CSR from the

perspective of the consumer. Occurrences in society that shape the perspectives of each

generation are different, and this difference causes a variety of perspectives (Daft, 2014;

Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2013). Analyzing the perspectives of a specific generation

can be useful in predicting future behaviors and values (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh,

2013). Generation specific data about perspectives provides a business with direction

when addressing consumer needs (Reisenwitz & Iyer, 2009). By using data to target a

specific segment, a business can potentially increase sales and gain a stronger position

within the market segment (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013).

Prior research indicated that stakeholders expect to receive benefits from a

business (Hawker & Edmonds, 2014). Therefore, data about CSR perceptions is useful

when designing strategies that align with stakeholder expectations (Yakovleva &

Vazquez-Brust, 2012). To react and respond to desires appropriately, a business needs an

understanding of consumer perspectives (Lyons & Kuron, 2014).

Summary. Because Generation X’ers include 60 million Americans (O’Brien,

2016), their CSR perceptions are of value for business leaders. Stakeholders have

different needs at different stages in their lives (Davis, 2014). Data about generational

perspectives will inform management about which dimensions to utilize in building CSR

initiatives.

The concept of CSR and stakeholders are a natural fit (Carroll, 1991). As the

concept of CSR continues to evolve, addressing the various needs of stakeholders

remains a challenge for many businesses (O'Riordan & Fairbrass, 2014). Understanding

the CSR perspectives of Generation X’ers is essential because of the potential benefits to

the business.

Corporate social responsibility and Generation X. Organizations are placing a

higher level of importance on CSR behaviors (Catano & Morrow Hines, 2016). Modern

businesses consider their responsibility to society in addition to pursuing their own

objectives (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). A business can create value by identifying and

satisfying stakeholder expectations and needs through social responsibility (Juščius et al.,

2013). To increase consumer value, businesses must understand which dimensions of

CSR that Generation X’ers perceive to be most significant.

Raman et al. (2012) suggested that engaging in CSR activities could result in

many competitive advantages. CSR can improve a reputation, increase consumer loyalty,

and increase sales and profits (Creasey, 2015). Pérez and Del Bosque (2013) indicated

that consumers are inclined to support socially responsible businesses, however, may

question the CSR initiatives that a business engages in. Therefore, a need exists to

understand consumer perspectives. For the following section, the survey of the literature

in EBSCOhost included the keywords CSR, CSR benefits, loyalty, building relationships,

and stakeholder engagement.

Benefits of corporate social responsibility. Existing literature indicated that

businesses do benefit from engaging in CSR activities (Joireman et al., 2015). According

to Madrakhimova (2013), social responsibility increases the development and value of a

business. Further, Wang and Li (2016) indicated that companies that engage in social

responsibility have higher market value. Implementation of CSR activities may help a

business achieve higher levels of success by satisfying the needs and expectations of

stakeholders (Juščius et al., 2013).

CSR may make a business more attractive to a consumer; therefore, it is

becoming increasingly common for businesses to integrate CSR activities into their

practices (Azmat & Ha, 2013). Social responsibility directly affects the attitude and trust

of the consumer (Kang & Hustvedt, 2014). Hillenbrand et al. (2013) argued that the main

benefit of engaging in CSR activities is the increased support of stakeholders.

Abd Rahim et al. (2011) indicated that each of the CSR components outlined by

Carroll play a large role in the purchasing behaviors of consumers. Businesses must

understand CSR perspectives to design CSR initiatives that increase trust and influence

purchasing intentions (Lin, Chen, Chiu, & Lee, 2011). By engaging in CSR initiatives, a

business can enhance long-term sustainability (Taran & Betts, 2015). Financial and social

benefits may result from engaging in socially responsible behaviors (Jariko, Børsen, &

Jhatial, 2016). CSR can increase sales, lead to higher profits, and increase investor

attraction (Creasey, 2015).

Building a reputation. Reputation is an extremely valuable asset for a business

(Ungureanu, 2012). Empirical findings indicated that CSR plays a large role in building a

strong corporate reputation (Malik, 2015). According to Mushtaq (2013), CSR is one of

the main determinants of a business’ reputation.

Katavić and Kovačević (2011) indicated that companies who integrate CSR

practices into their strategies benefit by achieving a positive reputation. Investors and

stakeholders positively value CSR behaviors (Martínez-Ferrero, Banerjee, & García-

Sánchez, 2016) Vidaver-Cohen and Brønn (2015) suggested that CSR does have an

impact on the overall support of stakeholders. Stakeholders are more likely to associate

with companies that have a reputation for exhibiting strong socially responsible behaviors

(Vidaver-Cohen & Brønn, 2015).

A company that engages in CSR may develop a positive brand image and

reputation (Creasey, 2015). According to Abd Rahim et al. (2011), companies that act in

a socially responsible manner are corporate citizens that are highly responsible. A

positive reputation enhances the ability of a business to reach higher levels of

performance (Baldarelli & Gigli, 2014). Information from this study may help business

leaders design CSR initiatives that appeal to consumers in Generation X.

Forming relationships/building loyalty. Gadeikiene and Banyte (2013) defined

long-term relationships between a consumer and a socially responsible company as

consumer attitudinal and behavioral loyalty and word-of-mouth (WOM). CSR can

improve a business’ relationship with stakeholders (Katavić & Kovačević, 2011).

According to Raman et al. (2012), a significant amount of research exists that links CSR

behaviors to consumer loyalty. A positive perception of CSR may create a more powerful

relationship between the consumer and the business.

According to Smith (2013), building stakeholder relationships can be difficult.

Creating trust is an essential component in building relationships. CSR is a vital tool for

building loyalty in the modern business environment (Raman et al., 2012). Kang and

Hustvedt (2014) indicated that consumers who perceive businesses to be socially

responsible have higher levels of trust in the business. By selecting and conducting CSR

initiatives in a strategic manner, a company can increase consumer trust (Kang &

Hustvedt, 2014). Engaging in socially responsible behaviors builds relationships, which

increases consumer loyalty (Pérez & Del Bosque, 2013).

Building relationships with consumers has become an essential component in the

success of a business, and gaining acceptance from society (Darškuvienė &

Bendoraitienė, 2013). CSR initiatives are meaningful to the consumer when they provide

value to them (Gadeikiene & Banyte, 2013). Hur, Kim, and Park (2013) indicated that

consumer satisfaction could result in higher levels of loyalty.

Corporate social responsibility engagement of Generation X’ers. Mayfield

(2014) stressed the importance of asking the person you would like to influence about

their desires. McFadden, Deselnicu, and Costanigro (2013) indicated that consumers have

different desires. Thus, before a business can satisfy consumers, they first must assess the

customers’ needs and wants (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013). A business must determine

who their stakeholders are and make decisions based on how the activity will affect them

(Creasey, 2015). According to Vernon (2015), stakeholder engagement is an opportunity

for businesses to listen to stakeholders, and take appropriate actions based on stakeholder

desires.

According to Garriga (2014), the capabilities of stakeholders are relevant to value

creation, although the question remains about what value means for a specific segment of

stakeholders. Although understanding what constitutes value from the stakeholder

perspective is essential (Garriga, 2014), minimal research exists on what creating value

for the stakeholder actually means (Harrison & Wicks, 2013). Communication with

stakeholders can provide businesses with details about perceptions and the structure

required for implementing CSR initiatives (Dobele, Westberg, Steel, & Flowers, 2014).

Businesses that participate in CSR activities and listen to stakeholder concerns

may benefit from this engagement and thrive in the future because stakeholders who feel

engaged will increase their commitment to a business (Dobele et al., 2014; Vernon,

2015). Designing CSR initiatives based on CSR perceptions of Generation X may

increase value creation by the sense of dedication and belonging that these stakeholders

feel toward a business.

Summary. A review of CSR literature suggests that engaging in CSR activities

can increase business sustainability (Baumgartner, 2014; Jeffers, Lin, Romero, &

DeGaetano, 2014). Engaging in CSR behaviors will increase the likelihood of

stakeholder support for a business (Vidaver-Cohen & Brønn, 2015). According to

Hillenbrand et al. (2013), increased stakeholder support is the main benefit for a business

that engages in CSR activities.

According to Min et al. (2012), consumers expect socially responsible behavior

from a business. Juščius et al. (2013) indicated that a business could increase their

chances of success by satisfying consumer expectation, which is the focus of the study.

Data about the CSR perspectives of Generation X’ers can provide a means for

establishing a competitive advantage.

Methodology. Quantitative researchers generate numbers and percentages to

address research problems (Barnham, 2015). The CSRO forced-choice survey instrument

for this study required participants to allocate up to 10 points among four statements,

with each representing a different dimension of Carroll’s CSR pyramid (Angelidis et al.,

2008). Because data is numerical in nature, a quantitative methodology was appropriate

for this study. To determine if a significant difference exists between CSR perceptions in

terms of the four dimensions between Generation X’ers the researcher ran two Mann-

Whitney U tests and two univariate ANOVA procedures to compare each of the CSR

dimensions individually.

The Mann-Whitney U test is common in existing literature to examine the

differences between groups. Coelho et al. (2016) used the Mann-Whitney U test to

examine the difference between quantitative variables. Lane, Bigelow, Majowicz, and

McColl (2016) used Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney tests to compare sleep ratings and the

amount of awakenings between groups. Therefore, the Mann-Whitney U test was an

appropriate method to compare the non-parametric data in this study.

The researcher used univariate ANOVA procedures to analyze normally

distributed data in this study. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests are common when

analyzing CSR data (Ibrahim & Parsa, 2005; Yuan-Shuh, Kuang-Wen, & May-Ching,

2013). Ibrahim and Parsa (2005) investigated the difference in CSRO between French

and U.S. managers using a MANOVA to examine the difference of CSRO rankings

between the samples, and an ANOVA to show the differences between the samples.

Yuan-Shuh et al. (2013) examined the effects of CSR initiatives such as cause-related

marketing, philanthropy, and sponsorship on company evaluations from the consumer.

Yuan-Shuh et al. used a MANOVA to analyze quantitative data, indicating strong support

for all of the relationships proposed in the hypotheses.

Dusuki and Yusof (2008) conducted a quantitative study using t-tests to examine

CSR concepts from the perspective of stakeholders in Malaysia by distributing a survey

to 1000 participants, with 485 returned, and 457 usable. Dusuki and Yusof calculated the

average score for each of the four CSR dimensions, with paired sample t-tests serving as

the follow-up tests. Results indicated that stakeholders perceive economic responsibilities

to be most valued followed by ethical, legal, and philanthropic respectively (Dusuki &

Yusof, 2008).

Several researchers chose to use a multiple regression analysis to test the

hypotheses in CSR studies (Abd Rahim et al., 2011; Min et al., 2012). Abd Rahim et al.

(2011) examined the importance of CSR in consumer behavior by using a survey method

to collect data. Abd Rahim et al. used descriptive statistics and multiple linear regressions

for analysis. Results indicated that Malaysian stakeholders value economic

responsibilities as a first priority before philanthropy, ethical, and legal respectively. Min

et al. (2012) examined the effect of CSR on the buying behavior of consumers using

descriptive statistics, as well as multiple regression analysis to test the hypotheses.

Findings indicated that consumers allow CSR to influence their buying behaviors (Min et

al., 2012).

Raman et al. (2012) used a Pearson’s correlation coefficient to examine the

importance of CSR and its’ relationship to consumer loyalty. A Pearson’s correlation

coefficient determines the strength of the relationship between variables (Triola, 2010).

Raman et al. indicated that there is significant evidence to conclude CSR does strengthen

the loyalty of a consumer to a business.

Statistical analysis of collected data made a quantitative methodology an

appropriate choice for this study. Statistical tests used are dependent on two features: the

objective of the study and the type of variables (Talavera & Rivas-Ruiz, 2013). Choosing

the correct statistical test is crucial to draw valid conclusions (Bettany-Saltikov &

Whittaker, 2014). Varieties of statistical procedures have been used in extant literature to

examine data collected from the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument.

The use of quantitative research methods to examine the concept of CSR is

common in existing literature. In this causal-comparative study, the researcher used

statistical analysis to examine the CSR perspectives of Generation X’ers. Thus, a

quantitative methodology with a causal-comparative design was deemed appropriate for

the current study.

Instrumentation. According to Aupperle et al. (1983), an increasing desire to

measure CSR created a need to develop a validated survey instrument. Carroll’s four-part

model is the basis for the development of a forced-choice survey instrument to assess

CSRO (Aupperle et al., 1983). According to Carroll (1979), economic, legal, ethical, and

philanthropic responsibilities are the components that comprise total CSR. Carroll’s

definition is the foundation for the development of this instrument, because the definition

is comprehensive and addresses the value of economic and social concerns (Aupperle et

al., 1983).

