SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP RESEARCH PAPER

Global Business and Management Research: An International Journal

Vol. 9, No. 1s (Special Issue 2017)

39

Relationship between Leadership Styles and Affective

Commitment among Employees in National Anti-

Drugs Agency (NADA)

Raemah Abdullah Hashim*

Open University Malaysia, Business School, Malaysia

Email: [email protected]

Bushro Ahmad

Open University Malaysia, Business School, Malaysia

Email: [email protected]

Azahari Jamaludin

Faculty of Business and Finance,

Twintech International University College of Technology, Malaysia

Email: [email protected]

*Corresponding author

Abstract

Purpose: The objective of this study is to investigate the relationship between different leadership

styles, specifically Islamic, authentic and transformational leadership with affective commitment

in National Anti-Drugs Agency (NADA).

Design/Methodology/approach: This study used quantitative research approach and a total of

373 completed samples were collected. The respondents were asked to evaluate their supervisors’

leadership styles and their affective commitment towards the agency. Descriptive and regression

analysis were conducted and the questionnaire was adapted from past studies.

Findings: The results revealed that all the leadership styles if analyzed individually have

significant relationships with affective commitment. On the other hand, when multiple regression

analyses were conducted to investigate the relationship of the overall three different leadership

styles on commitment, the results indicated that the R2 and Beta values denoted a stronger

relationship with affective commitment.

Practical Implication: This study suggests that if all the leadership styles of transformational,

Islamic and authentic leadership were amalgamated the revelation of achieving higher employees’

affective commitment will be realized. Thus, managers or leaders who are required to develop

effective strategies and competencies should possess all the qualities of the transformational,

Islamic and authentic that would benefit the organization in reducing employee turnover and

improving customer satisfaction.

Originality/value: There is a growing aspiration among researchers to study on what types of

leadership style that is most suited to public organization. This research thus, examines the

leadership style that would help increase the affective commitment of its employee in order to

accomplish the agency vision. There is limited empirical study in this domain.

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Keywords: Leadership Style; Islamic Leadership; Authentic Leadership; Transformational

leadership; Affective Commitment

Paper Type: Research Paper

Introduction The public sector now faces enormous challenges that demand structural changes and a paradigm

shift to ensure it remains relevant and respected. Thus, Malaysia’s Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Najib

Razak, has introduced the Government Transformation Program (GTP) as a catalyst for

transformation that demands public servants to change the ways of thinking and working in serving

the country. Basically, there are seven key initiatives that have been identified and known as

National Key Result Areas (NKRA). One of the NKRA is Reducing Crime under the Ministry of

Home Affairs (MOHA). All respected agencies under the MOHA, including the National Anti-

Drugs Agency (NADA) are made accountable to achieve the said NKRA (Pemandu, 2011).

Current study was conducted in NADA where90% of the agency employees are Malays and Muslim

with Islam as their official religion. Besides, there are about 78% of drug users and abusers

originated from Malays ethnics which are also Muslim (NADA, 2014).National Anti-Drugs

Agency (NADA) being a government agency under the Ministry of Home Affairs is headed by the

Director General who is under the Administration and Diplomatic Officer scheme. The agency has

103 offices all over in Malaysia with its Headquarter based in Kajang, Selangor with the staff

strength of about 6,616 (NADA, 2015).

Past studies have indicated that with strong leadership and commitment from its employee the

organization’s performance was increased. Therefore, there is a need for better strategic planning

to be implemented with excellent leadership and commitment among the employees. Past studies

had indicated the need for the excellent leaders to lead the agency. Can this strategic planning be

done without excellent leaders and employees commitment? According to Joseph (2011),leadership

is an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend to make real changes and

outcomes that reflect their shared purposes. On the other hand, Gaines, Worrall, Southerland, and

Angell (2003) define leadership style as “actual leadership behavior and actions toward employees

as opposed to innate qualities which a person might possess”.

