L summary pro

Transcending Gender in the Performance of Kathak Author(s): Purnima Shah Source: Dance Research Journal, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Autumn, 1998), pp. 2-17 Published by: Congress on Research in Dance Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1478835 Accessed: 02-12-2016 18:38 UTC

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted

digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about

JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at

http://about.jstor.org/terms

Congress on Research in Dance, Cambridge University Press are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Dance Research Journal

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Transcending Gender in the Performance of Kathak

Purima Shah

Kathak, a classical dance form of Northern India, portrays an iconographic representation of the cultural constructs of the Hindu world view, most particularly, the ideology of gender roles within the culture. Essentially a dance form that emerged from within the Hindu reli- gious beliefs and practices, Kathak was significantly influenced by the bhakti movement popu- larized in the early medieval period on the one hand, and on the other, by its incorporation in the Moghal courts after the fifteenth century. However, I limit my arguments to the Hindu concept of gender and its portrayal in the performance of Kathak. This paper focuses on the fluidity of gender performance in light of the indigenous philosophical concepts of "oneness" or non-dualism exemplified in Kathak abhinaya (1). This study is inspired by my observation and participatory experience as a dancer-performer of this form.

Traditionally a solo dance form, danced exclusively by males until the turn of the century (2), Kathak is classic in its comprehensive gesture and movement vocabulary and empowers the performer to mimetically present a metaphorical personification of the cultural nuances of a complex philosophical and spiritual ideology. A traditional dance form (3), essentially based on the Vaishnava sect of the Sanatana Dharma, Kathak, at best, explores the lila or illusionary play of Radha and Krishna in abhinaya through bhajans or devotional songs, thumri and Sanskrit shlokas or poetic verses.

"Kathak" is derived from the root word katha, closely but not accurately meaning a story, not

in the colloquial sense, but rather narration of mythological stories with the primary purpose of

educating the people. Mostly, these stories are an expression of the joys and torments of life portrayed through characterization of the virtuous against evil, giving an understanding of the ideals of living and the philosophy of life cycles, based on the teachings of the ancient Hindu scriptures and treatises. The thematic abstracts from the ancient epics are rich in knowledge of all kinds, including philosophy and spiritual science (Shah 1992; 1994). The term "Kathak," there- fore, also signifies a male actor-dancer talented in the art of narration through music and dance,

primarily belonging to the Brahman Kathak caste, and involved in the artistic profession of this

storytelling dance genre, which presumably derived its name from this caste (4). Classical Kathak performance incorporates the language of gesture based on the prin-

Purnima Shah is a classical dancer/performer, scholar and teacher, specializing in Bharatanatyam and Kathak dance styles of India. She has performed in all major cities of India, and has toured as government delegate to Portugal, Sweden, Germany, (former) U.S.S.R., and Mongolia through the Festival of India Program organized by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), New Delhi. Having graduated from the Dance Department at University of California, Los Angeles, with the M.A. in dance ethnology, she is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in performance studies and ethnography at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.

2 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

ciples suggested by the Natyashastra (5) and presents different facets of human nature with utmost subtlety. Interestingly, a single Kathak performer portrays all the characters within the

selected episode, enacting one, impersonating another, effortlessly switching gender portrayal as the roles appear in the narrative without any extraneous use of costumes, makeup, props, or technical effects. This paper explores the cultural concepts of gender as reflected in Kathak performance, in relation to the Hindu philosophy of achieving perfection; of the sense of being "complete" and "whole" in the spiritual transcendence of one's gender, central to the philosophy of advaita or non-dualism. The lifelong process of training and practice of a dedi- cated Kathak's artistic solo portrayal of various characters through abhinaya and the fluidity of the switch over from one character to another reflect an apperception of "oneness." In most theatrical genres, female impersonation signifies extravagant use of makeup and costume, or in the case of performing transsexuals, surgery, and voice intonation, or in the case of an onnagata of Kabuki, a continual identification with the female even offstage (Barthes 1982). However, a Kathak plays a series of roles or impersonates the female with the audience's absolute awareness and full view of his natural male appearance. He usually performs in what could be considered a traditional costume for men: either a kurta or an achkan, which is a knee-length shirt with an overlapping frontal tied with piping-strings on the chest and waist, a contrasting sash tied on the waist, and a churidar or close-fitting cotton payjama. The fol- lowing brief description of abhinaya will enable us to better understand the significance of the performance of gender in Kathak.

I will take, as an example, a very dramatic episode of Draupadi cheer haran (the disrob- ing of Draupadi) from the epic Mahabharata in which an unadorned performer takes on a series of roles:

Duryodhana is the evil cousin of the Pandava prince Yudhishthira, who is the embodi- ment of "truth and dharma. " King Pandu, father of Yudhishthira, takes to the forest for pen- ance, temporarily leaving the kingdom in the hands of his blind brother, Dhritrashtra, father of evil Duryodhana. Pandu dies an untimely death due to a curse inflicted on him by an amorous couple whom he killed mistakenly during one of his hunts in the forest. Signifi- cantly, both cousins claim the kingdom and there is a dharmic war between good and evil. Duryodhana, with the help of his equally evil maternal uncle Shakuni, devises various ways to get rid of the five sons of Pandu, but in vain. As a last straw, he devises a plot, inviting Yudhishthira to a game of dice, Yudhishthira's favorite game in which no one could beat him. Through continuous cheating (knowing that Yudhishthira, avowed to truth, would never re- sort to such unfair means), Duryodhana compels Yudhisthira to lose his crown, his wealth, all his possessions, all his brothers including himself as slaves to Duryodhana, and finally, even his wife Draupadi. After Duryodhana wins the game of dice, and subsequently Draupadi, he orders her to be dragged to the court by her hair and in an attempt to humiliate her, asks his younger brother Duhshasana to disrobe her sari in full view of all present in the court. The courtiers, including the whole royal family, stand helplessly witnessing the dishonor, humil- ity and the lecherous torment inflicted on Draupadi. After a fruitless dialogue with Duryodhana

and pleas to all men present in the court, including her husband, to prevent the worst from happening, devout Draupadi prays to Lord Krishna for help, who saves her honor by miracu- lously providing endless yards of clothing that Duhshasana would never be able to disrobe.

The lyrics of the first verse of the bhajan are as follows:

Hari tuma haro janaki bheer

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 3

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Draupadi ki laj rakhi tuma badhayo cheer ... [Hari (Lord) retract the troubles of the people You who saved the honor of Draupadi by providing endless yards of clothing...]