This quantitative causal-comparative study was conducted using a survey

instrument based on Carroll’s CSR model. The design of the survey instrument included

each of the four CSR dimensions in Carroll’s pyramid (Dusuki & Yusof, 2008). The

instrument used in this study contains 10 sets of statements, with four statements in each

set. Participants allocated up to 10 points among the four statements within each set. The

researcher examined CSR perceptions by the numerical allocations assigned to the

dimensions of economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities. Statements in

the CSRO forced-choice instrument do not focus on any specific industry (Pinkston &

Carroll, 1996). As suggested by previous research, the CSRO forced-choice survey

instrument does apply to one specific group of stakeholders.

The CSRO forced-choice survey instrument is a common tool for examining the

CSR perspectives of managers (Angelidis et al., 2008; Ibrahim & Parsa, 2005; Küskü &

Zarkada-Fraser, 2004; Pinkston & Carroll, 1996). Pinkston and Carroll (1996) performed

a retrospective examination of CSR orientations, and found that the vast majority of

people find the profit-maximizing approach to be outdated. Küskü and Zarkada-Fraser

(2004) investigated corporate citizenship practices and how they relate to customer

loyalty and organizational commitment. Findings indicated that positive corporate

citizenship practices relate to customer loyalty and organizational commitment (Küskü &

Zarkada-Fraser, 2004).

Ibrahim and Parsa (2005) examined the differences in perceptions of CSR

between French and American managers, and found that there is a significant difference

between the attitudes towards each dimension of CSR. Angelidis et al. (2008) assessed

how CSRO varies by the position held in the organizational hierarchy, and found that

there are significant differences in perceptions of economic responsibilities between non-

managers and mid-level managers. Ibrahim et al. (2003) cited the CSRO forced-choice

survey instrument when assessing CSR from the perspective of the board of directors.

The survey instrument measured the levels of interest on each CSR variable for directors

both internal and external to the business. Findings indicated that outside board members

have stronger orientations toward philanthropic responsibility than economic

responsibility, and no significant differences exist between groups with respect to ethical

and legal responsibilities (Ibrahim et al., 2003). As suggested by previous research, the

CSRO forced-choice survey instrument does apply to one specific group of stakeholders.

Smith et al. (2001) used a shorter, previously validated version of the original

CSRO forced-choice survey instrument to examine CSR from the employee perspective.

Dusuki and Yusof (2008) adapted the shorter, previously validated survey instrument to

examine the CSR perspectives of consumers. According to Schwartz and Carroll (2003),

the survey instrument based on Carroll’s four-part CSR model accurately provides an

overall measurement of CSR. In this study, the researcher used the survey instrument to

assess CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers.

Aupperle et al. (1983) determined that each of the four CSR dimensions is

capable of valid measurement. According to Ibrahim and Parsa (2005), the properties of

the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument are tested for its content validity and

reliability. According to Aupperle et al. (1983), the quantitative CSRO forced-choice

survey continues to be valid after decades of use. Thus, the CSRO forced-choice survey

instrument suited the needs of this study. In this study, an abbreviated version of the

CSRO forced-choice survey instrument assessed CSR perspectives.

Literature review summary. The researcher examined literature on CSR, which

included information on the concept of consumer marketing, CSR, Carroll’s CSR

pyramid, Generation X’ers, and the benefits of examining CSR perspectives of

Generation X’ers. This chapter also provided the rationale for selecting the validated

survey instrument based on Carroll’s (1991) definition of CSR, and the selected

quantitative methodology for the data analysis. The literature indicated that CSR is a

powerful force in modern business.

According to Creasey (2015), a well-organized CSR program can provide

significant results to an organization. Investing in CSR can help a business increase

financial performance and achieve a competitive advantage (Raman et al., 2012).

Understanding consumer perspectives is essential, because such perspectives can

significantly affect business performance.

Although a large literature exists on the concepts of CSR, no studies exist that

compare generational differences of CSR perspectives. Abd Rahim et al. (2011)

recommended a need to examine the different perspectives of CSR by age group. The

goal of this research was to provide specific data on CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers

using Carroll’s CSR model as the theoretical foundation.

Aupperle et al. (1985), stated that Carroll’s CSR construct can assess orientations

toward CSR. Carroll (1991) suggested that economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic

responsibilities compose total CSR. The researcher used a survey instrument based on

Carroll’s four-part CSR model to examine economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic

CSR perspectives. The survey instrument based on Carroll’s CSR pyramid is a common

citation in CSR literature (Angelidis et al., 2008; Ibrahim et al., 2003; Ibrahim & Parsa,

2005; Smith & Blackburn, 1988).

Data obtained from the survey instrument allowed the researcher to answer the

research questions if and to what extent significant differences exist in the perceptions of

the four CSR dimensions between Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in

the 1970s. The numerical allocation of points participants assigned to each statement on

the survey instrument provided data about perceptions of economic, legal, ethical, and

philanthropic responsibilities. Businesses can use data from the proposed study to design

CSR initiatives based on which CSR dimensions members of Generation X find most

valuable.

This chapter included presentation of key themes such as consumer marketing, the

concept of CSR, Carroll’s CSR pyramid, Generation X, and how understanding the CSR

perspectives of Generation X can benefit a business. Chapter 3 includes explanation of

the quantitative research methodology that the study used. The following chapter includes

presentation of the research methodology; the rationale for using a quantitative, causal-

comparative research design; a description of data collection procedures and instruments;

and data analysis techniques.

Chapter 3: Methodology

Introduction

The purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, causal-comparative study was

to examine the differences between CSR perceptions of consumers in the age group of

Generation X in the state of ND. Previous research indicated that consumer support of

CSR initiatives could create a competitive advantage and increase financial performance

(Raman et al., 2012). Although increased stakeholder support may result in a competitive

advantage, limited research existed to understand CSR from the stakeholder perspective

(Hillenbrand et al., 2013). The researcher focused exclusively on one specific age group,

Generation X, to analyze consumer economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic CSR

perceptions. Abd Rahim et al. (2011) indicated that a need exists to examine CSR

perspectives of a variety of consumer age groups.

The researcher addressed the differences in CSR perspectives of members of

Generation X’ers. Results obtained from the data may assist business leaders in designing

CSR initiatives that align with the values of Generation X, and might increase profits. In

this chapter, the researcher discussed the study problem, research questions and

hypotheses, methodology and design, population and sample, data collection and analysis

procedures, and ethical considerations and limitations.

Statement of the Problem

It was not known if and to what extent statistically significant differences exist

between how consumers in the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in

the 1960s and those born in the 1970s, perceive economic, legal, ethical, and

philanthropic CSR responsibilities. Carroll’s CSR pyramid is widely used in extant

research (Dusuki & Yusof, 2008), examining the perceptions of a variety of stakeholders.

However, further research is needed to examine the perspectives of each dimension by

age groups (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). Abd Rahim et al. (2011) indicated that all four

dimensions of CSR play a significant role in the purchasing behavior of consumers.

Socially responsible behaviors can create a competitive advantage and increased

performance (Julie Juan & Xuan, 2013).

Understanding consumer perceptions of CSR is crucial, because consumers are

responsive to initiatives that provide them with additional value (Gadeikiene & Banyte,

2013). According to Hawkins and Mothersbaugh (2013), members of Generation X want

services and messages designed specifically for their tastes. Businesses may benefit from

specific data on Generation X CSR perspectives to design CSR initiatives that align with

consumer desires. Investigations of CSR create an opportunity to increase consumer

support (Abd Rahim et al., 2011), which can ultimately result in a competitive advantage

(Min et al., 2012).

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The researcher addressed a gap in literature regarding the differences in CSR

perceptions between Generation X’ers. The dependent variable of CSR was defined by

the dimensions outlined by Carroll’s CSR pyramid; economic, legal, ethical, and

philanthropic responsibilities. The dichotomous independent variable was Generation

X’ers, those born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s.

The researcher used CSRO forced-choice survey instrument to collect data for

economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic CSR responsibilities. The design of the CSRO

forced-choice survey instrument was based upon Carroll’s four-part CSR model

(Aupperle et al., 1983). According to Aupperle et al. (1985), CSRO forced-choice survey

instrument measures the perceived value of each CSR statement.

In this study, participants assigned values to CSR statements based on perceived

importance. The points allocated to each statement allowed the researcher to accurately

analyze the CSR perceptions of Generation X. To address the first through fourth

research questions, the researcher conducted tests of normality, ran four Levene’s tests,

two univariate ANOVA tests, and two Mann-Whitney U tests.

The research questions in this study were designed based on peer-reviewed

literature on CSR perspectives (dependent variable) of Generation X consumers born in

the 1960s and those born in the 1970s (dichotomous independent variable) and the

theoretical framework. The four research questions and subsequent hypotheses addressed

were:

RQ1: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive economic CSR?

H10: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive economic CSR.

H1a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive economic CSR.

RQ2: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive legal CSR?

H20: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive legal CSR.

H2a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive legal CSR.

RQ3: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive ethical CSR?

H30: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive ethical CSR.

H3a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive ethical CSR.

RQ4: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR?

H40: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR.

H4a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR.

Research Methodology

The researcher used a quantitative methodology. Quantitative approaches are

useful in explaining what happened during the change process (Buckley, 2015). A

quantitative researcher relies on statistics to analyze the hypotheses (Park & Park, 2016).

Quantitative research generates numerical data for an effective measurement,

comparison, and selection (Thamhain, 2014). Furthermore, quantitative methods may

involve use of a survey as a method for data collection (Mukhopadhyay & Gupta, 2014).

Surveys are useful when data collection is from large, representative samples and are an

effective method of data collection in quantitative research because they provide

relatively high levels of anonymity (Farrelly, 2013). In this research, participants

allocated up to 10 points between four statements in each of the 10 sets of questions in

the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument. The numerical allocation of points allowed

the researcher to measure the perceived importance of each CSR statement in the set.

Therefore, a quantitative method was appropriate for this study.

Qualitative research is useful when a researcher aims to explain why and how

because of the contextual data produced in analysis (Buckley, 2015). McCusker and

Gunaydin (2015) stated that qualitative research generates words for data analysis.

Qualitative approaches are useful in market research when the goal is to explore the

meaning of consumer vocabulary or gaining an understanding of consumer motivation

(Bailey, 2014). Because the goal of this study was to examine the differences between

CSR perceptions of Generation X as opposed to gaining an understanding of the motives

behind CSR perceptions, a qualitative approach was not appropriate for this study.

A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods is used in mixed methods

research (McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015). Venkatesh, Brown, and Bala (2013) indicated

that mixed methods should be used when the research phenomena cannot be completely

addressed by using only a qualitative or quantitative method. Because the research topic

can be fully understood using only quantitative methods, a mixed methods approach did

not suit the needs of this research.

Research Design

The researcher used a quantitative, non-experimental, causal-comparative design

for this research. According to Schenker and Rumrill (2004), causal-comparative designs

may be used to explore the differences between pre-existing and intact groups. A causal-

comparative design was chosen because the focus of this quantitative research was to

examine the differences between pre-existing and intact groups. In this study, analysis

was between dimensions of CSR and Generation X’ers.

A correlational design is appropriate to examine relationships between variables

(Fitzgerald et al., 2004). Curtis et al. (2016) indicated that correlational research might be

used to discover prevalence between variables. Therefore, a correlational design was not

appropriate for this research because the objective was not to examine relationships

between Generation X’ers.

Quasi-experimental designs are appropriate to examine a cause and effect

relationship (Rockers et al., 2015). A quasi-experimental design is useful when the

researcher is examining the relationship between an intervention and an outcome when

the intervention is not assigned randomly (Schweizer et al., 2016). A quasi-experimental

design was not appropriate for this study because the objective was to investigate CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and 1970s, as opposed to a cause and

effect relationship.

The dichotomous independent variable was Generation X’ers born in the 1960s

and those born in the 1970s. The dependent variable was CSR, based on perceptions of

economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities measured through assessment

of CSRO. Schenker and Rumrill (2004) suggested that a causal-comparative design

typically uses independent variables that are categorical in nature, such as in this study.

Causal-comparative designs provide a limited analysis of a cause and effect relationship

because manipulation of generational groupings is not possible (Schenker & Rumrill,

2004). A causal-comparative design only allowed the researcher to determine whether or

not there is a difference between variables.

Using a causal-comparative design, the researcher addressed four research

questions. The researcher used a survey instrument that assesses CSRO based upon

Carroll’s four-part CSR model to collect data from Generation X’ers. The survey

included 10 sets of questions, with four statements in each set. Participants assigned a

numerical allocation to statements that represent the different dimensions of CSR. To

determine if a significant difference exists between Generation X’ers in terms of the four

CSR dimensions, the researcher ran two univariate ANOVA tests on normally distributed

data, and two Mann-Whitney U tests on non-normally distributed data to examine each of

the CSR dimensions individually. The focus of this research was to examine the

differences between groups. The purpose of the univariate ANOVA and Mann-Whitney

U test is to compare the differences between two independent groups (Herodek et al.,

2011; Wall Emerson, 2016). Therefore, the univariate ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U

test supported the research questions and associated testing of the hypotheses. Results of

the univariate ANOVA helped the researcher address RQ1 and RQ4 of whether or not

there are differences between how Generation X’ers perceived CSR. Results of the

Mann-Whitney U test helped the researcher address RQ2 and RQ3 of whether or not there

are differences between how Generation X’ers perceived CSR.