There are various leadership styles that can be exhibited by leaders in the organization, political,

business or other arenas such as Islamic, Authentic and Transformational Leadership. Ali (2009)

described Islamic leadership as generally base on the primary and secondary resources of shariah

(Al-Qur’an and Sunnah) to ensuring essential elements such as cohesiveness, improved welfare of

society, and smooth performance are important aspects of a leader’s responsibility. Generally

leadership style may refer to leader's style on how he gives direction, implementing plans, inspiring

group and motivating people in his organization. Walumbwa (2008) focus his study on authentic

leadership of which he describe as leader’s process in drawing from both positive psychological

capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which will resulted in both greater self-

awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors between himself and his associates and thus

fostering positive self-development. This kind of approach would definitely emphasize building the

leader's acceptability through honest relationships with followers and will value their input that can

build a stronger ethical foundation. Generally, authentic leaders are positive people with truthful

self-concepts who promote openness. While it is important to define other popular leadership styles,

transformational leadership is one leadership style that has been very popular in this century.

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Nicolaides et al. (2014) refers it as a leadership approach that causes change in individuals and

social systems. In its ideal form, it creates valuable and positive change in the followers with the

end goal of developing followers into leaders.

Research has found that organizational commitment is important for the success of the organization.

It is being defined as an employee’ strong trust in and recognition of an organization’s objective

and beliefs, effort on behalf of the group to reach these areas objectives and strong desire to maintain

membership in the organization (Hunt and Morgan, 1994). However, among the many

commitments that an employee is obligated to is affective commitment. It is one type of

organizational commitment that will create a positive interaction between the individual and the

organization since both have similar values (Shore and Tetrick, 1991).

Problem Statement

The National Anti-Drugs Agency (NADA) transformation program is formulated in accordance

with the expectations of our stakeholders, in particular the Malaysian Government Transformation

Program (GTP).The transformation program was discussed in detail among multiple government

agencies, and in the case of National Anti-Drugs Agency (NADA) it will be the issue of leadership

and commitment among the agency employees.

In Malaysia, the abuse of drugs is still the number one enemy of the country. It is a complex matter

and has been a serious problem in this country. Illegal substance use and drug relapse is an issue

that continues to plague societies worldwide. The number of registered drug users is about 300,000

in 2014 report, and is expected to reach half a million by 2025. There is also a worrying trend of

high relapse rate of 50%, which has been consistently seen in the past decades. In addition,

substance abuse is also one of the leading and most complicated health and social problems faced

by this country. Unfortunately, after three decades of managing these problems, the outcomes are

still far from reaching the set target. This could be due to several reasons. Firstly, treatment policy

has been confined to a single treatment modality, which is the regimental rehabilitation programme.

Secondly, the medical therapeutic approach has been totally ignored by this policy, despite strong

evidence that addiction to drugs is a medical condition. Thirdly, it is the stigma of the illness and

rehabilitation treatment itself, which has resulted in patients being hesitant of seeking early

treatment.

Leadership is imperative to any organization. How to become an excellent leader? Are leaders born

or nurture? Is National Anti-Drugs Agency (NADA) have committed and loyal employees to

support the agency strategic planning? Therefore, NADA needs committed leaders that can lead

and manage the organization excellently. According to Allen and Meyer (1990), commitment refers

to the attitude of the leaders to their organization. Normally, the employees will commit if they are

really satisfied with their present job and their leaders or managers. The satisfaction normally

depends on what the employees can get or receive from the job. Furthermore, there is a growing

demand for Islamic leadership style to be applied in organizations, especially in government

organization like National Anti-Drugs Agency (NADA) but there is limited empirical study in this

domain. The Islamic leadership model is belief to be able to offer a room of better than just

excellence towards employee commitment.

Therefore, all the above issues demand for better strategic planning which will require excellent

leadership styles such as Islamic Leadership, Authentic Leadership and Transformational

Leadership to lead the organization. Now, the burning question is, can the strategic planning being

developed and implemented without excellent leadership style and employee’s commitment?

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Literature Reviews and Hypothesis

Based on literature reviews the proposed model is depicted in the following:

Figure 1: Leadership Styles and Affective Commitment

According to Arsenault (2004) and Mowday et al., (1982) as cited by Swiggard (2011) defined

employee commitment as the attachment of an individual’s psychological and physiological being

to the organization. There are three types of employee commitment; affective commitment,

normative commitment, and continuance commitment (Meyer, Allen and Smith, 1993). Affective

commitment is a situation in which individual is emotionally attached to the organization and

enjoys working in the organization. Meanwhile continuance commitment refers to a trend in which

employee engages in constant lines of action on the basis of the individual’s awareness of the costs

related with leaving the organization. Normative commitment refers to an ethical belief and

responsibility to remain with the organization. Affective commitment was used because

researchers wanted to measure how emotionally attached the employees with the organization

when their leader practices the three Islamic leadership principles. According to Moten (2011)

trustworthy is important to be developed by the leader in organization since when the employees

have a high level of trust, their level of confidence that their leader will successfully guide the

organization is high. Thus, it drives the leader to perform their duties well (Ali, 2009). For instance,

the leader actively encouraging their employees to get involved in the decision making process in

the organization (Balfour and Wechsler, 1960).