While one single line is sung with a series of variations, every episode within the song is performed to accompanying instrumental music. Like some other Indian classical dances, such as Bharatanatyam and Odissi, Kathak is also danced with ekaharya abhinaya, that is, a single dancer portrays multiple characters as each enters the story. Te dancer indicates a switch from one character to another with a swift semicircular clockwise and anti-clockwise

movement called palta, which means to switch. The character's gait is portrayed in a gat bhava. To show the character and the characteristic nature or mood of the nayaka/nayika, the dancer does various actions and movements which are associated with a particular type and personality of a man/woman and, at the same time, he takes care to flavor his interpretation with a bhava (6) which is representative of the nayaka/nayika in question (7).

The performance of the Draupadi cheer haran episode involves frequent and swift shift- ing between characters. It commences with the portrayal of Duryodhana, the arrogant and evil prince. The Kathak depicts his personality with an erect, slightly arched spine, a broad chest, tightly stretched shoulders, a closed fist slapping his other hand while he takes brisk and wide strides back and forth across the stage (indicating his restlessness). A slant look of his eyes gives an evil expression of deception, his teeth frequently biting the side of his lips giving a distorted expression to his face. His use of space and time is dire and ti i dt energetic; big move- ments associated with arrogant, evil, selfish qualities display strength and power and com- mand wider audience attention. His forceful energy gives the impression of achievement, at least in the immediate moment. Suddenly, he gives an expression of seeing Yudhishthira en- tering his palace and goes forward to welcome him. Gesturing to everyone to be seated (cross- legged, except for Duryodhana, who sits on his knees, looking larger than he actually is), he spreads open Chaupat, the game of dice, and begins to churn the dice in his palms, occasion- ally giving sly looks to Yudhishthira, imagined to be seated right across from him. In keeping with the rhythmic beat, he throws open the dice on the floor and gives a wild villainous laugh at the high counters he cunningly has managed to throw.

The dancer quickly shifts our attention to the heroic, virtuous character of Yudhishthira, whose turn it is to throw the dice. Suddenly, the dancer's position is changed across from Duryodhana's, and, in changing his position, he takes the opportunity to transform into a different personality. Yudhishthira is portrayed as heroic, of fine bearing and noble princely charms; his quiet, calm eyes and a slight and eloquent smile on his lips lend a noble expres- sion to his pleasant face; an erect, well-built, tall and slim but well-toned body (the dancer suddenly appears to have gained height), depicts a confident personality at once demanding attention and respect. His movements are well refined, controlled and sophisticated. A certain calm prevailing within him is made obvious in his yogic personality. Yudhishthira, too, plays the dice after which, once again, the dancer portrays Duryodhana playing his second set of dice, with higher counters forcing Yudhishthira to lose his crown. This game continues until Yudhishthira loses everything he has staked, including his wife Draupadi; the solo dancer portrays all the roles one after another. On his victorious throw of the last set of dice, Duryodhana

is up on his feet, arrogance, hatred and lust emanating from every pore of his body, his move- ments and mood exaggerated by rhythmic effects and footwork, demanding Draupadi to be brought in. A grave silence follows as he asks his brother Duhshasana to drag Draupadi into

4 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

the court by her hair. The dancer takes a few steps sideways across the stage, and with apalta transforms into the role of Draupadi.

Halfway through the palta, his hands are already clutching his hair, resisting the pull; he staggers towards center stage as if being dragged by someone invisible to the audience. Sud- denly, we see a prominent change in the physical and emotional image portrayed by the dancer.

In his impersonation of Draupadi, the dancer's face gives a perplexed, angry yet helpless look, eyes lowered with humility and shame, face bent down, shoulders narrowed towards an in- wardly drawn chest, hands clutching "her" hair, at times arms crossed at the front of the body

covering "her" breasts, indicating where Duryodhana has directed his eyes, and an expression of fury, pain and embarrassment. Staggering, delicate feet drag "her" body with feminine steps, resisting the pull as "she" reaches center stage. Even in a standing position, "her" feet are almost always close together, one leg slightly bent at the knees closing in at the thighs, presenting a feminine contour of "her" body.

As soon as Draupadi reaches center stage, the dancer assumes the role and position of Duhshasana who stares at her in lust for a while, plays with his ugly, long moustache while still staring at her and, with a nod at Duryodhana, proceeds towards Draupadi. As he comes close to her, the dancer, as Draupadi, draws backwards in small steps, still clutching at her sari, with an expression of fear, anger and disgust, her pleading eyes scanning the court filled with royal men and courtiers standing helplessly with their eyes lowered. As Duhshasana again, his gestures suggest that he grabs her sari and pulls on it; suddenly as Draupadi, the dancer is thrust forward with the violent pull of "her" sari. "She" turns around and around as its folds are uncovered, creating visual images of the sari/clothing being pulled, and portray- ing expressions of desperate resistance, agony, embarrassment, shame and helplessness. As Duhshasana again, he is violently pulling yards and yards of her sari, which seems to be an endless task. As Draupadi, the dancer raises "her" arms in prayer to Lord Krishna and seeks His protection from the lewd villainy of her husband's cousins. Duhshasana is embarrassed at his failure to disrobe her. His virility at stake, he tries more frantically until he falls flat on the ground, exhausted, as the dancer assumes Krishna's role as the provider of endless clothing at the stroke of a vibrating musical phrase. As Draupadi, kneeling at Krishna's feet seeking His blessings, the dancer portrays His most devout devotee. As Krishna, he portrays the divine savior to all who worship Him and the destroyer of all evil.

Towards the end of the song, the dancer impersonates the poetess saint Meerabai, a devo- tee enamoured of Krishna, who is said to have written and sung this bhajan (devotional song) in praise of Lord Krishna, Hari tuma haro jana ki bheer.... (Lord, retract the troubles of the people...). Although familiarity with the narrative on the part of the audience is assumed, gender portrayal and the quick role changes are clearly shown through bodily movements, gestures, gait, facial expression and mood of the character. What attracts audiences is not just the story but the interpretation, development, presentation and interaction of characters through

abhinaya. The connoisseur audience would know enough to supply meaning to his gestures and the subtleties of culturally specific gender portrayal.

Transformation of Gender in Kathak

A Kathak's talent is put to test in the realistic portrayal of characters and development of an environment that involves the audience. This he does with his trained ability to maintain deep

concentration on the inner images and mental processes of the characters he is portraying. A Kathak performs the thumris, portraying all the interacting characters of the story, constantly shifting back and forth between the physical and metaphysical in terms of gender, age levels,

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 5

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

personality and emotional mood of the characters. In switching roles, he alternates between gender role-playing and impersonation. Female impersonation by a Kathak, however, is not overtly effeminate; he creates feminine images of personality - the physical and emotional state of her being, behavior, actions and reactions to the context in which "she" is portrayed; the impersonation of the female on a male gendered body. The transformation, however, is deeper than merely creating a physical image; a Kathak emotes the feelings of the female character with the same intensity and depth as he would a male.

