Democracy and social welfare dissertation

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References & Bibliography

Referencing is absolutely necessary on three occasions. You must give your sources for:

1. all statements of ‘fact’

2. all opinions and arguments that are not your own

3. direct quotations (including the relevant page numbers of the original)

References should normally be used only to identify source material. Explanatory footnotes, which elaborate on

points contained in the essay, should be used very sparingly. If you cannot incorporate a point in the main text, it

usually means that the remark is irrelevant or unnecessary.

The aim of a reference is simple: to provide the reader with suf�cient information so that the sources that you

have cited or quoted can be veri�ed easily. The reader must be able to verify whether you have used or

interpreted the source appropriately. Two main systems of referencing are in use, the traditional (or

footnote/endnote) system and the so-called ‘Harvard’ system. These are explained, and their relative

advantages discussed, in Turabian, A Manual for Writers, ‘Sample Footnote References and Corresponding

Bibliographical Entries’ (chapter 8).

Traditional (footnote/endnote) References

When traditional notes are used they should be numbered consecutively throughout the essay. If your word-

processing package allows them to be placed automatically at the bottom of each page (footnotes), this is easiest

for the reader. If not, they should be grouped at the end of the essay or at the end of each chapter of the

dissertation (endnotes).

It is not a good idea to rely on published books for guidance on presentation of references, since some publishers

have very low standards. However, scholarly journals like International Organization and The Paci�c Review

provide excellent models to follow.

Harvard References

The special features of the Harvard system are:

explanatory notes are distinguished from references to sources, and are placed as footnotes or at the end

of the chapter to which they refer

references to sources are given by author’s surname and the date of publication of the source (e.g. Smith

1995, p. 6) and are directly incorporated in the text

the bibliography is organised alphabetically by authors’ surnames. If more than one work by the same

author is cited, they are given in chronological order of publication; if there are several works by an author

in one year, each is assigned a reference letter (e.g. 1994a, 1994b, etc.)

Referencing Websites

Websites are now part of our intellectual landscape. We use websites to substantiate our arguments with

statistics and empirical examples. Increasingly, however, we are also consulting the web for academic and

scholarly work. For all these, we need to reference the web-based material appropriately and fully. This means

that we expect you to refer to any web-based material in exactly the same way as you would refer to printed

material.

So for example, Gro Harlem Brundtland’s Reich Lecture (available on the BBC website) should be referenced in

the following way. In the text it should be (Brundtland, 2000) if you are using the Harvard system. In the

bibliography it should be referenced as:

Brundtland , Gro Harlem, 2000, ‘ Health and Population’, Reich Lectures 2000, BBC,

http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_2000/lecture4.stm. Accessed on 16/07/2003.

If it is not clear that there is an individual author, then use the name of the organisation, for example, the UN or

the World Bank. However, please make sure that the title of the piece referenced and the full website address is

included together with the date accessing it. If you have accessed the referenced page, then we should be able to

do so. If you are quoting web-based material from someone’s work, then a reference to that should be made by

including (cited in…).

A full guide to referencing web-based sources is available from the Library.

Sample References

Examples of both traditional (T) and Harvard (H) references are provided below. For further guidance consult

one of the style manuals recommended above.

Single-Authored Book

T Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton

University Press, 1993), p. 59. [corresponds to a note number in the text]

H (Russett

1993, 59) [inserted directly into the text]

Chapter in an Edited Book

T Soogil Young, ‘East Asia as a Regional Force for Globalism’, in Kym Anderson and Richard Blackhurst, eds.,

Regional Integration and the Global Trading System (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester

Wheatsheaf, 1993), p. 129.

H (Young 1993, 129)

Journal Article

T Andrew Wyatt-Walter, ‘Adam Smith and the Liberal Tradition in International Relations’, Review of International

Studies, 22: 2 (1996), p. 11.

H (Wyatt-Walter 1996, 11)

Of�cial Publication

T U.S. Tariff Commission, Sugar: Report to the President of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing

Of�ce, 1903), p. 35.

H (U.S. Tariff Commission 1903, 35)

Unpublished Dissertation

T Norman Caul�eld, ‘Mexican Labour and the State in the Twentieth Century: Con�ict and Accommodation’

(PhD dissertation, University of Houston, 1990), p. 126.

H (Caul�eld 1990, 126)

Newspaper Article

T Nigel Page, ‘Commitment Tested to Limit: Problems Facing Foreign Law Firms in Vietnam’, Financial Times, 25

June 1995, p. 3.

H (Page 1995)

Classic Text

T Edmund Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry concerning the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1759 2

edn), in Ian Harris, ed., Edmund Burke: Pre-Revolutionary Writings (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 65.

H (Burke 1759, 65)

Secondary Quotation

T Edward Hallett Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis, 1919-1939 (London: Macmillan, 1962), pp. 111-12, quoted by

Paul R. Viotti and Mark V. Kauppi, eds., International Relations Theory: Realism, Pluralism, Globalism (New York:

Macmillan, 1993 2 edn), p. 43.