Affectively committed employees are seen to have a sense of belonging and identification that

increases their involvement in the organization’s goals, and their desire to remain with the

organization (Meyer and Allen, 1991; Mowday et.al., 1982). Concerning qualifications of affective

commitment Meyer and Allen (1997) noted that work experiences such as organizational rewards

and supervisors’ support have confirmed stronger associations with affective commitment than

have structural features of the organization or personal characteristics of employees. Excellent

leadership and affective commitment has positive relationship in working environment. Mohamad

and Aminudin (2004) argued that managers who aspire to develop employees with characteristics

of affective commitment, would, obviously, have to engage in a more serious approach in

establishing a higher degree of Islamic leadership among their employees. It is also supported by

Lok, Peter and Crawford (2004) that leadership styles is important organizational backgrounds of

affective commitment. In addition, relationship between leadership practices and organizational

commitment especially affective commitment in the fire services has been examined by William

(2000) as well. The leader affects the employees through authorization rather than control

strategies. Gradually employees develop and function as autonomous persons (Khurana et al,

2004).

Leadership has been defined in various ways. Collating some of the predominant definitions,

leadership was defined as having the capacity, will, or ability to get results from people by

persuasion or influence for achieving a common purpose. Over the years, leadership paradigm is

 Islamic Leadership

 Authentic Leadership

 Transformational Leadership

Affective

Commitment

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continuously evolving, with concepts of the past being reanalyzed and new perspectives being

introduced.Islamic leaders were known to have future orientations and are more likely to see the

possibilities and will approach them with smart planning and a sense of accountability (Dent and

Krefft, 2004). Unus (2005) on the other hand mentioned that an Islamic way of life revolves around

preparation for the life in the hereafter. The al-Qur’ān tells us that those who ask for what is good

in this world as well as in the hereafter will receive what is due to them in both worlds. Thus, from

an Islamic viewpoint, leadership is seen from the perspective of the worldly mission that a Muslim

has to fulfill. In other words, Islamic leaders are to work for the collective well-being of society

through the propagation of all that is good (Amr Bil Maroof) and defeating all that is evil (Nahi–

Al-Munkar). Authentic leaders on the other hand had gained a global consideration recently due to

the challenges faced by conflicting stream of social pressure, which the outcome is more a self-

entrapped in moral dilemmas (Novicevic et al., 2006). Generally, authenticity is defined in

leadership literatures as absence of self-deception, recognition of any short-comings, striving for

the fulfilments of individual potentials, having self-awareness of purpose, taking full

responsibilities for one’s error, and being one’s true self (Shamir and Eilam, 2005; Sparrowe, 2005;

Avolio and Gardner, 2005; Ilies, Morgeson and Nahrgang 2005). The four constructs of authentic

leadership, as identified by Walumbwa et al. (2008) research, are namely: self-awareness,

relational transparency, internalized moral perspective and having balanced processing of

information. Enacted in its authentic form, transformational leadership enhances the motivation,

morale and performance of followers through various mechanisms. Transformational leadershipis

defined as a leadership approach that causes change in individuals and social systems. In its ideal

form, it creates valuable and positive change in the followers with the end goal of developing

followers into leaders. These include connecting the follower's sense of identity and self to the

mission and the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers that

inspires them; challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding

the strengths and weaknesses of followers, so the leader can align followers with tasks that

optimize their performance.

Norman (2006) stated that a trusting relationship between leaders and followers is one of the

characteristic which differentiate mediocre organizations from the leading ones. Schoorman,

Mayer, and Davis (2007) defined trust as a - willingness to be vulnerable to another party. Trust

has been studied in different disciplines (organizational science, sociology, and psychology) and

at different levels (individual, group, firm, and institutional) (Rousseau et al., 1998). Across all

these disciplines, the definition of trust includes the willingness to be vulnerable (Rousseau et al.).