In the performance of abhinaya, the strength of the spine is of great importance. Center- ing of the energy in prana, just under the navel muscle, controls tensions and releases in the isolating, simplifying, or enlarging of physical movements; timing and coordination of move- ments; weight transference and creating an opposition of physical forces inside the body; playing with alternation of body balance; sharp or gradual motion; and direction of the eyes, the head, and other body parts, all play a vital role in the "visual" creation of the character. While the lower body is very well grounded, the upper body is flowing, free for expressive movement; the vigor of stage energy is combined with refined restraint. Gender difference is expressed through the manipulation of body movements, expressions and gestures. For in- stance, broad shoulders and chest, uplifted face, straight spine, and a direct look in the eyes are some of the male physical characteristics; the female may be depicted with relaxed shoul- ders, slightly drawn inwards, thighs closed together, eyes lowered (8) with a slightly bent head, and so on, as the case may be.

Masculine and feminine qualities of movements may alternate according to the nature of the characters, that is, refined, heroic and virtuous, or demonic. For example, certain female demons

such as Putana (Mahabharata) may be portrayed with the use of crude masculine characteristics that magnify her animistic qualities. However, even demonic roles would not be performed with

a display of externalized and unrestrained stage energy; demonic qualities such as violent ag- gressiveness, crudity of character, evil intentions etc., are often displayed with enlarged yet con-

trolled movements and loud gestures characteristic of sheer physical power and strength. Move-

ments characteristic of uddhata or tandava (gracefully forceful) and sukumara or lasya (grace- fully soft) aspects of the dance technique and complex rhythmic footwork, which is so unique to

Kathak, are also used to provide gendered effects and meanings. It is imperative for the dancer to have a profound understanding of the characters he

portrays, not only at an intellectual level in terms of their psycho-sociology, but also in his trained awareness of the appropriate usage of his creative energy in manifesting them. It is in the process of embodying the traditional images of a repertoire of characters that the performer's body is disciplined; a range of movement possibilities and layering of imagery provides rich stimulation to, and coordination of, the performer's body and mind. Phillip Zarrilli mentions that, "it is only when the fundamental techniques of practice which constitute the given disci- pline have been so well embedded into the neophyte's body that such techniques are a part of his body-consciousness, ready at hand to be used at any moment, that the student is ready for higher stages of development" (1990, 132).

Once the trainee has achieved a certain stage of technical mastery and versatility, the guru introduces him to a variety of segments taken from the repertory of stories from the epics and

the Puranas. Initially, the disciple learns through imitation of the guru's performance of them. At this level, imitation enables the student to develop his ability to observe, retain, and recre-

ate perceived images. The aim is eventually to achieve a creative breakthrough in the student which is marked by a disciplined internalization of the process: a heightened integration of the intellectual and intuitive powers of imagination, the inner intent of creation, and mastery

6 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

in physicalising that imagined intent. With such a level of mind-body integration, the disciple is ready for more advanced training in higher stages of human expression that focus on his inner self-the spiritual self. This is a long process that consists of the elimination of one's ego-centered concerns, enabling the performer to channel his energies to creative expression rather than to the egocentric exhibition of himself, the person.

Humility is a prerequisite as well as a principal determinant for an artist who has achieved a creative breakthrough. Only after an inner control over one's ego is achieved does the dis- ciple become capable of transcending expressive states from mere human to superhuman or divine imagery. The artist becomes one with his art and, when such an integration becomes visible to the spectator, it creates an instant rapport between that which the performer ex- presses and that which the audience experiences:

By daily practice all physical and mental obstacles in the way of correct prac- tice are gradually eliminated. The goal of such virtuosic systems is reaching a state of "accomplishment" (Sanskrit, siddhi) in which the doer and the done are one. Through such actualized practice comes both control and transcen- dence of "self." (Zarrilli 1990, 131)

Only after years of intense practice, thinking, observation and analysis can a Kathak synthe- size the external and the internal, in what Zarrilli calls a "psycho-physical gestalt" (1984). In an analysis of this experience, Zarrilli defines it as "the immediate psycho-physical process of engaging in performing (doing) the acts which constitute a performance in any given occasion ... each act in each moment resonates with psycho-spiritual implications in personal, social and cosmological spheres of being" (1990, 131-132).

A deep understanding of human behavior and a close study of physical and psychological aspects of different personality traits are a crucial part of training in Kathak. Traditional gurus

believe that abhinaya cannot be taught, that abhinaya "comes" to the dancer. Again, a guru may not train a disciple in the principles of abhinaya until he reaches maturity. The performer's ability to fill in the emotion behind the physical technique comes as the dancer gains both life and stage experience. Many Kathaks believe that the experience of having felt certain emotions in their own lives adds depth and maturity when replicated on stage. This is one of the reasons that great Kathaks have not emerged until their forties. Answering humbly to a fan's admiration

for his art, his manifestation of presence and energy in the performance of a variety of characters,

Birju Maharaj, the doyen of Kathak and the torchbearer of Lukhnow gharana, modestly says, "I merely give back to life what I experience from it" (personal communication 1991).

A Kathak endows each role with the particular qualities of that character within the wide variety of dramatic contexts which the characters encounter during the course of the episode. His

performance transcends surface-bound mimetics to achieve the vital expressions associated with each character. The actual transformation from one character to another is obvious but very

subtle. Body position, gait, movements, gestures and facial expression of one character (or gen- der as the case may be) smoothly merge into another within seconds to create a totally different

personality. This fluidity and continual presentation of "characters" creates a theatrical environ- ment that leads the audience towards the ecstatic experience of rasa (9) and, through such expe- rience, into a state of transformed perception that directs them to focus on the "characters" rather

than the "dancer." With a master performer, the transformation from the dancer to the character is

so complete that it stimulates or arouses subtle feelings in the spectator enabling one to momen- tarily transcend one's own egocentric view of things and to experience a heightened state of

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 7

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

consciousness and, if only for the time being, an emotional catharsis. In the performance of abhinaya, the spectator's mental gaze is transformed into an aes-

thetic experience of imagination and creativity. One is drawn to identify with the characters portrayed and the episodes depicted, based on such factors as real-life experiences, emotional frame of mind, sentiments, and prior knowledge of the text, and in doing so, to experience an aesthetic rapture. The dancer's focus on the sthayi bhava, or the dominant mood appropriate to the abhinaya being performed, creates an ambience within which his characters will inter- act. By a skillful use of the interplay of the sthayi bhava and the sanchari bhava (transitory or secondary mood) of the characters, the dancer can lead the spectators to a wide range of emotional experiences. When the attention of the audience is concentrated on the characters, the psycho-visual mechanism works similarly to a camera lens which blurs all other images that are out of its focus; as the images of performed characters become the focus of the spectator's perception, the image of "the dancer" retreats into the background. The fluidity of role switching and the intensity and continuity of character portrayal leave no "gaps" for the spectator to revert back and perceive "the dancer." In other words, the "perception" of the spectator is transformed from the dancer to the characters he portrays and this "transformed perception" is maintained throughout the performance of the entire episode. The real appear- ance and gender of the dancer, although obvious, are blurred and what comes to the mental focus of the spectator is the characteristic appearance and the gender of the characters por- trayed in what Peggy Phelan calls "representational visibility;" "the real is read through the representational and the representational through the real" (1993, 2).