Population and Sample Selection

According to Schenker and Rumrill (2004), causal-comparative studies are

appropriate when participants already belong to the group of interest for the research. The

population for the study was Generation X’ers, and the sample consisted of a snowball

sample of Generation X’ers in the state of ND. According to the United States Census

Bureau (2015), the total population of ND is 756,927. The target population was

Generation X’ers living in ND. The United States Census Bureau (2015) indicated that

approximately 133, 275 Generation X’ers live in ND. One hundred and fifty six (156)

members of Generation X residing in the state of ND participated in this quantitative

causal-comparative research.

Faul et al. (2007) indicated the G*Power 3 statistical tool is a power analysis

program that provides a variety of power analysis. Based on the G*Power 3 sample size

calculation, a sample size of 156 was necessary to achieve a .80 power, and a .35 effect

size for a one-tailed Mann-Whitney U test with a .10 alpha. In addition, based on the

G*Power 3 sample size calculation, a sample size of 52 is necessary to achieve a .80

power, and a .35 effect size for a one-tailed univariate ANOVA test with a .10 alpha.

Therefore, a total sample size of 156 was sufficient.

Sadler et al. (2010) indicated that a snowball sample is an efficient method for

recruiting a diverse and sufficient sample that represents the target population. The

researcher utilized the social media, word of mouth and physical distribution to attract

participants who possess the desired characteristics to recruit a hard-to-reach target group

through snowball sampling. One hundred and fifty (150) surveys were distributed to

members of Generation X born in the 1960s (1960-1969) and 150 surveys were

distributed to those born in the 1970s (1970-1979). One hundred and sixty-five (165)

surveys were returned; nine surveys were discarded due to incomplete or incorrect data,

achieving a final sample size of 156. Seventy-eight (78) surveys were completed by

Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and 78 surveys were completed by those born in the

1970s.

No coercion or other pressures were used to recruit participants. Because this

research was not personal or sensitive, participants were asked to refer other potential

participants; however, they had the option to decline. Participants indicated consent by

signing the informed consent document. Surveys were returned through email, mail, and

physical collection. All responses were confidential because no personal identifiers were

collected.

In this research, the researcher used a quantitative survey instrument based on

Carroll’s four part-CSR model to assess the CSR perceptions of consumers living in the

state of ND. Participants in the study assigned a numerical allocation to statements

representing a dimension of CSR. The approximate time to complete each survey was 15

minutes. Data were securely stored during the research process, and will be maintained

for 3 years after the project is completed. To protect the privacy of participants,

information collected and analyzed in the study was confidential.

Instrumentation

The researcher used a previously validated survey instrument for this quantitative

causal-comparative study to assess CSRO. According to Aupperle et al. (1983), Carroll’s

CSR model is the foundation for the development of the original CSRO forced-choice

survey instrument. The basis for the survey instrument is a construct with four

dimensions including economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities

(Angelidis et al., 2008). The design of the survey instrument aligns with the objective of

this study, which is to examine the differences in CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers

born in the 1960s and the 1970s.

Aupperle et al. (1985) stated that the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument is a

robust tool for an analysis of CSR perceptions. The CSRO forced-choice survey

instrument questions have been deemed clear and the language understandable (Dusuki &

Yusof, 2008). The CSRO forced-choice survey instrument can accurately gauge the

relative value that a participants place on economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic

responsibilities through a tested ranking system (Dusuki & Yusof, 2008).

According to Smith et al. (2001), the intention of the original CSRO forced-

choice survey instrument was to examine CSR from the perspectives of executives.

However, the concept of the CSRO forced-choice instrument is adaptable, and can be

applied to how other stakeholders view CSR (Smith et al., 2001). With permission of the

author (Appendix A), the researcher used a previously validated, shortened version of the

original CSRO s forced-choice urvey instrument.

The CSRO survey instrument contains a forced-choice format (Angelidis et al.,

2008). Aupperle et al. (1983) indicated that social desirability could be a potential

problem with many surveys because participants are likely to rate each CSR dimension as

high. However, the forced choice format that requires participants to allocate up to 10

points for each set of statements and resolves potential issues of social desirability bias

(Aupperle et al., 1983). Because only 10 points are available to allocate, participants are

forced to assign less points to some dimensions.

Based on perceived importance, participants in this study allocated up to 10 points

between four statements for each of the 10 questions. For example, a participant may

allocate points to a set of statements as follows: A= 4, B= 3, C= 2, D= 1, or A=5, B= 2,

C=2, D=1. Each of the four statements in a set represents one of Carroll’s CSR

dimensions (Aupperle et al., 1983). Arrangement of CSR statements representing CSR

dimensions is random to reduce bias (Aupperle et al., 1983). The CSRO forced-choice

survey was designed so that each item in the four sets would be given a value similar to

the other items in the same set (Aupperle et al., 1983). According to Aupperle et al.

(1985), a value of importance is assigned to each CSR dimension, with the economic

dimension weighted at 4 points, legal at 3 points, ethical at 2, and philanthropic at 1.

Because data is numerical in nature, a quantitative methodology was appropriate for this

study. The researcher was able to measure the perceived importance of each CSR

statement in a set through the numerical allocation of points.

The causal-comparative design allowed the researcher to determine if statistically

significant differences exist between Generation X’ers. In this study, two sets of data had

a normal distribution and two sets of data were not normally distributed. To examine the

differences in CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in

the 1970s the researcher used a univariate ANOVA to analyze normally distributed data

and the Mann-Whitney U test to analyze data that has a non-normal distribution.

The survey instrument based on Carroll’s four-part CSR model accurately

provides an overall measurement of CSR (Schwartz & Carroll, 2003). The survey

instrument based on Carroll’s CSR dimensions is valid and commonly cited in existing

literature (Angelidis et al., 2008; Ibrahim et al., 2003; Ibrahim & Parsa, 2005; Smith &

Blackburn, 1988). The CSRO forced-choice survey instrument is valuable in exploring

many research questions (Schwartz & Carroll, 2003). Dusuki and Yusof (2008) indicated

that the design of the CSRO forced-choice survey adequately covers each CSR dimension

in Carroll’s CSR pyramid. According to Ibrahim and Parsa (2005), the properties of the

CSRO forced-choice survey instrument have been closely examined and tested for

content validity and reliability.

Each of the CSR components can be reliably and validly measured using the

CSRO forced-choice survey instrument (Aupperle et al., 1983). The researcher collected

all data requested on the previously validated survey instrument, however, only used data

purposeful to the study. Because data from the perception of a potential employee is not

meaningful in the study, the researcher did not include this data in the data analysis.

Validity

Validity is the extent to which the data measures what it is intended to measure

(Triola, 2010). Therefore, validity factors are important in research. This study used a

previously validated CSRO forced-choice survey instrument. Aupperle et al. (1985)

indicated that content validity was a priority when developing the CSRO forced-choice

survey instrument. In this section, the researcher will explain the steps taken to maximize

validity.

The survey instrument based on Carroll’s four-part CSR model is internally valid.

To ensure validity, previous studies provided a foundation to build a comprehensive list

of statements that represented components of CSR (Aupperle et al., 1985). Aupperle et al.

(1985) indicated that all of the statements on the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument

were representative of CSR. Furthermore, statements have equal representation of

desirability or weight (Aupperle et al., 1983). According to Aupperle et al. (1983), the

CSR statements were placed in random order to reduce response bias. Ibrahim and Parsa

(2005) stated that the properties of the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument have been

closely examined and tested for content validity. According to Aupperle et al. (1983), the

CSRO forced-choice survey instrument can validly measure each of Carroll’s CSR

dimensions. Ibrahim and Parsa (2005) stated that the properties of the CSRO forced-

choice survey instrument have been closely examined and tested for content validity.

To ensure validity, impartial experts examined the CSRO forced-choice survey

instrument and determined that the questions were representative of the survey

measurements (Aupperle et al., 1983). In the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument,

statements were determined to have equal representation of desirability or weight,

ensuring that strong statements are not in sets with weaker statements. Furthermore, the

CSRO forced-choice survey instrument contains statements representative of all CSR

dimensions and are ordered randomly to reduce bias (Aupperle et al., 1983). Aupperle et

al. (1985) indicated that the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument has proved to be

robust.

The CSRO forced-choice survey used in this study is widely used in extant

literature, confirming validity. Pinkston and Carroll (1996) examined CSR orientations,

and found that the vast majority of people find the profit-maximizing approach to be

outdated. Ibrahim and Parsa (2005) examined the differences in perceptions of CSR

between French and American managers, and found that there is a significant difference

between the attitudes towards each dimension of CSR. Angelidis et al. (2008) assessed

how CSRO varies by the position held in the organizational hierarchy, and found that

there are significant differences in perceptions of economic responsibilities between non-

managers and mid-level managers. In similar research aimed at examining the CSR

differences between a specific group, Ibrahim et al. (2003) investigated CSR from the

perspective of the board of directors, finding that outside board members have stronger

orientations toward philanthropic responsibility than economic responsibility, and no

significant differences exist between groups in respect to ethical and legal responsibilities

(Ibrahim et al., 2003). Smith et al. (2001) used the shorter, previously validated version

of the original CSRO forced-choice survey instrument to examine CSR from the

employee perspective. Findings indicated that employees perceived economic

responsibilities to be most important. Because the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument

is commonly used in extant research to examine the differences in CSR perceptions, the

researcher assumed the CSRO s forced-choice survey instrument to provide valid

measurements of CSR perceptions in the current study.

Reliability

According to Kuijpers, Ark, and Croon (2013), test score reliability is one of the

most significant criteria that determine the quality of a measurement instrument. Test

score reliability generally uses a coefficient that estimates reliability for measurement.

Bonett and Wright (2015) indicated that Cronbach’s alpha is one of the most frequently

used coefficients used to estimate reliability.

Cronbach alphas were used to test the reliability of the survey instrument based

on Carroll’s four-part CSR model. Cronbach alphas were a measure of internal

consistency for each of the four CSR dimensions (Aupperle et al., 1983). The resulting

alphas were: economic, .93; legal, .84; ethical, .84; and discretionary, .87. These alpha

coefficients suggest that each item has relatively high levels of internal consistency.

The original CSRO forced-choice survey instrument was designed to determine

the CSRO perspectives of upper level management. The shortened version of the survey

instrument removed questions that were irrelevant to management (Smith et al., 2001).

Removing irrelevant questions reduced the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients from the

original study. According to Peterson (1994), an average coefficient for value and belief

construct is .70. Smith et al. (2001) suggested that the magnitudes of the Cronbach’s

alpha for the revised CSRO forced-choice survey instrument fall within the average

range. Based on this information, quantitative data collected from the use of this

validated survey instrument could have acceptable levels of reliability.

Data Collection and Management

The geographical location for this study was the state of ND. According to the

United States Census Bureau (2015), the total population of ND is 756,927. The

researcher used a snowball sampling method to collect data from members of Generation

X. According to Sadler et al. (2010), snowball sampling is an efficient method to gather a

participant group of sufficient diversity and size that represents a target group. Snowball

sampling is effective when the researcher aims to gather data from a small subgroup of an

overall population (Sadler et al., 2010), such as in this study.

After the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Grand Canyon University granted

approval, a 10-question survey based upon Carroll’s four-part CSR model was distributed

to a snowball sample of Generation X consumers. According to Sadler et al. (2010), a

snowball sampling technique allows the researcher to recruit participants in a hard to

reach group. The researcher gained access to the snowball sample of participants through

social media, word of mouth, and physical distribution of the survey to individuals born

in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s.

Based on the G*Power 3 sample size calculation, a sample size of 156 was

necessary to achieve a .80 power, and a .35 effect size for a one tailed Mann-Whitney U

test with a .10 alpha. In addition, based on the G*Power 3 sample size calculation, a

sample size of 52 was necessary to achieve a .80 power, and a .35 effect size for a one

tailed univariate ANOVA test with a .10 alpha. Therefore, the final sample size of 156 is

sufficient. One hundred and fifty (150) surveys were distributed to members of

Generation X born in the 1960s (1960-1969) and 150 surveys were distributed to those

born in the 1970s (1970-1979). One hundred and sixty-five surveys were returned; nine

surveys were discarded due to incomplete or incorrect data, achieving a final sample size

of 156. Eligible subjects completed the 15-minute, anonymous survey. Participants

indicated consent by signing the informed consent document. Because research was not

personal or sensitive, participants were asked to refer other potential recruits; however,

they had the option to decline.