Avolio and Gardner (2005), Walumbwa et al. (2008), Avolio et al. (2004), and Eagly (2005) have

all discussed relational authenticity or relational transparency, which reflects the fact that authentic

leadership is opposite to impression management. (Avolio, 2005). While these two constructs are

similar, Avolio and Gardner (2005) posit that relational transparency is more descriptive as it points

to the transparent interaction between leaders and followers. Thus, relational authenticity or

transparency is the construct that involves both leaders and followers as active agents of authentic

relationships (Eagly, 2005; Avolio and Gardner, 2005). Under transformational leadership, there is

generally a sense of purpose and family; leaders and followers share mutual interests and a sense

of shared fates and interdependence (Bass and Avolio, 1994). Further, empirical results have

verified the impact of transformational leaders’ behaviors on followers’ work attitudes such as

organizational commitment (Dumdum et al., 2002; Podsakoff et al., 1990). It has been claimed

that the instrument involved in generating the initial attitude of affective commitment includes

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participation, shared values and identification (Meyer, Herscovitch and Topolnytsky, 2002).

Meaning that, affective commitment develops when individuals become complicated in, recognize

the value significance of or derive their identity according to an association with the entity or

pursuit of a course of action (Meyer et al., 2002). As such, transformational leaders are able to

influence their followers’ affective commitment by promoting higher levels of intrinsic value

associated with goal accomplishment, emphasizing the linkages between their followers’ efforts

and goal achievement, as well as by creating a higher level of personal affective commitment on

the part of the leader and followers to their common vision, mission, and organizational goal

(Avolio et al., 2004).

Hypotheses

Based on the literatures, the following hypotheses have been suggested:

H1: There is significant relationship between the Islamic, authentic and transformational

leadership styles (overall leadership styles) and affective commitment among employees in

National Anti-Drugs Agency (NADA);

H2: There is a significant relationship between Islamic leadership and affective commitment

among employees in National Anti-Drugs Agency (NADA);

H3: There is a significant relationship between authentic leadership and affective commitment

among employees in National Anti-Drugs Agency (NADA);

H4: There is a significant relationship between transformational leadership and affective

commitment among employees in National Anti-Drugs Agency (NADA);

Methodology and Research Design

This section describes the overall technique and procedure used to collect data for this research.

The researcher uses quantitative research for this study to investigate the relationship between the

different types of leadership styles and affective commitment. The relevant units of analysis in this

study focused on the employees of NADA in the Klang Valley offices. Their perception of their

immediate supervisor of the agency were closely studied to identify their affective commitment A

quantitative cross sectional survey research was employed in this study. Approximately 400

questionnaires were distributed with a total of 373 responses. Overall the response rate is 93.25%.

The response rate was excellent though 100% response rate is desirable. In this study, data were

collected using a structured questionnaire which consisted of 62 items.

The survey instrument was comprised of five (5) sections. The first section measured

demographics, second section measured self-reported Islamic leadership behaviours, third section

measured Authentic Leadership behaviour, and fourth section indicated the transformational

leadership behaviour and the fifth section required identifying affective commitment. The

respondents were given one day to answer and return the questionnaire to the researcher by hand

at the designated location. On average, it took 15 minutes to answer the questionnaire. Islamic

Leadership was measured by using 12 items adapted from Khaliq (2013). 16 item scales for

Authentic Leadership Assessment Questionnaire was adapted from Walumbwa (2008).

Transformational leadership was measured using 21 items adapted from MLQ instrument by Bass

and Avolio (1997). For affective commitment, Allen and Meyer (1997) instrument was adapted.

The items from the scales were measured on a 5-Point Likert-type scale, anchored by 1, “strongly

disagree” through to 5, “strongly agree.”

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The data collected indicated an excellent reliability as depicted in Table 1 below. The value

Cronbach’s alpha were higher than 0.8 was considered “acceptable” in most social science

application. The value of 0.7 was considered generally as a minimum of Cronbach’s alpha by

researchers, although lower coefficients may be acceptable depending on research objectives (Hair,

Babin, Money and Samouel, 2003).