What impresses the spectator and what is retained primarily in the connoisseur audience's memory is not so much the physical image or personality of the dancer but rather the artisti- cally created images and personalities of the characters. His performing body is assumed to achieve "perceptional neutrality" within the theatrical space, such that it becomes a neutral medium for gender performance, enabling him to wear any gender momentarily and switch between them at choice. In other words, through abhinaya, he transcends his own gender within the theatrical space. Most of the characters portrayed have a deep-rooted religious and spiritual meaning with philosophical and conceptual significance. The Kathak dancer's per- formance experience could become ecstatic depending on his personal, religious and spiritual involvement, and in the process, might transcend his egocentric physical human self to the superhuman characters he portrays; his person, the self, is then effaced. A Kathak maestro, with numerous years of such performance practice and intense involvement in his switching between gender roles, uplifts himself to a unique spiritual experience of gender transcen- dence-that is, through many years of involved practice in the performance of male charac- ters and the impersonation of female characters, the Kathak may become receptive to certain ecstatic experiences. Long-term practice and involvement in the portrayal of male as well as female roles elevates him in an ecstatic moment within a given performance to the experience of emotional transcendence of his own gender. It is important to note, however, that this ec- static transcendence may not be experienced by the performer in every performance. As gen- der signals sent from the stage are more powerful than those available in real life, the artistic ability to portray "beyond human reach" mystic qualities of the characters and the dynamic fluidity of gender transformation becomes one of Kathak's most potent attractions.

Gender Performance

When the performance of gender moves from the realm of everyday onto the stage, its presen- tation essentially implicates representation. Gender roles performed by Kathaks do not merely

8 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

replicate those in everyday life; they are more sharply defined and more emphatically pre- sented, the inherent imagery offering both an ideal and a critique, modeling cultural construc- tions of gender ideologies. Traditional Kathak abhinaya defamiliarizes the ordinary social and sexual experiences of modern men and women as people. It highlights the representation of a desired, idealized masculine/feminine type. Hence, the audiences perceive classical In- dian dance traditions as iconographic representations of a mythological tradition and revel in their mystic ideology whose gender patterns are so deeply missed in real life today.

Gender ideology in Indian performance represents cosmological conceptions of the so- cial order where "ideology refers both to a system of thought that guides and legitimates social action and attempts to create a transcendental order by legitimating the power of that order" (Bloch 1987, 334). Thus, it can be understood as, first, the system of thought that legitimates sex roles and customary behavior of sexes, and second, as the deployment of gender categories as metaphors in the production of conceptions of an enduring eternal social order (Meigs 1990). Gender ideology, male/female status and gender categorization are highly complex and multifaceted cultural constructions and, as such, are characterized by a multi- plicity of conceptions in any given society; this is particularly so in India, given the vast diversity of its cultures. These are determined in relation to conceptual beliefs; for instance, gender ideology characterized by Sita and Rama in the epic Ramayana is a far cry from the one established by the relationship of Radha and Krishna in the Bhagwad Purana. Gender ideologies set by the Ramayana are accepted as normative social modes of behavior while those of the Mahabharata are not; Rama and Sita are accepted as "ideal" gender role models while Krishna is not.

It is important to understand that a Kathak dancer is concerned with conveying not a personal code of gender but a set of signals that are natural and stylized, abstract and graphic, compared to those transmitted in everyday social interaction; his portrayal of the "male" and the "female" is absolutely culture-specific. He depicts the deepest cultural nuances of the body and the mind, the culture-specific concepts of what would be considered "beautiful," "demure," "feminine," "masculine," "good," "evil," and so on. In Indian dance, an important and pervasive aesthetic concept dictates that, just as percussive and sustained, heavy and light, or fast and slow must be reconciled within a musical composition or dance choreography, so, too, must the principles of "masculinity" and "femininity."

Transcending Gender In Indian civilization, art, mythology, religion and philosophical thought have always been interconnected. Inherited revelations, scholarly traditions, and popular or folk legends and beliefs have worked on each other through a historical process of renewed influences from religious movements or philosophical teachings originating from ascetic experiences, yogic exercises, or meditative divinations. Ancient Indian art, including performing arts, painting, temple sculpture and architecture, clearly reveals, through its aesthetic representations, the magnitude and profundity of the civilization's metaphysical teachings. Dynamics of gender form a significant part of the textual corpus. Indian mythology also reveals various stories exemplifying gender ambiguity, androgyny, sex transformations, male pregnancy, and erotica through some of the metaphorical discourses related to gods, goddesses, heavenly nymphs, and demons, as well as sages, ascetics and yogis (10). The Hindu notion of gender is too complex to define merely in physical terms; the very idea of defining it is, in itself, limiting; several sects within Hinduism hold that one can realize the spiritual essence within oneself only by transcending the social constructs of gender.

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 9

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Hinduism proclaims that the qualifying factors of one's physical existence change with gen- der, age, and circumstances, but that souls aspiring for the realization of the state of moksha or

spiritual bliss are in need of comprehensive "experience" attainable only through bodily ex- istence: the individual soul participates in the lila or "play" of the cosmic power manifest in all things (animate and inanimate), continuing eternally, through material bodies-manifesta- tions pancha mahabhuta-serving as sacred temples of this force. The Hindu worldview upholds the Upanishadic saying, "Tat tvam asi"' (Thou art That), which indicates that every living individual potentially represents as well as contains within itself the entire universe. In other words, the body is a microcosm of the universe. In general, Hinduism holds that all persons contain within themselves both male and female principles. In the Tantric school of Hinduism, the Supreme Being is conceptualized as one complex sex, the right side represent- ing the male and the left side the female. Any human, according to this thought, can energize or activate the chosen sexual principle within him or her (Rawson 1973). Transcending one's own sex is a prerequisite to salvation.

The pre-Vedic androgynous form of Lord Shiva popularly known as ardhanarishwara (11) could be represented as a polarity of the male and female forces, Shiva-Shakti, the holy couple with their perennial embrace.... In the duad of Shiva-Shakti the male part denotes the of transcendental aspect of static, changeless repose, while the goddess [represents] the unceasing dynamism of the universal life force, evolving the phenomenal spheres of the universe out of the source, which in itself, as Shiva, remains undiminished. (Zimmer 1968, 145)

While Ardhanarishwara is Lord Shiva's anthropomorphic androgynous form, the Shiva-linga is His iconic androgynous form (Gross 1978). His phallic symbol or linga is almost always placed within the yoni, the symbol of the female sexual organ, in representation of a sexual union (12).