To maintain anonymity of the participants, there were no names or unique

identifiers required for the survey. Participation in this study was voluntary. All data was

stored in a secured file, with paper surveys stored in a secure location (lock & key) for

three years after the completion of the study. Only the researcher will have access to the

data. At the end of the three-year period, the researcher will erase electronic data and

shred paper documents related to data collection.

Data Analysis Procedures

The four research questions addressed were:

RQ1: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive economic CSR?

RQ2: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive legal CSR?

RQ3: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive ethical CSR?

RQ4: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR?

The researcher used a survey instrument based on Carroll’s CSR model for this

quantitative causal-comparative study to assess participants’ perceptions of CSR. Based

on perceived importance, participants allocated up to 10 points between four statements

within a total of 10 sets. Each of the four statements in a set represents one of Carroll’s

CSR dimensions (Aupperle et al., 1983). The numerical allocation of points allowed the

researcher to measure the perceived importance of each CSR statement in the set, and

answer each research question.

The researcher organized and entered survey data into Statistical Package for the

Social Sciences (SPSS®) for analysis. Surveys were examined for completeness or

illogical information. Any surveys that had unanswered questions or illogical information

were deemed unusable. Data grouping was according to numerical allocations assigned to

each CSR dimension, separated by decades of participants’ birth (1960s= 1, 1970s= 2).

Since no names or identifying factors were associated with the survey, unique participant

identifiers were not needed.

Choosing the most appropriate statistical test based on the research questions and

research design are crucial to obtain valid results (Bettany-Saltikov & Whittaker, 2014).

According to Gilbert and Prion (2016), the researcher must determine whether data is

parametric or nonparametric to choose the most appropriate test for data analysis. In this

study, data collected was both normally and not normally distributed. Therefore, the

univariate ANOVA and the Mann-Whitney U test were appropriate to analyze data.

The researcher conducted two univariate ANOVA tests to analyze data and

address RQ1 and RQ4. Laerd (2016) indicated that in order to conduct a univariate

ANOVA the dependent variable should be normally distributed. Based on the data, the

researcher concluded univariate ANOVA was appropriate for analysis of normally

distributed data. A univariate ANOVA is appropriate for testing the differences between

groups (Herodek et al., 2011). Because the purpose of this research was to examine the

differences in CSR perceptions between members of Generation X, the univariate

ANOVA was appropriate to address the research questions.

The researcher conducted two Mann-Whitney U tests to analyze data and address

RQ2 and RQ3. According to Triola (2010), the Mann-Whitney U test does not require

normally distributed data. Based on the data, the researcher concluded that the Mann-

Whitney U test was appropriate for analysis of non-normally distributed data. The Mann-

Whitney U test should be used when testing the differences between two conditions

(Mann & Whitney, 1947). Because the purpose of this research was to examine the

differences in CSR perceptions between members of Generation X, the Mann-Whitney U

test was appropriate to address the research questions.

To test homogeneity of variances, the researcher conducted parametric and non-

parametric Levene’s test to verify the equality of variances. For hypotheses one and four,

the researcher ran two univariate ANOVA tests. For hypotheses two and three, the

researcher ran two Mann-Whitney U tests. The researcher organized information with

tables, graphs, and charts, then determined if sufficient evidence exists to reject the null

hypotheses of the study.

Based on the G*Power 3 sample size calculation, a sample size of 156 was

necessary to achieve a .80 power, and a .35 effect size for a one tailed Mann-Whitney U

test with a .10 alpha. In addition, based on the G*Power 3 sample size calculation, a

sample size of 52 is necessary to achieve a .80 power, and a .35 effect size for a one

tailed univariate ANOVA test with a .10 alpha (Appendix B). Therefore, a sample size of

156 was sufficient to answer the research questions.

To determine if a significant difference existed between CSR perceptions in terms

of the four dimensions between Generation X’ers the researcher ran two univariate

ANOVA tests and two Mann-Whitney U tests to compare each of the CSR dimensions

individually. The Mann-Whitney U test and univariate ANOVA are useful when

examining the differences between two independent groups (Herodek et al., 2011; Wall

Emerson, 2016). Therefore, the univariate ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U tests suit the

needs of this study.

To address research questions one and four the researcher used the univariate

ANOVA test with a significance level of .10 to examine data collected for economic and

philanthropic responsibilities. According to Triola (2010), a significance level of .10 is a

commonly used confidence level in research. Six assumptions are associated with the

univariate ANOVA test (Laerd, 2016). First, the dependent variable should be

continuous. Second, the independent variable must have two categorical or independent

groups. Third, independence of observations is necessary, meaning that the groups are

independent of one another. Fourth, no significant outliers should be present. Fifth, the

dependent variable should be normally distributed. The sixth assumption was that there is

homogeneity of variances (Laerd, 2016). Data collected for research questions one and

four has met all of the assumptions necessary to conduct the univariate ANOVA

procedure. Therefore, the univariate ANOVA was appropriate to analyze data with a

normal distribution. Because not all data was normally distributed, the researcher

conducted two Mann-Whitney U tests to examine data that had a non-normal distribution.

To address research questions two and three the researcher used the Mann-

Whitney U test with a .10 significance level to examine data collected for legal and

ethical responsibilities. Four assumptions are associated with the Mann-Whitney U test

(Laerd, 2016). First, the dependent variable must be continuous or ordinal. Second, the

independent variable must have two groups. Third, independence of observations is

necessary, meaning that the groups are independent of one another. The fourth

assumption is that distributions have the same shape (Laerd, 2016). Data collected for

research questions two and three met each of the four assumptions necessary to conduct

the Mann-Whitney U test. Therefore, the Mann-Whitney U test was appropriate to

analyze data that showed a non-normal distribution.

Ethical Considerations

There were no known risks from taking part in this study, and the researcher did

not provide any benefits to participants. Because an anonymous survey was used to

collect data from an adult population, this study was eligible for an exempt review by the

IRB (Appendix C). Participants indicated consent by signing the informed consent

document (Appendix D). To maintain anonymity of the participants, there were no names

or identifiers on the survey. Therefore, no unique identifiers were necessary to protect the

privacy of participants.

Participation in this research was voluntary. Subjects could refuse to participate

without any concern of retaliation or future bias. Participants also had the right to decline

the request to refer other potential recruits. No circumstances existed that influenced or

coerced participants. Therefore, no conflict of interest occurred.

To protect the privacy of participants, information collected and analyzed in this

study was confidential and accessed only by the researcher. The researcher securely

stored data throughout the research project, and will retain data for 3 years after study

completion. All data was stored in a secured file with access protections and secure

computing practices. Paper surveys are stored in a secure location (lock & key safe) for 3

years after the completion of the study. At the end of this period, the researcher will erase

electronic data and shred paper documents associated with the data collection.

Limitations and Delimitations

This study was limited to members of Generation X in the state of ND. Because

the researcher had access to participants in ND, the demographic sample for this study

was concentrated to ND. Collecting data from participants in the same geographic area

may result in a sample that has similar ethnic backgrounds or socioeconomic statuses

(Emerson, 2015). The small size and characteristics of this demographic could limit the

ability to generalize results. Examining a larger geographic area may have resulted in a

broader range of perceptions. However, the small sample could also be considered a

strength of the study because of the focus on a specific population.

A limitation for this study was the use of a causal-comparative design. According

to Schenker and Rumrill (2004), a causal-comparative study does not attempt to infer

causality between the independent and dependent variable. The use of a causal

comparative design may be a potential limitation to the study. Because there is no

manipulation of data, threats to reliability may be present. A causal-comparative design

prohibited the researcher from controlling or manipulating the independent variable. Lack

of manipulation limited the ability of a researcher to provide an analysis of a cause and

effect relationship (Schenker & Rumrill, 2004). A researcher uses a causal-comparative

design to determine a relationship between variables (Schenker & Rumrill, 2004). The

use of a correlational design would have allowed the researcher to examine the

relationship between variables (Fitzgerald et al., 2004). A researcher would use a quasi-

experimental design to investigate the cause and effect relationship of the CSR

preferences (Rockers et al., 2015). However, because the researcher sought to examine

the differences in CSR perceptions between consumers in the age group of Generation X,

a causal-comparative study was appropriate.

A delimitation for this study was examining only age cohort as a potential cause

for the differences in CSR perceptions. Campbell et al. (2015) indicated that research

about the differences between people is meaningful, and generational groupings may be

useful in explaining differences. Although understanding generational differences is

meaningful (Campbell et al., 2015), other factors may influence CSR perceptions

including gender, race, education, or income status. Examining a variety of

characteristics may increase the validity of findings.

A delimitation for the proposed study was examining perspectives of only one age

group, members of Generation X. The CSR perceptions of different generational cohorts

may vary. Investigation of other age cohorts may be beneficial to extend on current CSR

literature. However, focus on Generation X’ers is key because they represent a portion of

one of the largest demographics in the United States (Rushing, 2011). O’Brien (2016)

indicated that members of Generation X have more assets than any other generation,

making them a wealthy group of spenders. Examination of multiple generational

perspectives could minimize the limitations of only examining one generation.

A delimitation for this study was examining only consumer perspectives. The

CSRO forced-choice survey instrument for this study garners information from both the

consumer and a potential employee perspective. Examining CSR from the perspective of

potential employees in the age group of Generation X may be purposeful because the

attraction to CSR could be different between generational cohorts (Catano & Morrow

Hines, 2016).

Summary

This chapter included a description of the research problem, research questions

and associated hypotheses, the research methodology, the rationale for using a

quantitative, causal-comparative research design, a description of data collection

procedures and instruments, and data analysis techniques. In this chapter, the researcher

described the relationship between the research problem, research questions, and

hypotheses. The purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, causal-comparative

research was to examine the differences in CSR perceptions of consumers in the age

group of Generation X. It is not known if and to what extent statistically significant

differences exist between how consumers in the age group of Generation X,

dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s, perceive economic,

legal, ethical, and philanthropic CSR responsibilities. This study utilized a snowball

sample of 156 Generation X’ers living in the state of ND.

According to Schenker and Rumrill (2004), causal-comparative studies generally

seek to explore the differences between pre-existing groups, such as in this study. In this

study, the relationship for analysis was between dimensions of CSR and Generation

X’ers. The dependent variable was CSR and included the CSR dimensions of economic,

legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities. The dichotomous independent variable

was Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s.

The researcher used a survey instrument based on Carroll’s CSR dimensions to

assess the CSRO of Generation X’ers. Based on perceived importance, participants

allocated up to 10 points between four statements within a set. Each statement represents

a dimension of CSR. The researcher ran two univariate ANOVA tests and two Mann-

Whitney U tests to determine if the null hypotheses should be rejected. The focus of this

research was to examine the differences between variables. The Mann-Whitney U test

and univariate ANOVA are useful when examining the differences between two

independent groups (Herodek et al., 2011; Wall Emerson, 2016). Therefore, the

univariate ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U test supported the research questions and

associated testing of the hypotheses. Research findings may prove important when

designing CSR strategies that appeal to a specific target market.

CSR is a concept that businesses cannot ignore (Creasey, 2015). Through an

understanding of consumer CSR perceptions, a business can create appropriate and

appealing strategies (Min et al., 2012). The collected data may better equip businesses to

make CSR initiative decisions based on perceptions of Generation X, thus increasing

their ability to appeal to this consumer segment. A business that considers consumer CSR

perceptions when making decisions builds a positive attitude and trust between the

business and customers (Kang & Hustvedt, 2014). Ultimately, engaging in CSR

behaviors can result in a competitive advantage, leading to higher levels of business

performance (Julie Juan & Xuan, 2013).

Chapter 4 includes data analysis and the study results. Specific topics for

discussion in Chapter 4 include descriptive data, data collection procedures, data analysis

procedures, analysis of results, and relating each to the research questions and

hypotheses. Chapter 4 also includes a written and graphic summary of results.

Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results

Introduction

Socio-demographic features such as age are a fundamental component of market

segmentation (Pérez & Del Bosque, 2013). Therefore, investigating the differences in

CSR perceptions is essential. Further investigation of this topic may provide information

on gaining an understanding of customer beliefs and attitudes toward CSR. Limited

studies exist that examine CSR from the perspectives of specific age groups (Abd Rahim

et al., 2011). The purpose of this quantitative causal-comparative study was to examine

the differences between CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers. The researcher conducted

two univariate ANOVA tests to analyze data and address RQ1 and RQ4. The researcher

conducted two Mann-Whitney U tests to analyze data and address RQ2 and RQ3.

The four primary research questions addressed were:

RQ1: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive economic CSR?

RQ2: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive legal CSR?

RQ3: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive ethical CSR?

RQ4: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR?