Table 1: Overall Internal Reliability

Items No of Items Reliability (Cronbach's Alpha)

Islamic Leadership 12 0.852

Authentic Leadership 16 0.717

Transformational Leadership 21 0.864

Affective Commitment 8 0.816

To check on the content validity of the questionnaire, and to ensure accurate data to be collected

two experts specialized in business management, human resource, and cultural issues research

were invited to review and advise in the pre-test stage. Some revisions were made after getting the

feedbacks in terms of questions clarity.

Findings

This section presented the results of current study on the relationship between leadership style

(Islamic, authentic and transformational leadership) and affective commitment among employees

at NADA. The results are divided into two (2) sub-sections. The first sub-section displayed the

demographic characteristics of respondents and the last sub-section explained the hypothesis

testing.

Respondents’ Profile

A total of 373 respondents completed the questionnaires. Table 2 depicted the items of

demographics involved such as genders, age, grade of services and working place. The sample

indicates that male respondents represented a slightly higher percentage of total samples (57%)

when compared to the female respondents (43%). The majority of the respondents were in Grade

17-38 (85 %) while 11 percent are in Grade 41- 54. A majority of the respondents were middle age

between 41 to 50 years of age (48 %) followed by those between 31 to 40 years old (35%). About

8 percent of the employees were older than 50. With reference to the location of data collected, 47

percent are from headquarters and the rest were from Kuala Lumpur and Selangor branch (52%).

Table 2: Respondents Profile

Particulars Variables Frequency Percent

Gender Male 212 56.8

Female 161 43.2

Age Below 30 35 9.4

31 – 40 132 35.4

41-50 177 47.5

51-60 29 7.8

Employment Grade JUSA 3 0.8

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Grade 41 – 54 42 11.3

Grade 17-38 317 85

Grade 1- 16 11 2.9

Location Headquarters 178 47.7

Kuala Lumpur 93 24.9

Selangor 102 27.3

Correlation Analysis

To explore the relationship among the variables involved, correlation test was carried out using

Pearson’s correlation matrix. The inter-correlations coefficients (r) were calculated by the means

of Pearson’s Product Moment. According to Cohen (1988), r ranging from 0.10 to 0.29 may be

regarded as indicating a low degree of correlation, r=0.30 to 0.49 may be regarded as indicating a

moderate degree of correlation and r ranging from 0.50 to 1.00 may be regarded as a high degree

of correlation. The relationships between Islamic leadership, Authentic Leadership,

Transformational Leadership were investigated against affective commitment. Table 3 shows the

summary of the results. The result indicates that there were low to moderately high degree of

correlations between Islamic leadership, Authentic Leadership, Transformational Leadership and

Overall Leadership Styles on affective commitment ranged from 0.175 to o.718.

Table 3: Summary of Pearson’s Correlation Matrix

Items Islamic L Authentic L Transformational Overall L/ Style

Islamic 1 .175** .417** .645**

Authentic 1 .309** .558**

Transformational

1 .718**

Overall Leadership Style

1

***Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Hypothesis Testing

Simple Linear regression (SLR) and Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA) were performed to

examine the relationship of independent variables and dependent variables separately. Before the

test was carried out, evaluation based on assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedascity

were performed. Visual observation of the box plot indicated no serious outliers’ problem at Z

scores of ±3.29 at p<0.001 probability level range. Given that there were no serious violations of

the assumptions a multiple and simple linear regression analysis were appropriate to test the

hypotheses.

Table 4 reveals that there are significant relationships between Islamic leadership (t value 3.54 at

p<0.001), Authentic Leadership (t value 4.33 at p<0.001), Transformational Leadership (t value

5.40 at p<0.001) and Overall Leadership Style (t value 6.22 at p<0.001) on Affective Commitment.

Therefore, based on these results, all the Hypotheses were supported. However, the strength of the

relationship measured by the r value ranged from 0.07 to 0.31 at p-value of 0.001, which are within

r =0.10 to 0.39 ranges which are considered low (Cohen, 1988, 1992). The coefficient of

determination measured by the adjusted R-square is found to be within the range of 0.03 to 0.09

(ranges from F=12.55 to 38.72 at P<0.001). This indicates that all leadership styles help to explain

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about 3 percent to 9 percent of the variance in NADA employees’ score on affective commitment.