A dominant Vaishnavite theory, believed to be a derivation of the pre-Vedic concept of Ardhanarishwara, regards Radha as:

Krishna's hladini shakti or 'blissful energy,' a polar principle within, and not different from, Himself. In order to taste with fuller rapture the bliss of his own nature, Krishna creates his hladini shakti and enjoys, as lover, commun- ion with himself in this form. (Hein 1972)

The "Yugal" or "couple" portraying Radha and Krishna's bodies entwined to form one aes- thetically symmetric figure is a popular iconic image seen in Vaishnava painting. Religious exercises within the Gaudiya sect of Vaishnavas involve male devotees identifying with the female in order to realize the female principle within themselves. Considering that the Su- preme Being, Lord Krishna, is the only male principle, they believe that madhura bhava or His divine love can be realized or experienced through identification with the female form. Male members of the Sakhi Bhava sect of Vaishnavism, more prevalent in Vraja, Bengal, and Rajasthan, dress themselves as women in imitation of gopis as a regular part of their devo- tional sadhana or penance to Lord Krishna.

This practice which may seem ludicrous to the outsider, is entirely consistent with the direction of the Raganuga Bhakti Sadhana and represents one inter-

10 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

pretive strategy for imitating the Vrajaloka with the physical body. It is an extreme attempt to identify with the true inner and essential nature (siddha- svarupa), which is usually conceived of as a female gopi. It is a physical effort on the part of some practitioners to transform the identity from its loca-

tion in the ordinary body to the ultimately real body as revealed by the guru, and thereby inhabit the mythical world of Vraja. As Stanislavski has taught us, outer physical acts lead to the inner world of a character. (Haberman 1988,137-138)

The Vedanta philosophy conceptualizes one ultimate Selhe cSutra-Samkhya, however, ar- gues that Vedic references that refeto non-duality or advaita imply plurality of selves, but having one

generic essence (Larson and Bhattacharya 1987, 36-37). The Karika-Samkhya advocates a dualism of two all-pervasive ultimate principles, the purusha or pure consciousness, and prakriti, or primordial materiality. Ishvara or the Omnipresent Self is viewed as the purusha, and the physical body with its five sense capacities and subtle elements (13), including the five gross elements (14), is identified as the prakriti. The termpurusha literally means "man" or "person," but it is used in the Upanishadic philosophy in preference to Ishavara or Absolute Self. Purusha, the perfect Self-consciousness, has prakriti as one of His constituent elements, by means of which He manifests Himself in the empirical world. Abhay Kumar Majumdar elaborates that the "union of purusha and prakriti [in spite of their relative independence] results in the eternal creation" (1981, 85).

Samkhya doctrines also state that purusha and prakriti are manifest in all individuals. However, they are not fully realized due to the limitations imposed by the physical organism and its adjuncts. As long as the individual works under those self-imposed limitations, she or he remains in a state of bondage. By overcoming the physical limitations, the aspirant attains the "knowledge" of the true nature of things, realizes the Absolute Self-consciousness and is liberated. Arthur Avalon, in his translation of the Mahanirvana Tantra (Tantra of Great Libera- tion) mentions that,

The dual principles of Shiva [male] and Shakti [female]... form the product of polarity manifested in Parashakti-maya, pervade the whole universe, and are present in man in the Svayambhu-Linga of the muladhara and the Devi Kundalini, who in serpent form, encircles it. The Shabda-Brahman assumes in the body of man the form of Devi Kundalini, and as such is in all prani (breathing creatures).... Kundalini... means that which is coiled. She is the luminous vital energy (jiva-shakti) which manifests as prana [life force], ... when after closing the ears the sound of her hissing is not heard, death ap- proaches. (1972, xxvi)

As a manifestation of these principles of "duality" within "oneness," training in Kathak enables the performer to create multiple personae, a repertory of human and superhuman characters-different "bodies," in terms of movement, dynamics, gait, personality and such- one person's moving body portraying multiple characters. Constant performance practice and analysis of these characters in relation to oneself enables the performer to recognize his many potential bodies, that these (characters) are emotionally different facets of the prism of the atman, his soul or reflections of paramatman, the universal omnipresence in the cycle of existence. Conceptualizing the Hindu thought of punarjanma or reincarnation, it provides a

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 11

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

review of the many cycles of birth, adolescence, adulthood and death, cycles that each indi- vidual repeatedly passes through. Kathy Foley states that, "the performer can ultimately real- ize that all ... 'other' are merely sides of the eternal self' (1990, 65).

Temple arts in India developed as spiritual disciplines; temple dance performance as spiri- tual practice. Traditional systems of training in performance art are not merely aimed at creat-

ing an artist aspiring to societal acclaim and success, but rather an inner development and refinement of the performer. A performer of such caliber often flowers into a person of strong

character and convictions with principles of justice, and yet, is filled with compassion and humility. Such a lifelong pursuance of, and dedication to, the art form allows for an ethical and spiritual approach to the fulfillment of one's very existence. Jonathan Katz points out in his thesis, The Musical Portions of Sangitaratnakara, that several texts written within the medieval period, including Narada's musicological work Sangitaratnakara and Nandikeshwara's thirteenth-century Abhinayadarpana, express views on the attainment of moksha or liberation from life cycles through the performance of the art of music and dance respectively (1987).

Since Kathak as a dance form developed significantly with Vaishnavism in Northern In- dia, most of the thumris and bhajans, or devotional songs danced by the Kathaks, are meta- phors for these philosophical concepts of purusha and prakriti personified in the central char- acters of Lord Krishna and His beloved Radha. The fluidity of gender performance in Kathak abhinaya reflects this conceptual Hindu philosophy of perfection, of the sense of being "com- plete," "whole," "one Self." The master performer weaves a complex tapestry of characters- the manifold images of one moving body; his artistry transcends the purely visual and plainly sensual, leading the spectators to experience the heights of that which is neither actually seen nor is directly seeable.

GLOSSARY

abhinaya: see note 1 below.

Abhinayadarpana: thirteenth-century text on music and dance written by Nandikeshvara.

achkan: knee-length shirt.

advaita: the philosophy of non-dualism.

ardhanarishwara: see note 11 below.

atman: soul.

bhajan: devotional song.

bhakti: devotion to a personal god. The bhakti movement was the growth of simplified, popular devotionalism during the medieval period. It began among the Tamils in South India and soon spread to the North, diffusing the Vaishnavite cult, which worshiped Krishna as the Divine Lover. The Sanskrit Bhagavad Purana, a product of the bhakti movement, was composed in Tamilnadu. It later spread throughout India and was translated into several vernacular languages.

chaupat: game of dice.

churidar: close fitting cotton pants.

dharma: the eternal principles which uphold and preserve the universe; the principles of right living.

ekaharya abhinaya: a single dancer portraying multiple characters as they enter the story.

gat bhava: an elaboration of the song interpreted in movement. Each line is illustrated and explained with several variations with the use of symbolic gestures, body postures and gait, providing a rhythmic enactment to the text of the sung verse.

gharana: school or style. Kathak dance is categorized into three gharanas: Lukhnow, Jaipur and Banaras gharanas, named after the cities in which the respective founder resided and established them.

gopis: milkmaids and cowherdesses of Braja.

hladini shakti: blissful energy.

