Powerpoint Presentation Editing

Abstract

Reproductive endocrinology is mostly associated with the description of the control process and reproductive function. It is through the phenomenon that the dynamics associated with sexual mechanisms are explored. The concept is the phenomenon in clinical endocrinal reproduction as different disorders are identified. The disorders emanate from failed endocrinal reproduction functionalities. This research paper aims at identifying the male reproductive functions by carrying out full clinical endocrinology of the male reproductive system. The reproductive functions are mostly categorized into three that is regulation of sexual act and spermatogenesis. This process is complex and inhibited by minor issues which may culminate in infertility. Male reproductive endocrinology entails the evaluation of the different functions that are performed by the male reproductive parts.

Reproductive Endocrinology

Introduction

Reproductive endocrinology is a complex term associated with hormone description and control process associated with sexual development and regulation. The concept is also associated with sexual reproduction and functions. It is through reproductive endocrinology that scientists explore the different sexual mechanisms in different genders. Reproductive endocrinology is also essential in the identification of various disorders. Generally, reproductive endocrinology disorders are attributed to an alteration in the functionalities of the hirsutism, virilization, amenorrhea, oligomenorrhea. The disorders are always associated with abnormal alterations o the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus, and the gonadal axis. Reproductive endocrinology has mostly been associated with clinical endocrinology due to the need to explore the various factors. This research paper will be based on reproductive endocrinology of the male reproductive system, whereby the male reproductive functions will be identified

Problem statement

Like the female reproductive system, the male reproductive system is also complex, creating the need to explore it further. Typically, clinical reproductive endocrinology is associated with the evaluation of diseases and the secretory aspects of the endocrine glands involved in the reproduction and secretion of sexual products. The endocrine system has the sole role of evaluating the functionalities of the different hormones. In this case, the male endocrine reproduction system will be evaluated to obtain the male reproductive functions. Different glands such as the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus are essential in making the reproduction process.

Methodology

This research will be based on a systematic review of various studies that are secondary sources, which offer the ground theory for further studies. The secondary will have to be current is older than five years. They also have to be peer-reviewed. This will ensure that the information corrected is valid and credible. The sources will be obtained from various databases such as google scholar, PubMed, and other scientific databases that offer credible resources.

Literature review

The male reproductive function associated with the endocrine system can be divided into three aspects: the sexual act, spermatogenesis, and regulation of reproductive functions. According to Hermann et al. (2018), spermatogenesis refers to a dynamic process associated with cellular differentiation (Hermann et al., 2018). The process is critical, as it is associated with male reproduction. The process is maintained by spermatogonial stem cells. The gene expression patterns have also been associated with the description of aggregates of particular spermatogenic cell types and a full continuum of gene expression patterns.

Since clinical endocrinology reproduction entails evaluating the whole endocrine system, the disorders have to be identified. According to Tüttelmann et al. (2018). Infertility, a disorder of spermatogenesis, affects approximately 10-15 married individuals (Tüttelmann et al., 2018). The identification of the disorder in males is mostly associated with the analysis of the hormone and semen. Mostly the process entails the evaluation of the Y chromosome.

According to Hart (2020), Bisphenol A has a significant impact on the endocrine system, thereby affecting the male reproductive system (Hart2020). The substance affects the production of various hormones as it acts as a xenoestrogen. The research indicates that foreign chemicals affect the male reproductive system, eventually getting access to the human body. Further evaluation is needed to understand the relationship between Bisphenol and the xenoestrogen effect. The study also suggests that the chemical may be leading to a reduction of sperm count.

Schulster et al. (2016) offer another chemical essential in the male reproductive system (Schulster et al., 2016). According to the source, estradiol I a crucial hormone in the sustenance of libido. The element is the predominant estrogen. The component is also vital in spermatogenesis and erectile function. Generally, estradiol has been associated with the regulation of testicular cells. The resources have faintly described the various male reproductive functions. More research is needed to ascertain the male reproductive functions.

Discussion

Typically, the male reproductive functions can be divided into three regulation of reproductive function by different hormones, spermatogenesis and the sexual act. Classically, spermatogenesis is divided into three stages: meiosis, spermatogenesis, and spermiogenesis. Primary germ cells enter the male gonad (testis) of the gene at week four and remain inactive till puberty. During puberty, primary germ cells differentiate into type A spermatogonia (affected by the pituitary gland), undergo mitosis, and guarantee an unceasing supply of stem cells during sperm cell formation. Some type A spermatogonia differentiate into type B spermatogonia.

Type B spermatogonia lead to spermatocytes' generation by undergoing DNA replication (Fayomi &Orwig, 2018). The chief spermatocytes complete meiosis I and form two secondary spermatocytes. Two secondary spermatocytes complete meiosis II and four spermatids are formed. The Spermatids endure a sequence of morphological alterations that culminate in sperm production. These changes include acrosome formation, head, nucleus, neck, and tail creation. The entire process for spermatogenesis is about 64 days (from spermatogonia to spermatozoa).

Sources: https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brainkart.com%2Fmedia%2Farticle%2Farticle-Spermatogenesis-kjv.jpg&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brainkart.com%2Farticle%2FSpermatogenesis_20051%2F&tbnid=dqpX4xzhdMlIYM&vet=12ahUKEwjXjo7nrpTvAhVH8BoKHaJlCh4QMyghegUIARCaAg..i&docid=vkHYVzaMvUbs3M&w=1152&h=478&q=spermatogenesis&ved=2ahUKEwjXjo7nrpTvAhVH8BoKHaJlCh4QMyghegUIARCaAg

Type A spermatogonia divide more or less four times in situ to become more differentiated type B spermatogonia, which moves to the renal tubule center in search of Sertoli cells (Wang et al., 2018). A 24-day cycle leads to meiosis when primary spermatocytes are degraded into secondary spermatocytes. Sertoli cells have unique functions and properties. Close connection with each other. It helps create a barrier for capillaries (e.g., BBB) to prevent large molecules (Ig) from entering the microenvironment. It secretes inhibin and regulates sperm and testosterone production. Inhibin is a glycoprotein with two subunits, 14 and 18 kDa, in the TGF family. Spermatogonia are "captured" (envelope) by Sertoli cells for maturation.