In this research, the researcher examined the differences between the CSR

perceptions of members of Generation X. The researcher conducted two univariate

ANOVA tests and two Mann-Whitney U tests to compare the differences between the

points that participants allocated to each CSR statement, each representing one dimension

of Carroll’s (1991) CSR pyramid. The topics for discussion in this chapter include

descriptive data, data collection procedures, data analysis procedures, discussion of

results, and relating each to the research questions and hypotheses. This chapter includes

both written and graphical summary of results.

Descriptive Data

This study focused on contrasting the CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers. The

sample for this quantitative causal-comparative study was a snowball sample of 156

Generation X’ers living in ND. According to United States Census Bureau (2015), the

total population of ND is 756,927. After obtaining IRB approval from Grand Canyon

University, the researcher distributed 150 surveys to members of Generation X born in

the 1960s (1960-1969) and 150 surveys to those born in the 1970s (1970-1979). One

hundred and sixty-five (165) surveys were returned; nine surveys were discarded due to

incomplete or incorrect data. After discarding ineligible surveys, this study had a final

sample size of 156. Seventy-eight surveys were completed by members of Generation X

born in the 1960s (1960-1969) and 78 surveys were completed by those born in the 1970s

(1970-1979). Data were obtained from numerical allocations that respondents gave to

each statement representing economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic CSR

responsibilities.

To determine if a significant difference exists between CSR perceptions in terms

of the four dimensions between Generation X’ers the researcher conducted two univariate

ANOVA tests and two Mann-Whitney U tests to compare each of the CSR dimensions

individually. Generation X’ers allocated points to each CSR dimension including

economic (M = 20.0, legal (M = 32.4), ethical (M = 27.0), and philanthropic (M = 16.6)

responsibilities. The researcher also conducted tests of skewness and kurtosis to examine

normality for economic (skewness = 1.18, kurtosis = .21), legal (skewness = 6.50,

kurtosis = 10.3), ethical (skewness = .97, kurtosis = 6.26), and philanthropic (skewness =

1.47, kurtosis = -.39) responsibilities. Conducting tests of normality is beneficial for

accurate statistical analysis (Ho & Carol, 2015). Skewness and kurtosis are a useful

measurement for the peakedness and asymmetry of a distribution (Kim, 2013). Results of

the skewness and kurtosis tests helped the researcher choose proper statistical testing

methods. Parametric statistics depend on assumptions of normality (Blanca, Arnau,

López-Montiel, Bono, & Bendayan, 2013). Data collected for economic and

philanthropic responsibilities were normally distributed. When data has a non-normal

distribution, selecting a nonparametric method of analysis is appropriate (Kim, 2013).

Data collected for legal and ethical responsibilities had a non-normal distribution.

Therefore, the univariate ANOVA was appropriate to analyze the data collected for

economic and philanthropic responsibilities, and the Mann-Whitney U test was

appropriate to examine data collected for legal and ethical responsibilities.

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for CSR Perceptions

Variable M Skewness Kurtosis

Economic 20.0 1.18 .21

Legal 32.4 6.50 10.3

Ethical 27.0 .97 6.26

Philanthropic 16.6 1.47 -.39 M-Mean

Seventy-eight surveys were completed by members of Generation X born in the

1960s (1960-1969) and 78 surveys were completed by those born in the 1970s (1970-

1979). The total sample size for each univariate ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U

procedure was 156 participants. A univariate ANOVA is appropriate for testing the

differences between groups (Herodek et al., 2011). The Mann-Whitney U test should be

used when testing the differences between two conditions (Mann & Whitney, 1947).

Results of the univariate ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U tests helped the researcher

address the research questions of if and to what extent significant differences exist

between economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities. The descriptive data

for these statistical procedures is summarized in Tables 2 through 3 below. Figure 2

includes graphic representation of the number of participants in each generational cohort.

Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Normally Distributed Data

Variable N SD SE

1960s (Economic) 78 7.88 .90

1970s (Economic) 78 7.78 .88

1960s (Philanthropic) 78 6.45 .73

1970s (Philanthropic) 78 7.15 .81

N-Number; SD- Standard Deviation; SE-Standard Error

Table 3 Descriptive Statistics for Normally Distributed Data

Variable N SD

Legal 156 9.34 Ethical 156 7.15 N-Number; SD- Standard Deviation

Figure 2. Column chart for participants in each generational cohort.

Data Analysis Procedures

The following steps comprised the preparations to the Data Analysis Procedures:

1. The researcher collected data using a previously validated survey instrument that was distributed to a snowball sample of Generation X consumers in ND. The CSRO forced-choice survey instrument was based on Carroll’s CSR model. The researcher developed the research questions based on Carroll’s CSR model and addressed each CSR dimension (economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities). Aupperle et al. (1983) confirmed validity and reliability of the survey instrument during the original development.

2. Cronbach’s alpha was a measure of internal consistency for each of the four CSR dimensions (Aupperle et al., 1983). The resulting alphas were: economic, .93; legal, .84; ethical, .84; and discretionary, .87. The shortened version of the survey instrument removed questions that were irrelevant to management (Smith et al., 2001). Removing irrelevant questions reduced the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients from the original study. According to Peterson (1994), an average coefficient for value and belief construct is .70. Smith et al. (2001) suggested that the magnitudes of the Cronbach’s alpha for the revised CSRO survey instrument fall within the average range. Therefore, the alpha coefficients suggest that each item has relatively high levels of internal consistency.

3. To ensure validity, impartial experts examined the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument and determined that the CSRO forced-choice survey instrument is a robust tool for an analysis of CSR perceptions (Aupperle et al., 1985). The CSRO forced-choice survey instrument questions have been deemed clear and the language understandable (Dusuki & Yusof, 2008). The CSRO forced-choice survey instrument can accurately gauge the relative value that participants place on economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic responsibilities through a tested ranking system (Dusuki & Yusof, 2008).

4. The CSRO forced-choice survey instrument is also validated through decades of use. Smith et al. (2001) examined CSR from the employee perspective, finding that employees perceived economic responsibilities to be most important. Küskü and Zarkada-Fraser (2004) investigated corporate citizenship practices and how they relate to customer loyalty and organizational commitment finding that positive corporate citizenship practices relate to customer loyalty and organizational commitment. Dusuki and Yusof (2008) used the CSRO forced- choice survey instrument to examine the CSR perspectives of stakeholders, finding that stakeholders place the highest value on economic responsibilities followed by ethical, legal, and philanthropic respectively.

5. The researcher gained access to the snowball sample of participants through social media, word of mouth, and physical distribution of the survey to individuals born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s. The researcher assumed that survey participants in this study honestly allocated points to statements based on perceptions of relative importance.

6. Surveys were examined for completeness, and inappropriate, or illogical information. Any surveys that had unanswered questions, inappropriate or illogical information were deemed unusable. One hundred and sixty-five (165) surveys were returned; nine surveys were discarded due to incomplete or incorrect data. After discarding ineligible surveys, this study had a final sample size of 156.

7. Several limitations emerged from this research. Because the study was limited to Generation X’ers living in ND, data may not be representative of the population. In addition, a bias might exist about taking part in surveys, which could skew the results because only certain people are studied.

The following steps encompassed the Data Analysis Procedures:

1. To begin the data analysis procedure, the researcher entered data into SPSS® for analysis. Since no names or identifying factors are associated with the survey, no codes were necessary to protect identities.

2. Data grouping was done according to numerical allocations assigned to each CSR dimension, separated by decades of participants’ birth.

3. Points that participants allocated to each CSR dimension of the CSRO forced- choice survey instrument were recorded and double-checked to guarantee reliability and validity during data entry by the researcher.

4. Data was scanned for missing data using SPSS®. No missing data was found. 5. Using the transform function in SPSS®, the researcher calculated the sum of

points each participant allocated to each CSR dimension. The spreadsheet was reviewed to screen for any missing data entries.

6. The researcher conducted tests of normality. Results of the Shapiro-Wilk test showed that the data for economic (p = .20) and philanthropic (p = .15) responsibilities were normally distributed and data collected for legal (p = .000) and ethical (p = .001) responsibilities were not normally distributed (Appendix G). The descriptive data for the tests of normality is summarized in Table 4.

Table 4 Shapiro-Wilk test of Normality

Variable Statistic df P

Economic .99 156 .20

Legal .91 156 .000

Ethical .97 156 .001

Philanthropic .99 156 .15

df – degree of freedom

7. The Shapiro-Wilk test of normality provided support that outliers existed in the data sets for legal and ethical responsibilities. Wong et al. (2008) indicated that means are sensitive to outliers. Therefore, the univariate ANOVA was not appropriate to analyze the data sets with outliers. Because the Mann-Whitney U test uses medians instead of means (Triola, 2010), the Mann-Whitney U test was appropriate to analyze the data sets for legal and ethical responsibilities.

8. The researcher had originally intended on using the univariate ANOVA procedure to analyze research questions one through four. Prior to collecting data, the researcher assumed that data would have a normal distribution. After conducting tests of normality, skewness, and kurtosis, the researcher discovered that not all data was normally distributed. Therefore, the univariate ANOVA was not appropriate to analyze non-normally distributed data. Laerd (2016) indicated that data should be normally distributed to conduct a univariate ANOVA procedure. However, the Mann-Whitney U test can be used to examine the differences between groups and does not require normal distribution (Mann & Whitney, 1947). The researcher determined that the Mann-Whitney U test was appropriate for examining data that was not normally distributed. Therefore, a difference from what was approved in Chapter 3 exists in the data analysis.

9. To make certain that assumptions of homoscedasticity for the univariate ANOVA test were not violated, the researcher conducted Levene’s test of homogeneity of variance for economic (p = .69), and philanthropic (p = .23) responsibilities. To make certain that the assumptions of homoscedasticity for the Mann-Whitney U test were not violated; the researcher used a non-parametric Levene test to examine the equality of variance for legal (p = .27), ethical (p = 1.00) responsibilities.

10. The researcher concluded that the groups were homogenous and had equal variance. The descriptive data for the non-parametric Levene’s test for homogeneity of variance is summarized in Table 5.

Table 5 Test of Homogeneity of Variance

Variable Levene Statistic df1 df2 P

Economic .16 1 154 .69

Philanthropic 1.43 1 154 .25

Variable Sum of Squares df F P

Ethical 79082 155 .000 1.00

Legal 78868 155 1.25 .27

df =degrees of freedom

11. A quantitative causal-comparative design allowed the researcher to address four research questions. A causal-comparative design was appropriate because the focus of this quantitative research was to examine the differences between pre- existing and intact groups. To address the research questions and their associated hypotheses, the researcher conducted two univariate ANOVA procedures to examine normally distributed data and two Mann-Whitney U tests to examine non-normally distributed data. The purpose of the univariate ANOVA and Mann- Whitney U test is to compare the differences between two independent groups (Herodek et al., 2011; Wall Emerson, 2016). Therefore, the univariate ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U test supported the research questions and associated testing of the hypotheses. In this study, the research questions address if and to what extent a significant difference exists between how consumers in the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s perceive each CSR dimension. The first through fourth research questions and associated hypotheses were:

RQ1: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive economic CSR?

H10: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive economic CSR.

H1a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive economic CSR.

RQ2: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive legal CSR?

H20: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive legal CSR.

H2a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive legal CSR.

RQ3: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive ethical CSR?

H30: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive ethical CSR.

H3a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive ethical CSR.

RQ4: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR?

H40: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR.

H4a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR.

12. The significance level for the Mann-Whitney U test and univariate ANOVA procedures was set at .10, with an 80% confidence level.

13. Results of the univariate ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U test addressed the research questions if and to what extent any statistical significance exists between

Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s in their perceptions of CSR responsibilities.

14. Based on the G*Power 3 sample size calculation, a sample size of 156 was necessary to achieve a .80 power, and a .35 effect size for a one tailed Mann- Whitney U test with a .10 alpha. In addition, based on the G*Power 3 sample size calculation, a sample size of 52 is necessary to achieve a .80 power, and a .35 effect size for a one tailed univariate ANOVA test with a .10 alpha. Therefore, the final sample of 156 meets the sample requirement.

Results

In this study, the researcher examined the differences between CSR perceptions of

Generation X’ers. This section serves as a summary of the data analysis procedures. Four

research questions and related hypotheses were addressed in this quantitative study. The

researcher investigated each research question through statistical procedures. In this

section, the researcher will reveal the results of the univariate ANOVA and Mann-

Whitney U test.

The data were processed in SPSS®. Since no names or identifying factors are

associated with the survey, no codes were necessary to protect identities. Data grouping

was done according to numerical allocations assigned to each CSR dimension, separated

by decades of participants’ birth (1960s= 1 or the 1970s= 2). The researcher ran two

separate univariate ANOVAs to address RQ1 and RQ4 (Appendix E) and two separate

Mann-Whitney U tests to address RQ2 and RQ3 (Appendix F). A significant variance

between the two samples would indicate differences in perception between members of

Generation X born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s. The researcher also

conducted four separate odds ratio analyses to examine the odds that one generational

cohort would value each CSR dimension more than the other.