Ishvara: Omnipresent Self; Absolute Self; God.

12 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

jiva shakti: vital energy.

Kathak: term used to address both the male dancer

and the dance form; also, name of the Brahman

caste to which these dancers belonged.

kshatriya: a caste of warriors and royal kings.

kurta: knee-length chemise.

kundalini: that which is coiled at the base of

muladhara in the body; a form of creative energy pervading, supporting and expressed in the form of the whole universe.

lila: illusionary play

madhura bhava: divine love.

Mahabharata: Hindu epic (not dated). See Smritis.

moksha: spiritual state of bliss achieved through liberation from the cycles of physical birth and death.

muladhara: one of the six dynamic Tattvik centers of the body, a triangular space in the midmost part of the body with the apex pointing downwards. Mula meaning root, dhara meaning support; muladhara is the root on which the Kundalini rests.

Natyashastra: oldest known Indian treatise on the theory of performance and literature written in Sanskrit by (sage) Bharata Muni (approximately around second century B.C.).

nayaka: character role of the hero.

nayika: character role of the heroine.

onnagata: term for the female role impersonated by a male actor in the Japanese theatrical art form Kabuki.

palta: movement done to accomplish switching of characters by the dancer.

pancha mahabhuta: the five gross elements that constitute the entire universe: vayu (air), jala (water), agni (fire), prithvi (earth) and akash (space). The physical body is the microcosm of the universe and hence manifest from the same

five elements. A living body is therefore revered as a sacred temple wherein dwells the atman or the soul.

paramatman: universal omnipresence.

payjama: loose-fitting pants.

prakriti: primordial materiality.

prana: life force.

prani: breathing creatures.

punarjanma: reincarnation or rebirth.

Puranas: Hindu texts including mythology of the gods and goddesses. See Smritis.

purusha: man; person; pure Consciousness.

Putana: a female demonic character in the epic Mahabharata who stealthily attempts to take the life of baby Krishna by having him suckle her poisoned breasts. However, Krishna, being the incarnation of Lord Vishnu, bites her hard and

destroys her.

Ramayana: Hindu epic (not dated). See Smritis.

rasa: see note 9 below.

sadhana: penance or practice by which the desired siddhi may be attained.

Samkhya: an intellectual movement, a methodology for attaining liberation from the cycles of physical existence or moksha throughjnanayoga, by way of "knowing"; the other two paths of moksha are karmayoga, by way of "action" and bhaktiyoga, by way of "devotional worship."

sanchari bhava: secondary or transitory psychological state or mood.

Sangitaratnakara: musicological text written in the medieval period by sage Narada.

Sanskrit: the classical language of ancient India and the language of the sacred Hindu texts, epics and classical scholarship.

Shakti: Lord Shiva's consort symbolizing the primordial creative energy.

Shiva: one of the Trinity Gods (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) within the Hindu religion.

Shiva-linga: the phallic symbol for Lord Shiva.

shlokas: Sanskrit poetic verses from sacred Scriptures.

Shrutis: "that which is heard"-sacred Hindu texts

and scriptures passed on through an oral tradition. The Shrutis include the four Vedas, from which

is derived the basis of Hindu religious thought.

siddha svarupa: the self that has achieved a certain level of spiritual accomplishment through meditative practice or penance.

siddhi: accomplishment or achievement through meditative practice or penance.

Smritis: "that which is remembered"-sacred Hindu

texts and scriptures passed on through an oral

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 13

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

tradition. The Smritis include the two great epics,

the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and the eighteen Puranas.

sthayi bhava: the dominant psychological state or mood of the character.

svayambhu: emerged from, or born of, the Earth.

Tantra: sacred texts.

Tantricf/antrism: a cult within Hinduism that worships

Shakti, the female aspect of godhead.

thumri: semi-classical songs composed of emotionally rich poetic verses, usually depicting the joys of a romantic reunion, or pangs of love and separation from the beloved. A genre of vocal music, thumri was incorporated in the Kathak repertoire by maestro Bindadin Maharaj, in the court of Navvab Wajid Ali Shah during the first half of the nineteenth century.

Upanishads: sacred Hindu texts, commentaries on the Vedas.

Vedas: sacred texts from which the basic Hindu

religious thought is derived. There are four Vedas: the Rig Veda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda. The Vedas are further divided

into texts of sacred hymns and precepts

N1

1. Abhinaya is the art of creative, imaginative, mimetic

portrayal of the narrative theme through facial and bodily expressions, including codified and natural hastamudras or hand gestures. Nritya in Indian dance is the rendering of meaning or import of a song or story through abhinaya, a Sanskrit term implying the translation of the "knowing" into "telling." It is derived from the root word ni, which means to lead, the same root from which are derived the words for the dramatic

hero (nayaka), and heroine (nayika). In the abhinaya of any particular episode, every single line of the sung text or poetic verse is thematically interpreted in various ways with a touch of individuality. Each Kathak contributes his imaginative interpretation to the traditional text performed. The artist's virtuosity and creativity is measured not only in the portrayal of

the story but in the originality of its interpretation and

presentation. Familiarity of the text on the part of Indian audiences is assumed. Hence, the same episodes enacted many times engage the spectator in a new aesthetic experience each time. In dance, a form of bodily expression of the narrative, the enactment of the physical description and the mental state of the characters is very elaborate. While appearing to be

concerning religious rituals. According to some scholars, the Natyashastra is additionally considered as the fifth Veda.

Vishnu: one of the Trinity Gods (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) within the Hindu religion. Bhagavad Purana lists Dashavatara, the ten incarnations of Vishnu in the order of evolution of life on earth.

An avatara or godly incarnation manifests when evil by far outweighs the good on earth and as such, each avatara is associated with a story. The ten incarnations are: Matsyavatara (incarnation in the form of fish), Kuchhavatara (tortoise), Varahavatara (boar), Vamanavatara (dwarf), Narasimhavatara (half man, half lion) Parashurama (the warrior Brahman who avowed the destruction of all kshatriyas), Ramavatara (as Lord Rama of Ramayana), Krishnavatara (as

Lord Krishna of the Bhagawad Purana, Mahabharata), Buddhavatara (as Buddha), and finally, the tenth incarnation yet to be, Kalki avatara (as Kalki on a white horse).