The Adjusted R-square for the overall leadership styles which is the amalgamation of the three

leadership styles being the highest at 0.09 which means that the predictors account for 9% of the

variation in the affective commitment. The beta values given in the Table 4 also indicates the

amalgamated leadership of Islamic leadership, Authentic Leadership and Transformational

Leadership (beta= 0.31) as a more important predictor of commitment.

Table 4: Summary of Regression Analysis

Variable B Std.

Error

Beta t R Adjusted R

Square

F Sig.

Islamic Leadership 0.23 0.06 0.18 3.54 0.18 0.03 12.55 0.00

Transformational L/ship 0.15 0.03 0.27 5.40 0.07 0.07 29.17 0.00

Authentic L/ship 0.29 0.07 0.22 4.33 0.22 0.05 18.75 0.00

Overall L/S 0.12 0.02 0.31 6.22 0.31 0.09 38.72 0.00

Dependent Variable: Commitment

Discussion and Conclusion It was found that the relationship between overall leadership style and affective commitment is

significant. This result is in line with Lo (2009) study who concluded that leadership styles are able

to encourage commitment among Malaysian employees in manufacturing industry. His argument

was also supported by Walumbwa, Orwa, Wang, and Lawler (2005) study. The likely explanation

is that amalgamation of all the leadership styles may be the ideal leadership style that will affect

employees’ commitment towards the organization.

Current study also found that the relationship between Islamic leadership and affective commitment

was to be significant. The outcome is in line with Kaneshiro (2008) study who verified that when

the leader demonstrated organizational justice the outcome will be positive. They will be more loyal

upon executing their responsibilities towards organization. Thus, this will probably drive the leaders

to execute their duties more effectively (Ali, 2009). Another important item in Islamic leadership

is honesty. By being so, moral values and ethics within the organization are stressed. Therefore,

they will put more attention on the organization needs rather than their personal agenda (Khaliq

Ahmad, 2009).

This study also found that the relationship between authentic leadership and affective commitment

to be significant. This finding relates to NADA as a government organization where there is a real

need for them to acquire a stable metaphysical and psychological self, for sustainability of the

organization. Past researchers and practitioners are in agreement that authentic leaders, have certain

qualities of self-awareness, self-regulations, positive modeling, ethical reasoning, relational

transparency, and balanced processing capabilities. They lead their people through exhibition of

their good principled and inner self, while possessing positive behaviors. This behavioral aspect is

important especially when public organization like NADA is faced with ethical issues.

This study also found that the relationship between transformational leadership and affective

commitment being significant. In other words, if commitment of employees were not emotionally

attached to this organization, employees will not be motivated to make greater contribution to shape

the organization’s vision. Generally, transformational leaders can inspire subordinates by modeling

a vision that enhances employee’s confidence, motivation and expectations (Epitropaki and Martin,

2005). On the other hand, other related studies found that leader’s behavior have a moderating

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influence on the frontline service employee's commitment to service quality (Elmadağ, Ellinger,

and Franke, 2008). Committed employees are less likely to quit their job or be absent from work.

Their motivation and citizenship behavior will lead to higher job performance. Moreover,

committed employees are more likely to have long tenure and consequently gain more knowledge

and experience to improve service quality which will result in higher customer satisfaction

(Malhotra and Mukherjee, 2004).

This research is not without its limitations. Self-reported data collection methodology was

employed to measure leadership style and affective commitment which can cause biases. Thus the

outcome from this study cannot be generalized to other industry. It is recommended that future

researchers should conduct longitudinal studies to establish causal relationship between study on

other variables related to leadership styles and commitment. A nationwide survey is also

recommended.

The research findings present valuable information for policy makers in National Anti-Drugs

Agency (NADA) with regards to employee’s job satisfaction, commitment to organization, and

intention to stay in the organization. A significant finding for organizations to be noted is that

affective commitment has a rather tenuous correlation to efficiency on the job. This is an important

piece of information for researchers and organizations to find out further what are other variables

that can assist in increasing employees’ commitment. Past study by Judge, Thoresen, Bono, and

Patton (2001) found that an only low correlation exists between leadership style and affective

commitment. In short, the notion that "a blissful employee is a productive worker" should not be

the foundation of any managerial decision-making. Other variable such as employees’ personality

may even be more important than leadership style with regards to performance (Bowling, 2007).

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