Research Question 1. The first research question and subsequent hypotheses

were:

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RQ1: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive economic CSR?

H10: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive economic CSR.

H1a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive economic CSR.

Test for Null Hypothesis 1. The researcher conducted a univariate ANOVA test

to examine if a statistically significant difference exists between the economic CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s. The

researcher concluded that a statistically significant difference between the economic CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s does not

exist. The researcher also concluded that participants born in the 1960s (M = 20.7) value

economic responsibilities slightly more than participants born in the 1970s (M = 19.2).

However, no statistically significant difference exists between the economic CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s as

determined by the univariate ANOVA, F(1, 154) = 1.30, p = .13, ηp2 = .01. The null

hypothesis that no statistically significant differences exist between how Generation

X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s perceive economic CSR was

retained. See Figure 3 for a graphic representation of the differences between the

economic CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers.

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Figure 3. Column chart for economic responsibilities.

Research Question 2. The second research question and subsequent hypotheses

were:

RQ2: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive legal CSR?

H20: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive legal CSR.

H2a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive legal CSR.

Test for Null Hypothesis 2. The researcher conducted a Mann-Whitney U test to

examine if a statistically significant difference exists between the legal CSR perceptions

of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s. The researcher

concluded that a statistically significant difference between the legal CSR perceptions of

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Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s does not exist. The

researcher also concluded that participants born in the 1960s value legal responsibilities

slightly more (Mdn = 32) than participants born in the 1970s (Mdn = 31), U = 2914, p =

.32, r = .037. However, the results of the Mann-Whitney U test provided support that no

statistically significant difference exists between the legal CSR perceptions of Generation

X’ers. The null hypothesis that no statistically significant differences exist between how

Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s perceive legal CSR was

retained. See Figure 4 for a graphic representation of the differences between the legal

CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers.

Figure 4. Column chart for legal responsibilities.

Research Question 3. The third research question and subsequent hypotheses

were:

RQ3: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive ethical CSR?

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H30: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive ethical CSR.

H3a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive ethical CSR.

Test for Null Hypothesis 3. The researcher conducted a Mann-Whitney U test to

examine if a statistically significant difference exists between the ethical CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s. The

researcher concluded that a statistically significant difference between the ethical CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s does not

exist. The researcher also concluded that participants born in the 1970s value ethical

responsibilities slightly more (Mdn = 27) than participants born in the 1960s (Mdn = 26),

U = 2894, p = .30, r = .042. However, the results of the Mann-Whitney U test provided

support that no statistically significant difference exists between the ethical CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s. The null

hypothesis that no statistically significant differences exist between how Generation

X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s perceive ethical CSR was retained.

See Figure 5 for a graphic representation of the differences between the ethical CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers.

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Figure 5. Column chart for ethical responsibilities.

Research Question 4. The fourth research question and subsequent hypotheses

were:

RQ4: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR?

H40: There is not a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR.

H4a: There is a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the

1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR.

Test for Null Hypothesis 4. The researcher conducted a univariate ANOVA test

to examine if a statistically significant difference exists between the philanthropic CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s. The

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researcher concluded that a statistically significant difference between the philanthropic

CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s does

not exist. The researcher also concluded that participants born in the 1970s (M = 16.7)

value philanthropic responsibilities slightly more than participants born in the 1960s (M =

16.5). However, no statistically significant difference exists between the philanthropic

CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s as

determined by the univariate ANOVA, F(1, 154) = .040, p = .42, ηp2 = .00. The null

hypothesis that no statistically significant differences exist between how Generation

X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s perceive philanthropic CSR was

retained. See Figure 6 for a graphic representation of the differences between the

philanthropic CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers.

Figure 6. Column chart for philanthropic responsibilities.

Results for the ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U tests for each CSR dimension described

above are summarized in Tables 6 and 7 below. Table 8 below includes a summary of

results.

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Table 6 Univariate ANOVA Test Results for CSR Perceptions

Variable

1960s M

1970s M

Economic 20.7 19.2 1.29 .13

Philanthropic 16.5 16.7 .040 .42

M- Mean

Table 7 Mann-Whitney U Test Results for CSR Perceptions

Variable 1960s Mdn 1970s Mdn Z P

Legal 32 31 -.46 .32

Ethical 26 27 -.53 .30

Mdn- Median

Table 8 Summary of Significance Results

Variable P Reject the Null Hypotheses

Economic .13 No

Legal .32 No

Ethical .30 No

Philanthropic .42 No

Grant (2014) indicated that the odds ratio is commonly used to compare two

groups, and determine the presence or absence of an outcome. An odds ratio analysis is a

common tool for predicting probability of an occurrence in a group (Stare & Maucort-

Boulch, 2016), such as in this research. The researcher conducted four separate odds ratio

analyses to examine the odds that one generational cohort would value each CSR

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responsibility more than the other. For economic responsibilities, the resulting odds ratio

of 1.11 provided support that the odds are higher that Generation X’ers born in the 1960s

will place a higher value on economic responsibilities than Generation X’ers born in the

1970s. For legal responsibilities, the resulting odds ratio of 1.0 provided support that no

difference exists between the legal CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the

1960s and 1970s. For ethical responsibilities, the resulting odds ratio of 1.05 provided

support that the odds are higher that Generation X’ers born in the 1970s will place a

higher value on ethical responsibilities than Generation X’ers born in the 1960s. For

philanthropic responsibilities, the resulting odds ratio of .86 provided support that the

odds are lower that Generation X’ers born in the 1970s will place a higher value on

philanthropic responsibilities than Generation X’ers born in the 1960s. Figure 7 includes

graphic representation of the odds ratio analysis.

Figure 7. Column chart for odds ratio analysis.

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Summary

The primary purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, causal-comparative

study was to examine the differences between CSR perceptions of consumers in the age

group of Generation X. Existing literature lacks research-based evidence about the

differences in CSR perceptions between age groups. In this study, the researcher used

four research questions and associated hypotheses in an effort to address the current

empirical gap in literature regarding consumer CSR perceptions. This chapter included a

description of the statistical analysis procedures and findings based on the research

questions.

The first research question proposed by the researcher addressed if and to what

extent there is a significant difference between how Generation X’ers born in the 1960s

and those born in the 1970s perceive economic CSR. The supporting hypotheses state

that there is a difference between how Generation X’ers perceive economic CSR. The

descriptive statistics revealed participants born in the 1960s (M = 20.7) value economic

responsibilities slightly more than participants born in the 1970s (M = 19.2). However, no

statistically significant difference exists between the economic CSR perceptions of

Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s as determined by the

univariate ANOVA, F(1, 154) = 1.30, p = .13, ηp2 = .01.

The second research question proposed by the researcher addressed if and to what

extent there is a significant difference between how Generation X’ers born in the 1960s

and those born in the 1970s perceive legal CSR. The supporting hypotheses state that

there is a difference between how Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in

the 1970s perceive legal CSR. The descriptive statistics revealed that participants born in

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the 1960s value legal slightly responsibilities more (Mdn = 32) than participants born in

the 1970s (Mdn = 31), U = 2914, p = .32, r = .037. However, the Mann-Whitney U test

provided support that no statistically significant difference exists between the legal CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s.

The third research question proposed by the researcher addressed if and to what

extent there is a significant difference between how Generation X’ers born in the 1960s

and those born in the 1970s perceive ethical CSR. The supporting hypotheses state that

there is a difference between how Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in

the 1970s perceive ethical CSR. The descriptive statistics revealed that participants born

in the 1970s value ethical responsibilities slightly more (Mdn = 27) than participants born

in the 1960s (Mdn = 26), U = 2894, p = .30, r = .042. However, the Mann-Whitney U test

provided support that no statistically significant difference exists between the ethical

CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s.

The fourth research question proposed by the researcher addressed if and to what

extent there is a significant difference between how Generation X’ers born in the 1960s

and those born in the 1970s perceive philanthropic CSR. The supporting hypotheses state

that there is a difference between how Generation X’ers perceive philanthropic CSR. The

descriptive statistics revealed that participants born in the 1970s (M = 16.7) value

philanthropic responsibilities slightly more than participants born in the 1960s (M =

16.5). However, no statistically significant difference exists between the philanthropic

CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s as

determined by the univariate ANOVA, F(1, 154) = .040, p = .42, ηp2 = .00.

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Several limitations emerged from the data analysis. This study was limited to

members of Generation X in the state of ND. Collecting data from participants in the

same geographic area resulted in a sample that had similar ethnic backgrounds or

socioeconomic statuses (Emerson, 2015). Examining a larger geographic area may have

resulted in a broader range of perceptions. The generalizability of the study was limited

because of the similarity in the characteristics of this demographic. Therefore, data may

not be representative of the population.

The study scope, along with a causal-comparative design, limited the researcher

to examining only if a difference exists between CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers

born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s. To examine the relationship between

variables the researcher would use a correlational design. A quasi-experimental design

would have included information regarding the cause and effect relationship between

variables. Using a correlational design or quasi-experimental design may further extend

on the findings of the current study.

Chapter 5 will include a discussion of findings and conclusions. Specific topics to

discuss include a review of the implications of this research in relation to three key areas

(theoretical, current, and future). In chapter 5, the researcher will recommend future

research and practice based on the findings of the study.

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Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Introduction

It was not known if and to what extent statistically significant differences exist

between how consumers in the age group of Generation X, born in the 1960s and those

born in the 1970s, perceive economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic CSR

responsibilities. The purpose of this quantitative causal-comparative study was to

examine the differences between how consumers in the age group of Generation X

perceive CSR. Generational differences create a variety of preferences because members

of a generation have values that are different from other cohorts (Schullery, 2013). The

attitudes and beliefs of stakeholders influence purchase decisions (Armstrong & Kotler,

2013). Because consumers consider the socially responsible behaviors of a business when

making purchasing decisions (Abd Rahim et al., 2011), understanding the perspectives of

Generation X may be useful in establishing current and future CSR initiatives.

According to Kumar (2015), development of new marketing knowledge that will

have a lasting effect on academicians and the business environment is necessary. This

research makes a significant contribution to the current body of marketing knowledge.

The current study goes beyond the extant literature by examining CSR from the

consumer perspective.

The researcher investigated the CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers by using

Carroll’s CSR model. Resulting data helped the researcher address the research questions

regarding if and to what extent statistically significant differences exist between how

consumers in the age group of Generation X perceive economic, legal, ethical, and

philanthropic CSR responsibilities. The findings will inform leadership decisions

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regarding which dimensions to utilize in creating CSR initiatives that appeal to members

of Generation X. In Chapter 5, the researcher will summarize the investigation, and

explain the contribution to the body of knowledge. Specific topics to discuss in Chapter 5

include the conclusions, theoretical, practical, and future implications, and

recommendations based on this study’s findings.

Summary of the Study

Information from this research contributes to a greater understanding of CSR by

helping the researcher determine which CSR dimensions a specific consumer segment

values most. The purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, causal-comparative

study was to examine the differences between CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers from

a sample of Generation X’ers in ND. Given that members of Generation X represent a

large population of approximately 60 million U.S. consumers (O’Brien, 2016),

understanding the CSR perceptions of Generation X is essential. CSR knowledge can

increase a business’s ability to create strategies that appeal to a specific segment by

understanding perspectives, while pursuing their own business objectives (Abd Rahim et

al., 2011). In this study, a limitation was the researcher only examined responses from

members of the defined age group of Generation X’ers in the state of ND. The four

primary research questions addressed were:

RQ1: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive economic CSR?

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RQ2: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive legal CSR?

RQ3: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive ethical CSR?

RQ4: If and to what extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in

the age group of Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and

those born in the 1970s, perceive philanthropic CSR?

The researcher manually entered numerical allocations into SPSS®. To determine

if a significant difference exists between CSR perceptions in terms of the four dimensions

between Generation X’ers the researcher ran two univariate ANOVA tests on data

collected for economic and philanthropic responsibilities, and two Mann-Whitney U tests

on data collected for legal and ethical responsibilities to examine each of the CSR

dimensions individually.

In Chapter 1, the topics to discuss included the background on CSR, the study’s

problem and purpose statements, research questions and hypotheses, significance of the

study, rationale for methodology, nature of the research design for the study, definition of

terms, assumptions, limitations, and delimitations, a chapter summary, and an overview

of the remaining chapters. Chapter 2 contained the theoretical framework for this

research, as well as a thorough review of the literature on the history of marketing,

Carroll’s CSR pyramid, CSR, Generation X, and CSR and Generation X. Chapter 3

contained the methodology, which includes the research design, study population, as well

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as data collection and analysis procedures for the study. Chapter 4 included description of

the study results. In this chapter, the researcher will explain the findings in detail, and

their significance. Topics to discuss in Chapter 5 include the conclusions, implications,

and recommendations for future research and practice based on this study’s findings. The

following section of this chapter will include the results of the data analysis.

Summary of Findings and Conclusion

This section provides a summary of the results that emerged from the data

analysis. Generation specific research on CSR perspectives has the potential to make a

useful contribution to marketing strategies. Because CSR has the potential to enhance

competitiveness (McGlone et al., 2011), investigating generational perspectives, and

acting in ways that respond to their perspectives is sound business practice.

The researcher used Carroll’s CSR classification to further examine and extend on

the CSR concept. According to Smith et al. (2001), the dimensions outlined by Carroll

(1979) provide a useful way to discover how various factors may influence perceptions of

the different components of CSR. The research questions in this study were developed

based on the economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic dimensions of Carroll’s CSR

model.

Julie Juan and Xuan (2013) indicated that each CSR dimension is a different

source of competitive advantage. However, strategic development can only occur after

leadership fully understands consumers (Armstrong & Kotler, 2013). Data from this

study may aid business leaders in making strategic decisions that can appeal to a specific

consumer segment.

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Prior research on the differences in generational perspectives of CSR is limited.

Min et al. (2012) indicated that little research exists about CSR perceptions from the

consumer perspective. Understanding consumer perspectives is crucial because a

business will only benefit from CSR initiatives that create value for the consumer

(Gadeikiene & Banyte, 2013). Data from this study contributes to existing research by

addressing CSR values from the consumer perspective.

The researcher was unable to locate any studies in existing literature that

examined CSR from a generational perspective; however, several researchers have

examined CSR from the stakeholder perspective. Pinkston and Carroll (1996)

investigated changing CSRO perceptions from a sample of U.S. based multinational

chemical subsidiaries. Findings indicated that economic responsibilities are a top priority

followed by legal, ethical, and philanthropic respectively. Dusuki and Yusof (2008)

examined the CSR perspectives of stakeholders in Malaysia. Results indicated that

stakeholders perceive economic responsibilities to be most valued followed by ethical,

legal, and philanthropic respectively. Ibrahim and Parsa (2005) researched the differences

in CSR perceptions between American and French managers. Findings indicated that

American managers are more concerned with ethical and legal responsibilities than

French managers are. However, French managers place greater value on economic and

philanthropic responsibilities. Abd Rahim et al. (2011) also investigated the CSR

perceptions of Malaysian stakeholders. Results indicated that Malaysian stakeholders

value economic responsibilities as a first priority before philanthropy, ethical, and legal

respectively. The findings in existing literature contrast with the findings in this study.

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Generation X’ers living in ND value legal responsibilities as a first priority followed by,

ethical, economic, and philanthropic respectively.

The purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, causal-comparative study was

to compare CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers. A causal-comparative design was

chosen because the focus of this quantitative research was to examine the differences

between pre-existing and intact groups. The researcher proposed four research questions

based on a foundation of literature, each supported by an alternative hypothesis and null

hypothesis to attain this objective. The researcher investigated each research question by

applying statistical procedures. The summary of findings and conclusions are in Table 9

below.

Table 9 Summary of Findings and Conclusions

Variable M P

Economic 20.0 .13

Legal 32.4 .32

Ethical 27.0 .30

Philanthropic 16.6 .42

M- Mean

Research Question 1. The first research question addressed if and to what extent

is there a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of Generation

X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s, perceive

economic CSR. To address the research question, the researcher applied a univariate

ANOVA test to examine the difference in perception between Generation X’ers for

economic CSR. No statistically significant difference exists between the economic CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s as

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determined by the univariate ANOVA, F(1, 154) = 1.30, p = .13, ηp2 = .01. The null

hypothesis was accepted and the alternative hypothesis rejected.

Research Question 2. The second research question addressed if and to what

extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s,

perceive legal CSR. To address the research question, the researcher applied a Mann-

Whitney U test to examine the difference in perception between Generation X’ers for

legal CSR. The Mann-Whitney U test provided support that no statistically significant

difference exists for legal CSR perceptions between participants born in the 1960s (Mdn

= 32) and participants born in the 1970s (Mdn = 31), U = 2914, p = .32, r = .037. The null

hypothesis was accepted and the alternative hypothesis rejected.

Research Question 3. The third research question addressed if and to what extent

is there a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of Generation

X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s, perceive ethical

CSR. To address the research question, the researcher applied a Mann-Whitney U test to

examine the difference in perception between Generation X’ers for ethical CSR. The

Mann-Whitney U test provided support that no statistically significant difference exists

for ethical CSR perceptions between participants born in the 1960s (Mdn = 27) and

participants born in the 1960s (Mdn = 26), U = 2894, p = .30, r = .042. The null

hypothesis was accepted and the alternative hypothesis rejected.

Research Question 4. The fourth research question addressed if and to what

extent is there a significant difference between how consumers in the age group of

Generation X, dichotomized by those born in the 1960s and those born in the 1970s,

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perceive philanthropic CSR. To address the research question, the researcher applied a

univariate ANOVA test to examine the difference in perception between Generation

X’ers for philanthropic CSR. No statistically significant difference exists between the

philanthropic CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s and those born in

the 1970s as determined by the univariate ANOVA, F(1, 154) = .040, p = .42, ηp2 = .00.

The null hypothesis was accepted and the alternative hypothesis rejected.

The study findings extend on Carroll’s (1991) CSR model by providing data

about the CSR perceptions of a specific consumer segment. Business leaders can use the

study findings for an informed decision-making process, based on each of Carroll’s CSR

dimensions. The current study could provide business leaders with valuable information

regarding CSR preferences based on a theoretical foundation considered seminal in the

field of management.

Addressing the gap in literature, the researcher used Carroll’s CSR pyramid as a

foundation to investigate CSR perspectives of Generation X, dichotomizing by decade

(1960s and 1970s). Although no statistically significant difference exists between the

CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers, results of this study provide specific data to

business leaders as to which CSR dimensions Generation X’ers value most. Members of

Generation X place a slightly higher value on legal (M = 32.4), followed by ethical (M =

27.0), economic (M = 20.0), and philanthropic responsibilities (M = 16.6) respectively.

In conclusion, the goal of this study was to investigate CSR perceptions of

Generation X’ers using Carroll’s CSR model. As suggested in Chapter 1, the findings of

this research could inform leadership decisions regarding which strategies are needed to

create CSR initiatives that appeal to Generation X members. Four research questions and

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related hypotheses were addressed in this quantitative study. Statistical data provided an

overview of the CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers. The researcher could reasonably

conclude that no statistically significant difference exists between the CSR perceptions of

Generation X’ers. This study enriches the extant literature on CSR by providing data

from the consumer perspective. Data from this study revealed which CSR dimensions

Generation X consumers living in ND considered most valuable based on Carroll’s CSR

pyramid and the study parameters. The findings from this study could motivate

companies to incorporate CSR initiatives as an integral part of their mission and goals. In

addition, this study provides business leaders with specific data about CSR perceptions

and can market to Generation X’ers with the intent of increasing consumer satisfaction.

Implications

The purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, causal-comparative study was

to define the relationship between CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers. The hypotheses

underlying this study were that statistically significant differences exist between the CSR

perceptions of Generation X’ers. Although no statistically significant difference exists,

findings from this study have significant theoretical, practical, and future implications.

Each implication may be useful for researchers; therefore, the researcher examined each

implication to analyze the contributions of this research to advancing knowledge about

CSR perceptions.

Theoretical implications. Vidaver-Cohen and Brønn (2015) suggested that CSR

practices relate to consumer support. This research contributes to existing literature by

providing information regarding consumer buying behavior. A business should manage

its operations in a way that supports the interests of consumers. The perspectives of the

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consumer play a critical role in establishing current and future CSR initiatives, because

consumers consider the socially responsible behaviors of a business when making

purchasing decisions (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). The objective of this research is to

examine the differences between CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers born in the 1960s

and those born in the 1970s.

The researcher used Carroll’s CSR classification as the theoretical foundation to

further examine and extend on the CSR concept. The researcher addressed four research

questions in this study, investigating the CSR perceptions of Generation X using

Carroll’s dimensions including economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibility.

Schullery (2013) found that generational differences create a variety of marketing options

because members of a generation have values that are different from other cohorts.

Utilizing Carroll’s CSR classification allowed the researcher to further investigate and

extend on the CSR concept by determining which CSR dimensions Generation X’ers

value most.

The researcher used a quantitative, non-experimental, causal-comparative design

for this research. The researcher examined the magnitude of differences in CSR

perceptions between Generations X’ers. Through statistical analysis, the researcher

investigated the levels of measurement for this study, answered the research questions

and tested the hypotheses for the study. Resulting data allowed the researcher to draw

conclusions about the CSR perceptions of Generation X’ers. This study provides

academicians with an understanding of the CSR perceptions of Generations X’ers. In

addition, the resulting data informs researchers about the preferences of one specific

consumer segment

121

This research contributes to existing literature because limited studies exist that

examine CSR from the consumer perspective. Organizations are placing a higher level of

importance on CSR behaviors (Catano & Morrow Hines, 2016). Furthermore, CSR

perceptions are changing over the years (Dusuki & Yusof, 2008). This research adds to

existing literature by providing up to date data regarding consumer CSR perceptions.

Practical implications. CSR has drawn substantial interest in the business and

academic field (Lizhen Chen et al., 2016). This research begins to address the literature

gap that exists regarding the different perspectives of CSR by age groups. Marketers

realized that each generation has different characteristics and desires, and these

differences create the need to tailor marketing strategies to unique generational

preferences (Bucuţă, 2015). Businesses may be able to increase consumer support by

identifying which CSR dimensions Generation X’ers value and then developing business

approaches congruent with those dimensions.

Members of a generation share similar life experiences (Schullery, 2013). Forces

that shape the lives of a generation influence their behaviors (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh,

2013). Results of this study indicated that people who are members of the same

generation, but born in different decades have similar CSR perceptions. Although no

statistically significant difference exists between the CSR perceptions of Generation

X’ers, business leaders can draw conclusions about which CSR dimensions Generation

X’ers as a group value most. Reisenwitz and Iyer (2009) found that businesses that tailor

strategies to align with the needs of their target population would increase their chances

for sustainability through increased profits. Thus, information about the preferences of

122

Generation X may provide businesses with a sound, data-driven basis for establishing

responsive CSR initiatives that may result in a competitive advantage.

The extent to which a business engages in CSR activities may influence consumer

support (Gadeikiene & Banyte, 2013). CSR is a vital tool for building loyalty in the

modern business environment (Raman et al., 2012). The findings from this study could

motivate companies to incorporate CSR initiatives as an integral part of their mission and

goals.

Future implications. This research could be the foundation for future researchers

to extend on the CSR concept. Dusuki and Yusof (2008) indicated that CSR perceptions

are changing over the years. Therefore, a continuous assessment of CSR perceptions may

be beneficial.

The results of this study could lead to further investigation of the topic of

generational differences in CSR perceptions. Although this study found that no

statistically significant difference exists between the CSR perceptions of Generation

X’ers, results provide specific data about the preferences of Generation X’ers. Future

researchers may examine the CSR perceptions of other generations. As the need for

market segmentation continues to grow, more researchers will have the opportunity to

study this topic and provide valuable information to business leaders. This study could be

replicated with a different population or increased sample. Future research may target a

different demographic to gain specific data about CSR perceptions of a different target

market. By utilizing a larger, more diverse sample, a business can gain a better

understanding of CSR perceptions.

123

Strengths and weaknesses. A strength of this study was the use of a model that is

seminal in the field of management as the theoretical foundation. The CSR pyramid is

one of the most well-known models to identify a business’s social responsibility

(Calabrese et al., 2013). The use of the Mann-Whitney U test to examine non-normally

distributed data was a strength of this study. The Mann-Whitney U test is not dependent

on assumptions of distribution (Wall Emerson, 2016). Because not all data in this

research was normally distributed, the use of a non-parametric test increased result

validity. Another strength of this study is that the sample size met the minimum

requirements of the power analysis for the univariate ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U test.

Based on the G*Power 3 sample size calculation, a sample size of 156 was necessary to

achieve a .80 power, and a .35 effect size for a one tailed Mann-Whitney U test with a .10

alpha. In addition, based on the G*Power 3 sample size calculation, a sample size of 52 is

necessary to achieve a .80 power, and a .35 effect size for a one tailed univariate

ANOVA test with a .10 alpha. Therefore, a final sample size of 156 met minimum

requirements. Finally, focusing only on Generation X could be considered a strength in

this study because of the focus on a specific population.

A limitation in this study includes the researcher only examining the perceptions

of Generation X’ers, which was a potential weakness of the study. Rushing (2011)

indicated that Generation X represents one of the largest demographics in the United

States. Although focus included limitations to one generation, focus on Generation X is

valuable. Another issue that may have been a weakness to the study is the limitation of

the sample to members of Generation X in the state of ND. Collecting data from

participants in the same geographic area resulted in a sample with similar perceptions. In

124

this study, data collected may not be representative of the population. Examining a larger

geographic area may have resulted in a broader range of perceptions. Using only age

group as a potential cause for differences in CSR perceptions was an additional weakness

in this research. Other factors including gender, race, education or income status may

influence CSR perceptions. Therefore, examining a variety of characteristics may be

purposeful to increase the validity of findings.

Recommendations

This study adds to the expanding body of knowledge on CSR. The findings

allowed the researcher to identify a number of research and practical applications for

consideration. Topics discussed in this section include specific recommendations for

further research as well as recommendations for practice. The researcher will present a

summary of the reasoning for recommendations and the benefits to practitioners and

researchers.

Recommendations for future research. Results of this research allowed the

researcher to identify opportunities for further investigation, such as performing a

replication study with a different generation. This study included the limitation of the

researcher examining the CSR perceptions of only Generation X. Information from this

study extends on Carroll’s CSR model by determining which CSR dimensions a specific

consumer segment values most. Generational differences create a variety of preferences

because members of a generation have values that are different from other cohorts

(Schullery, 2013). An understanding of different CSR values can increase a business

leader’s ability to design marketing strategies based on the dimensions of CSR most

appealing to a stakeholder group (Abd Rahim et al., 2011). Therefore, businesses must

125

understand the CSR perceptions of multiple generations to develop products and

marketing campaigns that target specific consumer desires.

The researcher recommends qualitative research to expand on the findings of this

research. Information exists which quantitative methods could not address. Quantitative

research generates factual data, while qualitative research may offer stronger insight

regarding participant perceptions (Barnham, 2015). A qualitative study would provide an

opportunity to discover why consumers value one CSR dimension over another.

Understanding consumer perspectives is crucial, because a business will only benefit

from CSR initiatives that create value for the consumer (Gadeikiene & Banyte, 2013).

By using a qualitative approach, researchers can obtain suggestions directly from

consumers about how to cater to their CSR desires. Such findings could create valuable

information for businesses about why they should implement various CSR initiatives into

their practices.

Tewari and Pathak (2014) suggested that further research on CSR is necessary. In

this study, the researcher examined only age cohort as a potential cause for differences in

CSR perceptions. Other factors may influence CSR perceptions including gender, race,

educational backgrounds, or income status. Therefore, examining other segments in

future research would be beneficial to enhance the ability of a business to appeal to a

more specific customer segment while meeting business objectives.

The researcher recommends performing a similar study with a wider

demographic. Data in this study may not be representative of the population. This study

was limited to members of Generation X living in the state of ND, which could contribute

to the similar CSR preferences that emerged from this research. Collecting data from

126

more participants in a wider geographic area may provide a broader range of perceptions,

increasing generalizability.

The findings of this study included limitations in examination of Carroll’s four

dimensions of CSR. Previous research indicates that tailoring CSR initiatives to

consumer desires may increase consumer loyalty. However, there may be other factors

such as corporate culture, cost of product or reputation involved in a consumers desire to

remain loyal to a business. Future research should consider examining consumer

perceptions of these variables as a potential factor in the establishment of consumer

loyalty.

Recommendations for future practice. From the results and findings of this

research, several recommendations for future business practice exist. The literature and

data analysis section of this research are a source for ideas in future business practice.

Although no statistically significant differences exist between the CSR perceptions of

Generation X’ers, the value placed on each CSR dimension may be of interest to business

professionals. Both businesses and consumers will benefit from the findings of this study.

In practice, one recommendation is that business professionals consider the CSR

perspectives of their target market when designing marketing initiatives. Understanding

consumer perceptions of CSR activities is essential to design initiatives that are

meaningful to the customer. Abd Rahim et al. (2011) suggested that companies that do

not meet consumer expectations or offend consumer values risk the withdrawal of

consumer support, and the resulting loss of business. Consumers are more likely to

remain loyal to a business that they perceive to be socially responsible. As indicated in

Chapter 1, businesses that tailor strategies to align with the needs of their target

127

population will increase their chances for sustainability through increased profits

(Reisenwitz & Iyer, 2009). Shuqin (2014) indicated that choosing the right CSR strategy

could result in financial reward. Ultimately, CSR has the potential to enhance

competitiveness (McGlone et al., 2011). This research begins to address the literature gap

that exists regarding the different perspectives of CSR by age groups. Hawkins and

Mothersbaugh (2013) demonstrated that the components, which shape the lives of each

generation, are different, and these differences motivate different consumer behaviors. By

understanding how CSR influences current market trends a business can be managed in a

more effective manner (Min et al., 2012). Data from this study may provide business

leaders with information to create CSR initiatives based on the perceptions of Generation

X’ers.

Another recommendation in practice is for businesses to increase participation in

CSR initiatives. The extent to which a business engages in CSR activities may influence

consumer support (Gadeikiene & Banyte, 2013). The researcher recommends that a

business incorporate CSR initiatives as an integral part of their mission and goals.

Consumers may educate themselves about the CSR concept, and advocate for increased

business practice. As indicated in Chapter 1, consumers avoid making purchases from

companies that do not demonstrate a commitment to CSR (Maamoun, 2013). Kang and

Hustvedt (2014) indicated that engaging in CSR activities increases the level of trust that

a consumer may feel toward a business. By making businesses aware of which CSR

dimensions are most valuable to them, consumers can receive a product that aligns with

their desires. Data from this study may provide businesses with information to create

products that align with consumer preferences. Consumers may build relationships with a

128

business that can best serve their specific needs. Because of the relationships that form

through CSR initiatives, both customers and businesses will benefit from implementing

the results of this study.

129

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Appendix A

Copy of Instruments and Permissions Letters to Use the Instrument

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157

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As a CUSTOMER/ EMPLOYEE I believe 5. It is important for an organization to: __________ A. allocate resources on their ability to improve long-term profitability. __________ __________ B. comply promptly with new laws and court rulings. __________ __________ C. examine regularly new opportunities and programs which can __________ improve urban and community life. __________ D. recognize and respect new or evolving ethical/moral norms __________ adopted by society. 6. It is important for an organization to: __________ A. provide assistance to private and public educational institutions. __________ __________ B. ensure a high level of operating efficiency is maintained. __________ __________ C. be a law-abiding corporate citizen. __________ __________ D. advertise its goods and services in an ethically fair and responsible __________ manner. 7. It is important for an organization to: __________ A. support, assist, and work with minority owned businesses. __________ __________ B. avoid discriminating against women and minorities. __________ __________ C. pursue those opportunities which will enhance its earnings per share. __________ __________ D. prevent social norms from being compromised in order to achieve __________ universal goals. 8. It is important to monitor new opportunities which can enhance an organization’s: __________ A. moral and ethical image in society. ___________ __________ B. compliance with local, state and federal statutes. ___________ __________ C. financial health. ___________ __________ D. ability to help solve problems. ___________ 9. It is important for an organization to view: __________ A. philanthropic behavior as a useful measure of corporate performance. __________ __________ B. consistent financial stability as a useful measure of corporate __________ performance. __________ C. compliance with the law as a useful measure of corporate performance. __________ __________ D. compliance with the norms, mores, unwritten laws of society as useful __________ measures of corporate experience. 10. It is important for an organization to: __________ A. pursue only those opportunities which provide the best rate of return. __________ __________ B. provide employment opportunities to the hard-core unemployed. __________ __________ C. comply fully and honestly with enacted laws, regulations, and court __________ rulings. __________ D. recognize that society’s unwritten laws and codes can often be as __________ important as the written.

As a CUSTOMER/ CLIENT I believe

As a POTENTIAL/ EMPLOYEE I believe

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Appendix B

Computation of Sample Size

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Appendix C

IRB Approval Letter

- 1 - Generated on IRBNet

3300 West Camelback Road, Phoenix Arizona 85017 602.639.7500 Toll Free 800.800.9776 www.gcu.edu

DATE: July 14, 2016 TO: Megan Fixen FROM: Grand Canyon University Institutional Review Board STUDY TITLE: [857327-1] Contrasting the corporate social responsibility perceptions of

Generation X’ers IRB REFERENCE #: SUBMISSION TYPE: New Project ACTION: DETERMINATION OF EXEMPT STATUS DECISION DATE: REVIEW CATEGORY: Exemption category # [7.2]

Thank you for your submission of New Project materials for this research study. Grand Canyon University Institutional Review Board has determined this project is EXEMPT FROM IRB REVIEW according to federal regulations.

We will put a copy of this correspondence on file in our office.

If you have any questions, please contact Stephanie Henkel at 602-639-8010 or [email protected]. Please include your study title and reference number in all correspondence with this office.

cc:

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Appendix D

Informed Consent

Grand Canyon University College of Doctoral Studies 3300 W. Camelback Road Phoenix, AZ 85017 Phone: 602-639-7804 Email: [email protected]

INFORMED CONSENT FORM (SOCIAL BEHAVIORAL) MINIMAL RISK SAMPLE

CONSENT FORM CONTRASTING THE CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY PERCEPTIONS OF

GENERATION X’ERS

INTRODUCTION

The purposes of this form are to provide you (as a prospective research study participant) information that may affect your decision as to whether or not to participate in this research and to record the consent of those who agree to be involved in the study.

RESEARCH

Megan Fixen, Doctoral Candidate at Grand Canyon University has invited your participation in a research study.

STUDY PURPOSE The purpose of the research is to investigate the differences between CSR perceptions of

consumers in the age group of Generation X born in the 1960s and 1970s from a snowball sample in North Dakota.

DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH STUDY

If you say YES, then your participation will last for approximately 10-15 minutes while you complete the survey.

RISKS There are no known risks from taking part in this study, but in any research, there is some possibility that you may be subject to risks that have not yet been identified.

BENEFITS

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Although there may be no direct benefits to you, the possible benefits of your participation in the research are to advance scientific knowledge about generational differences in CSR perspectives.

NEW INFORMATION If the researchers find new information during the study that would reasonably change your decision about participating, then they will provide this information to you.

CONFIDENTIALITY All information obtained in this study is strictly confidential. The results of this research study may be used in reports, presentations, and publications, but the researchers will not identify you. In order to maintain confidentiality of your records, Megan Fixen will store paper surveys in a secure location (lock & key safe) for 3 years after the completion of the study. At the end of this period, the researcher will erase electronic data and shred paper documents. Since no names or identifying factors are associated with the survey, no codes are necessary to protect identities.

WITHDRAWAL PRIVILEGE Participation in this study is completely voluntary. It is ok for you to say no. Even if you say yes now, you are free to say no later, and withdraw from the study at any time.

COSTS AND PAYMENTS There is no payment for your participation in the study.

VOLUNTARY CONSENT Any questions you have concerning the research study or your participation in the study, before or after your consent, will be answered by: Megan Fixen [email protected] 701-770-1588

If you have questions about your rights as a subject/participant in this research, or if you feel you have been placed at risk, you can contact the Chair of the Institutional Review Board, through the College of Doctoral Studies at (602) 639-7804.

This form explains the nature, demands, benefits and any risk of the project. By signing this form you agree knowingly to assume any risks involved. Remember, your participation is voluntary. You may choose not to participate or to withdraw your consent and discontinue participation at any time without penalty or loss of benefit. In signing this consent form, you are not waiving any legal claims, rights, or remedies. A copy of this consent form will be given (offered) to you. Your signature below indicates that you consent to participate in the above study. ___________________________ _________________________ ____________ Subject's Signature Printed Name Date

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Appendix E

Tables for Univariate ANOVA Test

Descriptives Sum_Economic

N Mean Std.

Deviation Std. Error

95% Confidence Interval for Mean

Minimum Maximum Lower Bound

Upper Bound

1960s 78 20.6667 7.87511 .89168 18.8911 22.4422 1.00 43.00 1970s 78 19.2436 7.77640 .88050 17.4903 20.9969 3.00 41.00 Total 156 19.9551 7.83322 .62716 18.7162 21.1940 1.00 43.00

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Descriptives Sum_Philanthropic

N Mean Std.

Deviation Std. Error

95% Confidence Interval for Mean

Minimum

Maximum

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

1960s 78 16.5256 6.44804 .73010 15.0718 17.9795 2.00 34.00 1970s 78 16.7436 7.15221 .80983 15.1310 18.3562 2.00 36.00 Total 156 16.6346 6.78812 .54348 15.5610 17.7082 2.00 36.00

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Appendix F

Tables for Mann-Whitney U Test

Ranks Year R was born N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks Sum_Legal 1960s 78 80.15 6251.50

1970s 78 76.85 5994.50 Total 156

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Ranks Year R was born N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks Sum_Ethical 1960s 78 76.60 5975.00

1970s 78 80.40 6271.00 Total 156

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Appendix G

Tables for Tests of Normality

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