H (quoted in Viotti and Kauppi 1993, 43) [ name Carr and the book in the text]

When you cite work that has been reprinted in an edited collection or reader (as in the classic text example

above) or if you quote something that another author has quoted but which you have not seen yourself

(secondary quotation example above), it is especially important that your reference clearly indicates the source

that you used. Do not try to get away with citing the original source if you have not actually consulted it.

There are three reasons for this. First, anyone checking your work will not easily be able to identify a quotation

without a precise page reference, and the pagination will differ from one edition to another. Second, a quotation

taken out of context may be misleading, and you are responsible for interpreting it correctly. Third, it may be

important to protect yourself against vague or inaccurate citation in the source on which you rely. A clear

reference places responsibility for error where it belongs.

It is always better to use the original source. You are responsible, as a scholar, for the quality of your research, so

don’t rely on others’ interpretation of sources: look it up yourself!

Abbreviated Forms in Second and Subsequent References

When using traditional (footnote/endnote) references and citing a work already mentioned in full earlier in the

essay or dissertation, you may use an abbreviated reference such as: ‘Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace, p.

5’. You may use ‘Russett, op. cit.’ if the work has been cited often and recently, but don’t make it hard for the

reader to trace the source. When referring to the same reference for the second (or third/fourth) time in a row,

you may use the abbreviated reference ‘Ibid’ plus the relevant page number. ‘Ibid’ is an abbreviation of ‘ibidem’,

meaning ‘the same’. When making a further reference on the same page of your essay to the same page of the

work cited, you may use the abbreviation ‘loc. cit.’ Note that these forms should not be used when using the

Harvard system of referencing.

Presentation of the Bibliography

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Please note that failure to include a bibliography will result in an automatic deduction of 3 marks from the grade

for the exercise.

All essays and the dissertation require a complete bibliography in addition to references. In the case of the

Harvard system, the list of references counts as a bibliography. As noted earlier, failure to include a bibliography

will result in an automatic deduction of 3 marks from the grade for the exercise. The bibliography should include

books and articles mentioned in the text and in references,other works that you have found useful or that have

informed your research, and unpublished material on which you have drawn. Sources should be listed in

alphabetical order. The bibliography need not include everything you have read, and it should certainly not

include anything that you have not read! The author’s name should be listed surname �rst in bibliographical

references, to make clear the alphabetical order by family name (e.g. ‘Grant, Wyn’ instead of ‘Wyn Grant’). This is

the principal but not the only difference between a bibliographical entry and a reference note. Turabian deals

with this in chapter 8.

Good scholarly presentation of sources is an essential guarantee that your sources are authentic, and can be

veri�ed, and that your argument is indeed supported by concrete evidence. Very poor scholarly presentation

may break the chain of evidence and will be penalised. However, details differ. Since there is so much variation,

no one in PaIS is likely to be pedantic about minor matters. Consistency and transparency in your presentation

of sources are the two chief virtues.

Single-Authored Book

T Russett, Bruce, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World. Princeton: Princeton

University Press, 1993.

H Russett, Bruce (1993) Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World. Princeton: Princeton

University Press.

Chapter in an Edited Book

T Young, Soogil, ‘East Asia as a Regional Force for Globalism’, in Kym Anderson and Richard Blackhurst, eds.,

Regional Integration and the Global Trading System. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993, pp. 126-43.

H Young, Soogil (1993) ‘East Asia as a Regional Force for Globalism,’ in Kym Anderson and Richard

Blackhurst, eds., Regional Integration and the Global Trading System. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf

, pp. 126-43.

Journal Article 

T Wyatt-Walter, Andrew, ‘Adam Smith and the Liberal Tradition in International Relations’, Review of

International Studies, 22: 2 (1996), pp. 5-28.

H Wyatt-Walter, Andrew (1996) ‘Adam Smith and the Liberal Tradition in International Relations’, Review of

International Studies, 22: 3, pp. 5-28.

Of�cial Publication

T U.S. Tariff Commission, Sugar: Report to the President of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Printing

Of�ce, 1903.

H U.S. Tariff Commission (1903) Sugar: Report to the President of the United States. Washington, DC: Government

Printing Of�ce.

Unpublished Dissertation

T Caul�eld, Norman, ‘Mexican Labour and the State in the Twentieth Century: Con�ict and Accommodation.’

PhD dissertation, University of Houston, 1990.

H Caul�eld, Norman (1990) ‘Mexican Labour and the State in the Twentieth Century: Con�ict and

Accommodation.’ PhD dissertation, University of Houston

Newspaper Article

T Page, Nigel, ‘Commitment Tested to Limit: Problems Facing Foreign Law Firms in Vietnam’, Financial Times, 25

June 1995, p. 3.

H Page, Nigel (1995) ‘Commitment Tested to Limit: Problems Facing Foreign Law Firms in Vietnam’, Financial

Times, 25 June, p. 3.

Classic Text

T Burke, Edmund. A Philosophical Enquiry concerning the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1759 2

edn), in Ian Harris, ed., Edmund Burke: Pre-Revolutionary Writings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993,

pp. 63-77.

H Burke, Edmund (1759) A Philosophical Enquiry concerning the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (2

ed.), in Ian Harris, ed., Edmund Burke: Pre-Revolutionary Writings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993,

pp. 63-77.

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