Vrajaloka: the people of Vraja; the imaginary realm of Vraja.

yoni: symbol for female sexual organ.

yugal: couple

OTES

very natural and simplified, abhinaya actually demands the most intense internal focus and undivided

attention on the part of the performer. It leads equally

to an inner satisfaction or meditation of the performer and to the entertainment, transformation and enlightenment of the audience. Although the transformation for the spectators is temporary, a complete retrieval to their previous state of being is never possible; every performance renews and refills their experience.

2. 'Kathak' is a masculine common noun that

addresses the professional male dancers who belonged to the kathak caste. Women dancers from respectable families started performing classical Kathak only after the 1940s and 1950s. Considering the limitations of space for this paper, I have constrained my discussion in relation to the ancient tradition of male Kathak

performers only.

3. The word "Kathak" has been found in ancient

literature: the eleventh-century Kathasaritsagara mentions that King Sahasranika is entertained listening to a love story enacted by a Kathak named Sangataka (Bhatta 1839, 107). Traced back to the pre-

14 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Christian era, the earliest reference to the art of Kathak

is found in the Mahabharata, the great epic poem. A passage from the Arjunavanavasa section of the Adiparva indicates that amongst the entourage that followed Arjuna on his departure for the forest were men of religious learning, forest dwelling ascetics, Kathaks and Brahmans who sweetly recited the divine stories. However, William Crooke mentions one of the legendary claims that Kathaks were Gaur Brahmans who used to sing and dance in the temples of the gods but at the onset of the Moghal rule in India,

one of the Mohammedan Emperors, pleased by their performance skills, asked them to perform in the royal courts (Crooke 1896, 173).

4. Until the early 1900s, female dancers in the North were relegated to the "low art" of male entertainment called nach (or Nautch as [mis]pronounced by the British) and were outcast as nachnis/tawayifs or women of easy virtue. During the Moghal rule (late fifteenth to early nineteenth century), many dancing girls were imported from Persia in service of, and for the entertainment of, the Muslim royalty. Local dancing girls or tawayifs incorporated their style to win the Navvab's favors, and a totally different sensuous style of presentation, heavily influenced by the court form of classical Kathak, known as the

mujra, evolved through this institution. It emphasized seductive movements and expressions danced to ghazals or romantic Urdu poetry, usually sung by the tawayifor courtesan herself. Often, these dancing girls or nachnis were trained by male Kathaks of lesser achievements. However, the Kathak imparted the art to the nachni selectively, only to the extent that he considered appropriate to her calling. While Kathak, danced by the males either in the temples or in royal courts, was considered "classical," "high art," and Kathaks as dancers received acclaim among both the royalty and the society, tawayifs, as mentioned before,

well trained in song, dance and poetry, were relegated to the "low art" and were socially ostracized as women of low morals. Highly artistic as they were, what lowered their social status was their indignity in presenting themselves to the male gaze and engaging in the art of seduction. However, it is important to know that prostitution was not pursued by all tawayifs. Some of them entertained only through song, dance and poetry.

5. For an English translation of Natyashastra see Ghosh 1950. Still a question of debate, the text of the Natyashastra has been dated, according to some scholars, around the second century B.C. to second century A.D. (Kane 1961, 47 and Krishnamachariar 1974, 852).

6. Chapter 6 of the Natyashastra lists bhavas, the durable psychological states (dominant moods) as: rati

(love); hasya (mirth, laughter); shoka (sorrow); krodha (anger); utsaha (excitement, anxiousness, energetic feeling); bhaya (terror, fear); jujupta (disgust); and vismaya (astonishment). There are thirty-three sanchari bhavas or secondary/ transitory/ complementary psychological states. Abhinaya is expressed through dominant and transitory bhavas or emotional states, which are used to evoke rasa in the

audience. Since rasa is the aesthetic experience derived by the spectator from a given emotional situation, each rasa is associated with a dominant bhava: 1) shringara rasa: the erotic mood evoked by the emotion of love; 2) hasya rasa: the comic mood corresponding to laughter; 3) karuna rasa: the mood of pathos or compassion corresponding to sorrow; 4) raudra rasa: the furious mood corresponding to anger; 5) vira rasa: the heroic mood corresponding to fortitude; 6) bhayanaka rasa: the mood of terror corresponding to fear; 7) bibhatsa rasa: the mood of loathing corresponding to disgust; 8) adbhuta rasa: the mood of wonder corresponding to astonishment; and 9) shanta rasa: the mood of tranquility corresponding to equanimity or inner peace (Ghosh 1950).

7. Chapter 24 of the Natyashastra classifies the nayika according to one who belongs to her lover, one who belongs to another, or one who belongs to whomever (that is, a courtesan); according to one who is naive, innocent and in the early stages of experiencing love, or one who is a matured and experienced woman; according to one who has a refined character or not. Natyashastra further classifies character portrayal in terms of ashtanayika or eight classified situations which determine the mood or type of the nayika in question and the classification of nayakas into five male types. The ashtanayika are described as: 1) vasakasajja: one who is dressed and adorned in anticipation of the arrival of her lover; 2) virahotkanthita: one who is distressed in separation and is longing for her lover; 3) svadhinapatika: one who is in a dominant situation where her lover stays

by her side and is in her power; 4) kalahantarita: one whose relationship with her lover is estranged because of a quarrel; 5) khandita: one who is brokenhearted and enraged when she discovers that her lover has been with another woman; 6) vipralabdha: one who is disappointed and frustrated when her lover does not appear for the tryst; 7)prositabhartrka: one whose lover has gone on a journey to distant lands; and 8) abhisarika: one who is lovesick, and abandons all

modesty, caution and fear in order to meet with her lover in the dark of the night. Chapter 25 of the Natyasastra describes the five male types (in love)

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 15

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

as: 1) clever: one who is sympathetic, skilled, enduring, controlled in anger and love as well, expert in sexual acts, and is honest; 2) superior: one who does not do anything displeasing [to his beloved], has a good memory, has self command, is dignified, knows

thoroughly the mysteries of human feelings, is well mannered, feels love but is not overcome with passion and is self-respecting; 3) middling: one who is level headed, understands a woman's feelings, one who would be disgusted upon discovering her deceit; 4) inferior: one who shamelessly approaches a woman even after she has insulted him and has gone to another, loves her openly and more strongly despite a friend's advice to the contrary, even after knowing her deceit; 5) vrttaka or novice: one who is foolish and does not care about fear or anger, has excessive feelings, is artless in the acts of love, and ends up being a plaything for women.