The other male reproductive function is associated with the regulation by the different hormones. The reproduction process is characterized by a myriad of process, which calls for various hormones to interact. Lydig cells have the sole role of the secretion of testosterone. Leydig cells do not synthesize glucocorticoids or mineralocorticoids because they do not contain 21β-hydroxylase or 11β-hydroxylase (unlike the adrenal cortex) (Zirkin & Papadopoulos, 2016). Generally, the Luitenizing Hormone is responsible for the secretion of testosterone through an increase in cholesterol desmolase production. The accessory reproductive organs (such as the prostate) contain 5α-reductase, which converts testosterone to its active form, dihydrotestosterone. A 5α-reductase inhibitor (finasteride) Can be used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia because it blocks testosterone's activation into dihydrotestosterone in the prostate. After secretion (weakly bound to albumin or tightly bound to proteins that bind to gonadal steroids), it circulates for 30-60 minutes and either anchor in tissues or breaks down.

The male reproductive system regulation is associated with various hormones—hypothalamic control-GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone). The hypothalamus' arcuate nucleus secretes gonadriberin into the hypothalamic-pituitary portal blood (Oyola & Handa, 2017). GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete FSH and LH. FSH acts on Sertoli cells to support spermatogenesis. Sertoli cells also secrete inhibin, which is involved in the negative feedback of FSH secretion. Luteinizing Hormone endorse testosterone synthesis. Testosterone acts through the testis's paracrine mechanism and enhances the spermatogenic effect of FSH on Sertoli cells.

Testosterone suppresses LH secretion by suppressing the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus. It also directly suppresses the secretion of Luteinizing Hormone from the anterior pituitary gland. Inhibin (produced by Sertoli cells) inhibits the secretion of FSH by the anterior pituitary gland.

In specific target tissues, testosterone is converted to DHT and binds to steroid receptors. DHT is activated, translocate to the nucleus, binds to specific DNA regions, and initiates transcription. Cells can make proteins and divide. In non-specific target tissues (the rest of the adult body or the fetal life's reproductive organs), testosterone does not contain enzymes that convert testosterone.

The final male reproductive function is associated with the sexual act. Men have well-coordinated sperm delivery activity. Parasympathetic nerves associated with erection, S 2, 3, 4, cavernous hemangiomas, and cavernous hemangiomas (du Toit et al., 2017). Sexual intercourse is associated with lubrication of the urethral and bulbourethral glands. L1-2 via sympathetic release, lower abdomen, and pelvic plexus. The ultimate male reproductive function is the continuous contraction of the sperm, prostate, and seminal vesicles, and when the urethra feels busy, sciatica and corpus cavernosum muscle contract.

Conclusion

Based on the findings, the male reproductive functions can be categorized into three: the regulation of hormones, the sexual act, and spermatogenesis. A disability of either function may render one infertile as they harmoniously interact in the reproduction process. Spermatogenesis is integral which relies on the regulation of the different hormones. Any negative stimuli on the hormones may lead to the inhibition of the main hormones needed in reproduction. Generally, based on the research, it is evident that the male reproduction functions may be categorized into three: a sexual act, spermatogenesis, and the regulation of the various hormones.

Reference

du Toit, T., Bloem, L. M., Quanson, J. L., Ehlers, R., Serafin, A. M., & Swart, A. C. (2017). Profiling adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites in prostate cancer cells, tissue, and plasma: UPC2-MS/MS quantification of 11β-hydroxytestosterone, 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-dihydrotestosterone. The Journal of steroid biochemistry and molecular biology, 166, 54-67.

Fayomi, A. P., & Orwig, K. E. (2018). Spermatogonial stem cells and spermatogenesis in mice, monkeys, and men. Stem cell research, 29, 207-214.

Schulster, M., Bernie, A. M., & Ramasamy, R. (2016). The role of estradiol in male reproductive function. Asian Journal of andrology, 18(3), 435.

Hart, R. J. (2020). The Impact of Prenatal Exposure to Bisphenol A on Male Reproductive Function. Frontiers in endocrinology, 11, 320.

Hermann, B. P., Cheng, K., Singh, A., Roa-De La Cruz, L., Mutoji, K. N., Chen, I. C., ... & McCarrey, J. R. (2018). The mammalian spermatogenesis single-cell transcriptome, from spermatogonial stem cells to spermatids. Cell reports, 25(6), 1650-1667.

Oyola, M. G., & Handa, R. J. (2017). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes: sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity. Stress, 20(5), 476-494.

Sakamoto, H., Matsuda, K. I., Zuloaga, D. G., Hongu, H., Wada, E., Wada, K., ... & Kawata, M. (2008). Sexually dimorphic gastrin-releasing peptide system in the spinal cord controls male reproductive functions. Nature Neuroscience, 11(6), 634-636.

Tüttelmann, F., Ruckert, C., & Röpke, A. (2018). Disorders of spermatogenesis. medizinische genetik, 30(1), 12-20.

Wang, M., Liu, X., Chang, G., Chen, Y., An, G., Yan, L., ... & Qiao, J. (2018). Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis reveals sequential cell fate transition during human spermatogenesis. Cell stem cell, 23(4), 599-614.

Zirkin, B. R., & Papadopoulos, V. (2018). Leydig cells: formation, function, and regulation. Biology of reproduction, 99(1), 101-111.