Chapter 24 of the Natyashastra lists ten alankaras or natural graces of women: lila (sportive mimicry); vilasa (amorous gesture); vicchitti (in a disheveled state); vibrahma (confusion, intoxication); kilakivicita

(in a hysterical mood); mottayita (manifestation of affection); kuttamita (pretended anger) bibboka (affected coldness); lalita (lolling, graceful movements of the woman's hands, feet, brows, eyes, lips); and vihrta (in want of response). Eight aspects of male sattva are: shobha (brilliant character); vilasa

(graceful bearing); madhurya (self-possession); sthairya (steadiness); gambhirya (gravity, serious- ness); lalita (sportiveness); audarya (nobility); and tejas (enlightened spirit) (Ghosh 1950).

8. Female roles portrayed with "lowered eyes" should not necessarily be read as an indication of weakness or submission, but rather as a sign of refinement showing respect towards an elderly person, or towards adult males as the case may be, unless particular characters portrayed indicate differently.

9. The sixth chapter of Natyashastra is devoted to rasa, a key word significant to Sanskrit poetics, literary criticism and performance practice. Rasa has many connotations. However, for purposes of this study, following the twelfth-century commentator Abhinavagupta, rasa signifies the reader's/spectator's reaction to his personal involvement with the literature/performance. It is a reader's/spectator's experience of aesthetic pleasure arising from the

encounter with the text or performance of the character's bhava or emotions through which she or he is temporarily transformed into an "extra-worldly" state of being. Rasa is essentially the flavor that the Kathak distills from a given emotional situation in order to present it for aesthetic appreciation. The experience of rasa is absolutely individual, not universal, and it may not be experienced by the spectator in every performance or even throughout a single performance. Various spectrums within the audience experience it in various subtle ways depending upon the historiography of their emotions, identity, life-experiences, and above all, their relative knowledge of dance, music, mythology, religious symbolism, philosophy, poetics and aesthetics associated with all of these. Rasas exist only for the duration of the performance but not beyond. Performers themselves do not experience rasa, that is, the emotions of the characters portrayed are not identical to the personal feelings of the performer. For details, see Mason and Patwardhan 1970.

10. See Bosch 1960; O'Flaherty 1973, 1975 and 1980; Singer 1966; and Zimmer 1946 and 1968.

11. The literal meaning of the name ardanarishwara is Lord (Ishvara) who is half (arda) a woman (nari). Though seemingly two, they are fundamentally one. "For the sake of the universe and its creatures, the Absolute has apparently unfolded into this duality, and

out of them derive all life polarities, antagonisms, distinctions of powers, and elements that characterize the phenomenal world" (Zimmer 1968, 179). He is the Eternity and She is Time; each are both and the two are one.

12. A different version is documented in a study of the Tamils of South India: "The stone civalinkam

[Shiva-lingam] or the phallus is a male form, but the substance within it which is liquid (semen) or light (the deity), which is its action, is cakti [Shakti], female.... The sign of maleness is really the locus of female qualities in a man, the male womb [that yields a] milky, generative substance" (Egnor 1978, 69).

13. Five sense capacities of hearing, touching, seeing, tasting and smelling and the respective five subtle elements such as sound, touch, form, taste and smell.

14. Five gross elements: see pancha mahabhuta in glossary.

REFERENCES

Avalon, Arthur, trans. Mahanirvana Tantra (Tantra of the Great Liberation). New York: Dover Publications, 1972.

Barthes, Roland. Empire of Signs. Translated by Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, 1982.

16 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Bhatta, Somadeva. Katha Sarit Sagara. Edited and translated by Hermann Brockhaus. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1839.

Birju Maharaj. Personal communication with author, Summer 1991.

Bloch, Maurice. "Descent and Sources of Contra-

diction in Representations of Women and Kinship." In Gender and Kinship, edited by Jane F. Collier and Sylvia J. Yanagisako, 324-340. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1987.

Bosch, F. D. K. The Golden Germ: An Introduction

to Indian Symbolism. The Hague: Mouton and Co., 1960.

Crooke, William C. The Tribes and Castes of the Northwestern Provinces and Oudh 3. Calcutta:

Superintendent of Government Printing, 1896.

Egnor, Margaret Trawick. "The Sacred Spell and Other Conceptions of Life in Tamil Culture." Ph.D. dissertation University of Chicago, 1978.

Foley, Kathy. "My Bodies: The Performer in West Java." The Drama Review 34/2 (1990):62-80.

Ghosh, Manomohan, trans. The Natyasastra: A Treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy and Histrionics. Calcutta: Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1950.

Gross, Rita. "Hindu Female Deities as a Resource for

the Contemporary Rediscovery of the Goddess." Journal of the American Academy of Religion 46 (1978):269-92.

Haberman, David L. Acting as a Way of Salvation: A Study of Raganuga Bhakti Sadhana. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Hein, Norvin. The Miracle Plays of Mathura. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972.

Kane, P. V. History of Sanskrit Poetics. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas, 1961.

Katz, Jonathan. "The Musical Portions of Sangitaratnakara: A Critical Edition and Commentary." D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford, 1987.

Krishnamachariar, M. History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. 3d. ed. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas, 1974.

Larson, Gerald James, and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, eds. Samkhya: A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987.

Majumdar, Abhay Kumar. The Samkhya Conception of Personality. Delhi: Bharatiya Book Corporation, 1981.

Mason, J. L., and M. V. Patwardhan. Aesthetic

Rapture: The Rasadhyaya of Natyashastra. Poona: Deccan College and Postgraduate Research Institute, 1970.

Meigs, Anna. "Multiple Gender Ideologies and Statuses." In Beyond the Second Sex: New Directions in the Anthropology of Gender. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990.

O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. Asceticism and Eroticism in the Mythology of Shiva. London: Oxford University Press, 1973.

, trans. Hindu Myths: A Source Book. Harmondsworth, Baltimore: Penguin, 1975.

.Women, Androgynes, and Other Mythical Beasts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.

Phelan, Peggy. "Broken Symmetries: Memory, Sight, Love." In Unmarked: The Politics of Performance. London: Routledge, 1993.

Rawson, Philip S. The Art of Tantra. Greenwich: New York Graphic Society, 1973.

Shah, Purnima. "Innovations in Contemporary Kathak." Master's thesis, Department of Dance, University of California at Los Angeles, 1992.

. "Farmayishi Poetics of Kathak: Significance of Reception." UCLA Journal of Dance Ethnology 18 (1994):1-7.

Singer, Milton, ed. Krishna: Myths, Rites and Attitudes. Honolulu: East-West Center Press, 1966.

Zarrilli, Phillip B. The Kathakali Complex: Actor, Performance and Structure. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1984.

. "What Does it Mean to 'Become a Character':

Power, Presence and Transcendence in Asian In-body

Disciplines of Practice." In By Means of Performance: Intercultural Studies of Theatres and Ritual, edited by Richard Schechner and Willa Appel, 118-132. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Zimmer, Heinrich. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Edited by Joseph Campbell. New York: Harper and Row, 1946.

. The Art of Indian Asia: Its Mythology and Transformations. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1968.

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 17

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms