Ph

A Grand Canyon University Media Publication

2 1 S T C E N T U R Y S K I L L S

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G A N D P R O B L E M S O L V I N G

EDITION 1

FIND YOUR PURPOSE

21st Century Skills: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

A Grand Canyon University Media Publication

Edition 1

PAGE iv

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Executive Editor: Declan Joyce Consulting Editors: Mark Alexander and Nicole Quow-Thomason Assistant Editor: Alexis DiVincenzo Copy Editor: Lindsay Harrel Instructional Designer: Ryan Hughes

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The previous two classes you took at Grand Canyon University, UNV- 103 and UNV-104, were designed to equip you with some of the skills you will need to succeed in college. So far, you have learned how to manage your time, take effective notes, build study skills, and search for and evaluate resources.

In this class, PHI-105, we will continue the process of building your information literacy by developing your critical thinking and problem- solving skills. At the college level, you must be able to support your opinions. If you are confronted with problems or challenges, you must be able to solve them creatively and constructively. This book is designed to help you develop these skills.

The book also features a number of shorter articles on famous individuals from different walks of life who have excelled at solving problems or at approaching them in innovative ways. From George Orwell to Jane Goodall, from Frederick Douglass to Abraham Lincoln, these individuals demonstrate what is possible when the human mind is freed to think critically and solve problems.

ABOUT THIS

BOOK

INTRODUCTION. ABOUT THIS BOOKCHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

PAGE vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER ONE

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER ONE. Critical Thinking, Memory, and Forgetting by Marti Abitheira

TOPICS The Amazing Brain .................................................................................................................... 1

Whole-Brain Thinking .............................................................................................................. 2

Memory ........................................................................................................................................ 2 Short-Term Memory _______________________________________________________________3 Long-Term Memory ________________________________________________________________4

Forgetting .................................................................................................................................... 4

Why We Forget ........................................................................................................................... 5 Retrieval Failure _____________________________________________________________________5 Interference _________________________________________________________________________5 Failure to Store ______________________________________________________________________6 Motivated Forgetting ________________________________________________________________6

What Defines Critical Thinking? ............................................................................................ 6

Obstacles to Critical Thinking ................................................................................................ 8 Assumption vs. Fact _________________________________________________________________8 Thinking Superficially ________________________________________________________________8 Jumping to Conclusions ______________________________________________________________8 All-or-None Thinking ________________________________________________________________8

Benefits of Critical Thinking ................................................................................................... 9

Exercises/Food for Thought .................................................................................................... 10

Questions ..................................................................................................................................... 10

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Problem Solvers: Eratosthenes ............................................................................................... 4

Critical Thinkers: Jane Goodall ............................................................................................... 8

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER ONE, TWO

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED REFERENCES

References ....................................................................................................................................11

CHAPTER TWO. Perception, by R. Jacob Aroz

TOPICS Introduction .................................................................................................................................12

Perception ....................................................................................................................................13

The Five Senses ...........................................................................................................................13

The Deception of the Senses/Misperception ........................................................................16

Prewriting Strategies .................................................................................................................17

Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................19

Food for Thought Exercise ........................................................................................................20 Three Perspectives Brainstorm ______________________________________________________ 20

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Altered Perception: Sergei Eisenstein ................................................................................... 14

Problem Solver: John Harrison ............................................................................................... 20

REFERENCES References ....................................................................................................................................22

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER THREE

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED

CHAPTER THREE. Emotion and Emotional Intelligence by Kristen DiCarlo

TOPICS

Introduction .................................................................................................................................23

Opening Questions .....................................................................................................................23

Emotional Intelligence and Making Decisions .....................................................................24 Emotional Bias ______________________________________________________________________ 24 Enculturation _______________________________________________________________________ 25 Denial and Rationalization _________________________________________________________ 26

Cognitive Distortions .................................................................................................................26 Always Being Right _________________________________________________________________ 26 Global Labeling _____________________________________________________________________ 27 Emotional Reasoning _______________________________________________________________ 27 Shoulds _____________________________________________________________________________ 27 Blaming ____________________________________________________________________________ 27 Personalization _____________________________________________________________________ 28 Catastrophizing _____________________________________________________________________ 28 Overgeneralization _________________________________________________________________ 28 Polarized Thinking __________________________________________________________________ 28 Filtering ____________________________________________________________________________ 28

Developing a Thesis Statement ...............................................................................................29

Exercises .......................................................................................................................................31

Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................31

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Critical Thinkers: Nellie Bly ..................................................................................................... 25

Altered Perception: Orson Welles............................................................................................29

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER THREE, FOUR

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED REFERENCES

References ....................................................................................................................................32

CHAPTER FOUR. Fallacies, by Elizabeth Larson, Thomas Dyer, and John Steele

TOPICS Introduction .................................................................................................................................33

Deductive Fallacies .....................................................................................................................34

Inductive Fallacies ......................................................................................................................35

Reasoning Fallacies ....................................................................................................................36

Analogical Order .........................................................................................................................36

Analogical Reasoning .................................................................................................................36 The Classic Radiation Problem ______________________________________________________ 37

Argument by Analogy ................................................................................................................37 Premise 1 ___________________________________________________________________________ 38 Premise 2 ___________________________________________________________________________ 38 Conclusion __________________________________________________________________________ 38

• Relevance .................................................................................39 • Truth .........................................................................................39 • Number of Instances ................................................................39 • Differences ...............................................................................39

A Famous Analogy ......................................................................................................................40

Persuasive Essay Outline ..........................................................................................................41

Summary ......................................................................................................................................42

Focus Questions ..........................................................................................................................43

The Scientific Method ................................................................................................................44

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER FOUR, FIVE

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED Scientific Method in Everyday Life .........................................................................................45

Argument 1 _________________________________________________________________________ 46 Argument 2 _________________________________________________________________________ 46 Argument 3 _________________________________________________________________________ 46

Key Points to Remember ...........................................................................................................46

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Problem Solvers: Carl Jones .................................................................................................... 37

Great Persuaders: Frederick Douglass .................................................................................. 42

REFERENCES References ....................................................................................................................................47

CHAPTER FIVE. Thinking and Language, by Elizabeth Larson

TOPICS Opening Questions .....................................................................................................................48

Relationship Between Thinking and Language ....................................................................49

The Innateness of Language .....................................................................................................49

The Acquisition of Language ....................................................................................................50

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis/Linguistic Relativity .....................................................................50 Does the Language We Speak Impact Our Perception? _____________________________ 53

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER FIVE

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED Figurative Language ...................................................................................................................54

Similes ______________________________________________________________________________ 54 Metaphors __________________________________________________________________________ 54 Idioms ______________________________________________________________________________ 54

Symbolism ....................................................................................................................................54

Language in a Cultural Context ...............................................................................................55

Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning .........................................................................................55 Deductive Reasoning _______________________________________________________________ 56

• Major Premise ......................................................................... 56 • Minor Premise ......................................................................... 56 • Conclusion ............................................................................... 56

Inductive Reasoning...................................................................................................................57 Generalizations _____________________________________________________________________ 58 Cause and Effect ____________________________________________________________________ 58 Analogies ___________________________________________________________________________ 58

First Draft .....................................................................................................................................59

One Final Thought ......................................................................................................................60

Summary ......................................................................................................................................61

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Critical Thinkers: George Orwell .............................................................................................51

Altered Perception: The AIDA Model......................................................................................58

REFERENCES References ....................................................................................................................................62

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER SIX, SEVEN

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED

CHAPTER SIX. Communication and Persuasion, by Thomas Dyer

TOPICS Introduction .................................................................................................................................63

The Art of Persuasion ................................................................................................................64

Ethics in Persuasion ...................................................................................................................65

Manipulation ...............................................................................................................................65

Avoiding Bias ...............................................................................................................................66

Informative, Explanatory, and Persuasive Writing .............................................................67

Assessing a Persuasive Argument ...........................................................................................68

Summary ......................................................................................................................................72

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Great Persuaders: Abraham Lincoln .......................................................................................69

Altered Perception: Political Advertising ..............................................................................71

REFERENCES References ....................................................................................................................................72

CHAPTER SEVEN. Creative Thinking, by John Steele

TOPICS Introduction .................................................................................................................................73

Writing Process Recap ...............................................................................................................75

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER SEVEN, APPENDIX A

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED Thesis 1 ____________________________________________________________________________ 75 Thesis 2 ____________________________________________________________________________ 75 Thesis 3 ____________________________________________________________________________ 75

Persuasive Writing Final Draft Checklist ..............................................................................78

A Final Word ................................................................................................................................80

Key Points to Remember ...........................................................................................................81

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Critical Thinkers: Jean-Francois Champollion .....................................................................76

Problem Solvers: Humphry Davy ............................................................................................80

REFERENCES References ....................................................................................................................................82

APPENDIX A. Supplemental Notes and Information SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION

Image Credits ..............................................................................................................................A

Notes One .....................................................................................................................................B

Notes Two ....................................................................................................................................C

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B. Biographies

AUTHORS Marti Abitheira ...........................................................................................................................D

R. Jacob Aroz ...............................................................................................................................D

Kristen DiCarlo ............................................................................................................................D

Elizabeth Larson .........................................................................................................................E

Thomas Dyer ................................................................................................................................E

John Steele ...................................................................................................................................E

Declan Joyce ................................................................................................................................F

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

CHAPTER ONE. Critical Thinking, Memory, and Forgetting By Marti Abitheira

The Amazing Brain The adult human brain weighs only 3

pounds yet has the capacity of a thousand supercomputers. It has enough room to store every phone number in the United States and continue to perform day-to-day tasks easily and effectively. Through this amazing organ runs an endless stream of ideas, memories, and mental pictures. We can recall the three- dimensional layouts of homes and buildings, memorize thousands of lines of poetry, or “hear” the music of a complete symphony. The brain, with its mysterious ability to think

and reason, allows us to make sense of the world in which we live. Thoughts accumulate, allowing knowledge and wisdom to grow; we learn to evaluate assumptions, examine evidence, and assess conclusions. Thought motivates actions and interactions. Children undergo this intellectual development naturally, driven by their innate curiosity to know more about the world around them.

From a young age, children are capable of certain foundational thinking concepts. Their thought processes are initially self-centered,

but over time they begin to consider how their behavior affects others. They begin to examine thinking, to focus on purpose and judgments, and to apply basic intellectual standards to their thoughts, including accuracy and relevance. At 12 months, children typically realize that objects continue to exist when out of sight. This concept, which is called “object permanence,” works alongside the child’s expanding memory to make the world more predictable. At times, however, children will still misinterpret reality. A 1-year-old child

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

may begin to cry when a toy unexpectedly rolls a few inches toward them. The world is still a mysterious place to them, and children have a fragile understanding of the difference between animate and inanimate objects.

Once language is learned and understood, deeper thoughts can be developed and put into words. Growing communication skills increase interactions and produce knowledge, which in turns promotes the deeper skill of critical thinking. Thinking and language grow and develop together. Thought processes are expressed with increasing subtlety in words, tone, gestures, and facial expressions. Increasing interaction with others promotes new ideas and thoughts that in turn foster knowledge.

Whole-Brain Thinking Whole-brain thinking involves understand-

ing that the brain is designed to be whole and to integrate seamlessly the various special- ized functions of its hemispheres. We do not function with half a brain, as the terms “left- brained” and “right-brained” imply. In fact, the brain’s very design allows us to think in terms of and as opposed to or. Therein lies our ability to think critically, create, and com- municate, without limits. However, it is also true that our individual brains tend to favor certain types of thinking and learning over others. The brain is designed to be whole, but the tendency exists in each of us to favor one side of the brain or the other depending on the task at hand. Neuroanamotist Jill Bolte Taylor describes this in her book My Stroke of Insight (2008):

Although each of our cerebral hemispheres processes information in uniquely different ways, the two work intimately together when it comes to every action we take. The more we

understand about how the hemispheres work together … the more successful we will be in understanding the natural gifts

of our brain (p. 39).

Memory Our brain’s memory, not unlike the

memory in a computer, allows for the storage of information for later use. In terms of memory, the major difference between the human brain and computers is in how information is stored. Computers have only two types: permanent storage and permanent deletion. The human brain, on the other hand, has three distinct types of storage (not including permanent deletion). The first process is encoding, the process used to transform information into a form that will allow it to be stored. For a computer, this means converting data into 1s and 0s. For the

brain, it means transforming the data into a meaningful form such as an association with an existing memory, image, or sound.

Second is actual storage, which simply means retaining the information. A computer must write the 1s and 0s onto the hard drive. In the brain, it takes the form of a reason or incentive for the memory to be stored. Think, for example, how little time it takes us to learn to be careful around a hot stove.

The final process is retrieval, which brings the memory out of storage and reverses the process of encoding—in other words, it returns the information to a form similar to

ENCODING ACTUAL STORAGE

RETRIEVAL

Storage Processes

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

how it was originally stored. The computer mimics this process, changing the data from 1s and 0s to a readable document or image.

Short-term memory comes into play when information is moved into consciousness. This is information that is currently active, such as reading this page, talking to a friend, or writing an essay. Short-term memory has a limited capacity normally lasting roughly 30 seconds. The brain can remember approximately five to nine pieces of information in short-term memory at any given time. However, if short-term memory lasts only 30 seconds, how does anyone ever get any work done? Do people essentially lose focus or concentration twice every minute? The answer is no, because of a second type of short-term memory known as working memory. Working memory is the process that takes place when an individual continually focuses on material for longer than short- term memory permits. When short-term memory is full and more

information enters, displacement occurs. New information pushes out portions of the old information. Short-term memory skills can be improved with practice, such as vi- sualization techniques card sharks use to store a sequence of dozens of cards at a time.

Short-Term Memory

There are typically six reasons why information is stored in short-term memory:

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Primacy effect: Information that occurs first is remembered better than information occurring later. The first word, item, or number on a list is generally more readily remembered.

Recency effect: Often the final piece of information is remembered more easily because not as much time has passed.

Distinctiveness: If an element of the memory stands out, it is often remembered more easily. Any distinctive information is easier to remember than that which is familiar, usual, or mundane.

Frequency effect: Repetition aids memory. For example, think of having to remember specific dates in history. The more repetition, the stronger the memory.

Associations: When a memory is associated with previously memorized information, it is easier to remember.

Reconstruction: This refers to a process whereby the blanks in one’s memory are involuntarily filled in. When one tries to get a complete picture of an event or image in his or her mind, the brain may fill in missing parts without him or her realizing it.

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Long-Term Memory Long-term memory is similar to a

computer’s hard drive. Unlike short-term memory, long-term memory is relatively permanent and virtually unlimited in capacity. Information that passes from short- term to long-term memory typically has some significance attached to it. Life would be dull without memories of the day you graduated high school, scored the winning goal, or had your first kiss. On the other hand, how easy

it is to forget details that have no relevance, like the color of the car parked in front of the local grocery store or what outfit you wore last Tuesday. Other information is stored in long-term memory because it is attached to something significant. Remembering it was a warm day when you graduated from high school is one example. The actual temperature is of little importance, but the warmth of the day is attached to the memory.

PROBLEM SOLVERS: Eratosthenes By Declan Joyce

This series of sidebars examines individuals who used ingenuity and critical thinking to solve difficult problems.

The next time you feel frustrated with your smartphone’s map software, spare a thought for Erastosthenes (c. 276 B.C.–c. 195 B.C.). He had to find his way around the world using a piece of wood.

One of the most famous men of his day, Eratosthenes was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, poet, and chief librarian of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt. At one point, he read a curious fact about the

Forgetting Memory cannot be discussed without men-

tioning forgetting. Forgetting is a natural phenomenon. If every detail of every minute of every hour of every day were remembered, no matter how good, bad, or insignificant, sifting through all of that data would make remembering significant information, such as where you left your keys, a difficult, time- consuming task. There are many reasons people forget and often these reasons over- lap. Some information never makes it to long- term memory. Other information gets there but is lost before it can become a permanent part of long-term memory. Another reason is decay, in which information unused for an extended period of time decays or fades away. The brain may be designed to erase data that is no longer pertinent.

Failing to remember does not mean the information is lost forever. Sometimes the

information is there but for various reasons cannot be accessed. This could be due to dis- traction or an error of association. For ex- ample, misremembering information like the date and time may cause that information to be disconnected or stored in another part of the brain. Another possibility is repression, which means that one subconsciously pushes a memory out of reach so as not to remem- ber the associated feelings. Another reason is amnesia, which can be either psychological or physiological.

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ancient Egyptian city of Swenet (modern- day Aswan). Specifically, he learned that every year at noon on the summer solstice, the sun would be directly overhead in Swenet and all shadows would disappear for a few minutes until the sun moved on. Like most educated men at the time, Erastosthenes knew that the earth was round, and the story gave him an idea.

He reasoned as follows: If he were to measure the angle cast by the sun’s rays in Alexandria at the same moment they were directly overhead in Swenet, he would know what proportion of the entire circumference of the earth was represented by the distance between the two cities. Using a gnomon, a piece of wood equivalent to the arm on a sundial, he found that the sun in Alexandria cast its rays at precisely 7 degrees 12 minutes (or about one-fiftieth of the entire earth’s circumference of 360 degrees) while it was directly overhead in Swenet.

Next, he needed the distance from Alexandria to Swenet, which was fortunately available because the route between the cities had already been

Eratosthenes continued:Why We Forget

Many factors contribute to forgetting. Researcher Elizabeth Loftus, a cogni-

tive psychologist and expert on human memory, proposed four explanations:

Retrieval Failure The inability to retrieve a

memory is one of the most com- mon causes of forgetting. One possible explanation for retriev- al failure is decay. A memory trace is created every time a new concept is formed. Decay sug-

gests that, over time, these memory trac- es begin to disconnect from one another and disappear. Information that is not retrieved and rehearsed may be eventu- ally lost.

Interference Interference suggests that

some memories compete and interfere with others. When information is similar to other information previ- ously stored in memory,

interference may occur. There are two basic types of interference: Proactive in- terference occurs when an old memory makes it more difficult or impossible to remember a new one, whereas retroac- tive interference occurs when new learn- ing interferes with your ability to re- member previously learned information.

surveyed. In addition, it was regularly traveled by trade caravans and Eratosthenes spoke with some of the traders to confirm his information. Multiplying the distance between the cities by 50 gave him the circumference of the earth.

Well, almost. Erastosthenes was off by about 10 percent, but this is not the fault of his methods, but because he did not have access to three crucial pieces of information: first, that the two cities are not on the same north- south meridian (they are actually off by about 3 degrees); second, that the surveyors and traders underestimated the distance between the two cities; and third, that the earth is not a perfect sphere (it bulges slightly at the equator). Armed with this information and using the same methods, Eratosthenes would have arrived at a figure of 40,074 km, or less than one-sixth of 1 percent (about 60 km) off the exact figure. It’s an impressive problem to solve, especially when his main instrument of measurement was a piece of wood.

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Failure to Store

Motivated Forgetting

Sometimes, losing infor- mation has less to do with forgetting and more to do with the fact that it nev- er made it into long-term memory. Encoding failures

sometimes prevent information from en- tering long-term memory.

Sometimes, an active effort is made to forget memories, especially those associated with traumatic or disturbing events or ex- periences. The two basic forms of motivated forget-

ting are suppression, a conscious form of forgetting, and repression, an uncon- scious form of forgetting.

One of the difficulties with repressed memories is that it is difficult, if not im- possible, to scientifically study whether a memory has been repressed. Mental ac- tivities such as rehearsal and remember- ing are important methods of strength- ening a memory, and memories of painful or traumatic events are less likely to be discussed or rehearsed and thus are for- gotten.

What Defines Critical Thinking?

Hopefully by now you are sufficiently im- pressed with the abilities of your amazing brain to be confident of its ability to learn to think critically. The term “critical thinking” can be intimidating. One imagines critical thinkers to be limited to the great minds of

our time, gathered in profound dialogues on thermo-molecular biology or quantum phys- ics, using terms and discussing concepts that range far beyond even our most heightened comprehension. In reality, critical thinking is a skill used constantly and that can improve

with practice and effort. Comparison shop- ping at the grocery store is a basic form of critical thinking. Critical thinking and cre- ative thinking are two aspects of understand- ing that are essential to the process of learn- ing and assessing what has been learned, and

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

understanding their effects is a long-standing goal of many academic disciplines.

Of the two, creative thinking may be the more familiar term. This is the process of brainstorming or initiating ideas as a way of finding solutions to conflicts or issues. Criti- cal thinking is the process of actively seek- ing to understand, analyze, and evaluate the importance or significance of information. Creative thinking and critical thinking com- plement one another and, if used effectively, result in effective thinking. Effective think- ing resolves real-life issues and situations by generating viable options (creative thinking) and contemplating the effects of those op- tions (critical thinking).

Most students begin college with an abil-

ity to use creative-thinking skills. They have developed the ability to express their opin- ions and viewpoints on a variety of topics. Unfortunately, many believe that the act of expressing these opinions and views is suf- ficient. To their amazement, they realize that at this level of education, professors expect a concerted demonstration of higher-order thinking skills. Critical thinking operates on a higher level, processing information, con- sidering alternative points of view or reason- able objections, and arriving at a decision or conclusion. It is the ability to apply academic thinking in a variety of approaches. Critical thinking examines information in order to evaluate a task, issue, or situation from an al- ternative perspective, then gathers evidence or knowledge to permit the accomplishment of the task or the resolution of the issue. It is the process of analyzing and applying the information you gather from experience, re-flection and communication. In its most rudimentary form, critical thinking can be defined as “thinking about thinking.”

CRITICAL THINKING In its most rudimentary form, critical thinking can be defined as “thinking about thinking.”

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

Obstacles to Critical Thinking Critical thinking avoids bias, misrepresentation, or decisions based on incomplete or superficial information. It does the

heavy lifting of the brain, avoiding stock or clichéd assessments and solutions. It is never lazy but endlessly curious. Far from be- ing threatened by challenges to current belief, it examines them

willingly as potential windows into deeper understanding.

CRITICAL THINKERS: Jane Goodall By Declan Joyce

Here are some common obstacles to critical thinking:

This series of sidebars examines individuals who have bucked conventional wisdom and done things their own way.

The English, as everyone knows, place a high value on doing things the proper way. When it comes to her career, however, the Englishwoman Jane Goodall (b. 1934) seems not to have gotten the memo.

Goodall has been fascinated by chimpanzees ever since receiving a stuffed toy chimp from her father as a child, and as an adult decided to pursue a career studying them. As anyone would have told her at the time, the

1 Assumption vs. Fact

Critical thinking requires the use of solid facts and evidence in the analysis of information. An argument or conclusion loses its credibility when personal biases or assumptions are used as support for a decision or argument. Errors in judgment are more likely to occur when assumptions are used in place of verifiable fact. Examination of these assumptions requires critical questioning and reflective analysis. Critical questions must be specific to events, situations, or issues.

2 Thinking Superficially

Superficial thinking means considering only the obvious or superficial facts of an issue. Thinking in depth requires identifying related information, considering the context of the issue, and understanding the relationships of all factors. Discussing, writing, diagramming, and reading are methods for delving into an issue in greater depth.

4 All-or-None Thinking

All-or-none thinking occurs when it is believed that because something happens a certain way one time, all future events will occur in the same manner. All-or-none thinking believes that there is one universal way to think and relate information. Effective critical thinking requires flexibility and recognition that there is usually more than one way to do or think about a topic, issue, or situation.

3 Jumping to Conclusions

Another error that can significantly interfere with effective critical thinking is arriving at a conclusion before all relevant data is received. If all the important facts are not available, it is difficult, if not impossible, to draw a logical conclusion. One element that can contribute to the tendency to jump to conclusions is an emotional reaction to information or circumstances. It is normal to have emotional responses to certain issues. However, emotional reactions must be tempered with objective and rational consideration of the facts in order to think effectively and reach reasonable conclusions.

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

proper way to do this was to go to college, obtain a PhD in primatology or a similar field, and then conduct research by studying captive apes in a lab. However, Goodall took another route. While visiting a friend in Kenya in 1957, she telephoned Louis Leakey, the British paleontologist famous for his work on evolutionary biology in Kenya’s Olduvai Gorge. Her purpose was merely to get together for a talk on animals, but Leakey, who was also interested in research among living primates, recognized the young lady’s enthusiasm and intelligence and provided funding for her to observe chimpanzees in Kenya’s Gombe Stream National Park. Which she did.

For decades.

With no formal training in science, Goodall simply began observing the chimps in the wild. She lived alone in Gombe for months at a time, spending every day watching and taking notes. At first, her research was hindered by her inability to get closer than 500 yards or so before the chimpanzees became restless. Over time, however, they began to trust her and allow her to move closer. One day in 1960, she witnessed something that upended

Jane Goodall continued:

Jane Goodall

Benefits of Critical Thinking Critical thinking has many benefits. It identifies the elements that are sound

and faulty in reasoning, sorts out sensible deductions, then defines and separates them from biases and opinions. Critical thinking:

Strengthens the ability to analyze and evaluate topics of interest.

Promotes understanding of social diversity and worldviews.

Improves research, writing, and oral communication skills.

Helps construct and deconstruct arguments that rationally defend one’s opinions.

Fosters independent learning and strong group participation.

Overcomes barriers such as defenses, denial, or any self-serving biases.

Increases academic knowledge.

Encourages intellectual curiosity.

Critical thinking is a skill that can benefit students in every aspect of their lives, well beyond their academic pursuits. It is essential to every student as they examine and explore the content and theories contained in the courses needed to complete their degree.

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

the field of primatology. A male chimp, bent over a termite mound, was taking twigs from a nearby tree, stripping them of their leaves, and dipping them into the mound. Moments later, the chimp would remove the stick and eat the termite defenders that clung to it. The chimp, in other words, was using a tool, something that only man was supposed to be able to do. She telephoned Leakey with the news. His reaction,

Jane Goodall continued:

Exercises/Food for Thought

A

B

C

Attempt to draw both sides of a penny from memory, and then compare your results to an actual penny. How well did you do?

When you forget where you have placed an object (such as your keys), what mental steps do you take to find that object?

Think of one of your most deeply held beliefs, then think of ways to challenge it.

QUESTIONS 1. What are the three main functions of memory? 2. What are the six reasons why information is stored in short-term memory? 3. What are some of the major reasons people forget? 4. Why is information sometimes unable to be retrieved from memory? 5. What are the two elements of motivated forgetting? 6. What defines critical thinking? 7. Why are critical-thinking skills essential to the college student?

he later wrote, was, “We must now redefine man, redefine tool, or accept chimpanzees as human!”

Recognizing the value of Goodall’s research, in 1962 Leakey raised funds to send her to Cambridge University, where she became only the eighth woman in the school’s history to be admitted to a PhD program without first having obtained an undergraduate degree. In 1965, she received her doctorate in ethology, the scientific study of animal behavior. Back in Gombe, she resumed her studies of the chimpanzee population. Over the next three decades, she made a range of new discoveries that challenged much of the perceived wisdom about chimpanzees.

One basic assumption that Goodall proved wrong was that they were vegetarians. On multiple occasions, she witnessed groups of them pursuing, catching, and eating colobus monkeys. Even more interesting, she found that the apes actively cooperated while hunting, with individual apes functioning as decoys or moving ahead to cut off the colobus monkeys’ escape routes. The animal that caught the monkey did not keep it, but shared it among all members of the group. Again, chimpanzees were doing things that were supposed to be uniquely human, namely planning ahead and cooperating in pursuit of a goal.

Other behavior was also startlingly human. Chimps live together in large social groups, and Goodall, who had come to recognize dozens of them individually and even given some of them names (another no-no, in the minds of the academic community), observed that chimps formed friendships and alliances and showed generosity, forgiveness, support, and even sadness. On the darker side, they could be extremely violent. Before the Gombe study, chimps were believed to be invariably peaceful creatures, but Goodall witnessed fatal violence between group members, including

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Jane Goodall continued:

REFERENCES Bolte Taylor, J. (2008). My stroke of insight. New York, NY: Viking Press.

mothers who killed and sometimes even ate the babies of rival females. Also, over a period of several years, she witnessed what can only be described as “gang warfare” between two competing groups of chimps, that only ended when one group had been systematically hunted down and wiped out. This was a long way from the popular image of the friendly chimp in a baseball hat and t-shirt that dominated public perception prior to the Gombe study.

Goodall, who is now recognized as one of the world’s leading primatologists, continued her studies at Gombe for more than four decades. In recent years, as she approaches her 80th birthday, she remains active, traveling more than 300 days a year and devoting herself

to wildlife conservation and education. Through it all, she has remained impeccably gracious and modest. A good example of this occurred when the Far Side cartoonist Gary Larson published a cartoon showing two chimps grooming one another on a tree branch. One of them, discovering a blonde hair on the other (Goodall is blonde), says, “Conducting a little more ‘research’ with that Jane Goodall tramp?” Goodall was in Gombe at the time but her representatives at home strongly objected, calling the cartoon “an atrocity.” Goodall, however, thought it was hilarious, didn’t understand what all the fuss was about, and invited Larson to visit her in Gombe.

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CHAPTER TWO.

Perception By R. Jacob Aroz

Perception is the means by which people understand the environment around them. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines perception as “the way you think about or understand someone or something” (“Perception,” 2013, para. 1). However, is perception always reality? Are there instances when what is perceived is not accurate? As you read this chapter, keep in mind the following questions:

Throughout this course, you will write a persuasive essay on a particular topic. Under- standing how reality is influenced through perception can help you clarify what it is you wish to argue, and how to go about present- ing your case. By the end of this chapter, you should have an understanding of what per- ception is, how it is formulated through the senses, and the factors that can influence or change perception.

WHAT IS PERCEPTION?

HOW DO THE FIVE SENSES HELP IN FORMULATING PERCEPTION?

HOW CAN THE SENSES BE DECEIVED/NEGATIVELY INFLUENCED?

Introduction

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Perception The way that you interact with and un-

derstand the environment around you is in- formed, in large part, by perception. Percep- tions are formed through the interplay of the senses. As Gepshtein (2010) noted, the senses act as “statistical measures” that enable you to understand the environment around you. These statistical measures are used to con- struct reality. Another explanation says that perception is used to allow an organism the opportunity to think and act in environmen- tally appropriate ways (Cohen, 2004).

The critical-thinking process requires you to gather information, analyze it, evaluate possible actions or solutions to a problem, and make an appropriate decision. Perception provides the information that is gathered for analysis and evaluation. Through the critical thought process, perceptions are continually tested and then validated or cast out as inaccurate. It is important to understand that perception does not necessarily reflect the way that things really are. You can probably recall instances when your perceptions were not accurate. For example, you may have had the experience of driving on a hot day and seeing what look like pools of water on the road ahead when in fact there were none. A magician may make a distracting sound to draw your gaze elsewhere. Unscrupulous salesmen and con artists sometimes wear strong cologne to distract the senses of a “mark.”

The Five Senses The senses influence almost every decision

that you make throughout your daily routine. When you walk into an environment, you im- mediately use the senses to gather informa- tion about it. The information gathered using these senses can be identified as “percep- tions,” or judgments about the environment.

Sight is the sense we use the most. It takes up the most cortical space within the brain. The Hausa people of West Africa classify two senses: vision, and everything else. Reflect on the various tasks you perform during the day. Whether you are a student or working professional (or both), much of your time is spent using your sense of sight, whether to work on a paper, conduct research, write an

e-mail, or draft a proposal. Consumers also rely on sight to make purchasing decisions. Perceptions are formed and decisions made based on the way the products look despite the fact that their appearance may have little to do with how that product functions or benefits an individual.

The advertising industry is rife with examples of how the sense of sight, or vision, has an impact on the way that something is perceived and decisions are made. As Cant and Hefer (2013) explain, visual perception is something that advertisers take into

account when trying to sell a product. In- store and window displays are designed to attract customers. In many instances, the design of a product has a large influence on its desirability among consumers (Noble & Kumar, 2010). While the respective merits of PCs versus Macs could be debated all day long, the resurgence of Apple products in the late 90s and early 2000s was due, in large part, to their attractive, innovative appearance.

SIGHT

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ALTERED PERCEPTION: Sergei Eisenstein By Declan Joyce

In this sidebar series, we look at the ways in which different kinds of media have been used to manipulate an audience and change their perception of events.

Today’s multibillion-dollar global movie industry would have been unrecognizable to the patrons of the first nickelodeons, the 5-cent movie theaters that flourished in the United States from approximately 1905–1915. These mostly rudimentary structures offered “canned theater,” that is, short stage plays filmed using a single stationary camera in which actors used extravagant theatrical gestures to compensate for the lack of dialogue.

However, with human imagination being what it is, before long filmmakers began to think of new ways to use the invention. How, they wondered, might what is being filmed be different if the camera were moving? Or if there were more than one? What if a scene were shot from below? From above? From behind? Would this change the way in which the events in the movie are perceived? Over the past century, directors have found countless ways to use the camera to achieve emotional or dramatic effects, but the basic vocabulary of the cinema is usually accredited to two directors of the Silent Era: the American D.W. Griffith and the Russian Sergei Eisenstein.

Food is usually presented to appeal to the eye despite the fact that one experiences food using the sense of taste. In a study on how food marketing has impacted obesity levels, Chandon and Wansink (2012) write that food marketers often use different color combinations within food to enhance taste expectations among consumers in an effort to get them to purchase the product. Fast food ads feature glistening burgers and crisp, yellow fries with fresh steam wafting into the air. The reality, of course, is that most fast

food is anything but fresh. As is discussed later in this chapter, this propensity to use the sense of sight to formulate perceptions about various aspects of an environment can lead to a false understanding of reality.

Our sense of sound also informs perceptions about the environment. You often perceive your distance in relation to other objects by the volume of the sound it makes. The louder the volume of an object, the smaller the perceived distance. The sense of sound can also be used to help you interpret social roles, or norms. Burke and Grosvenor (2011) write that sound can be used to conceptualize, or understand, one’s role in society and relationship with others. An example of this is the sounds emanating from local schools. You hear the school bell ring and the raised

voices of exasperated teachers and begin to conceptualize the environment (Burke & Grosvenor). The sound of a police or fire department siren warns you to be alert and, if you are driving, to move your car to the side of the road.

Taste is most commonly associated with food and drink. Through taste you gauge information like flavor, temperature, and texture. It also helps you avoid things that are too hot, too cold, or potentially danger- ous. Taste usually combines with smell and

Fast food ads feature glistening burgers and crisp, yellow fries.

The louder the volume of an object, the smaller the perceived distance.

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Sergei Eisenstein continued:

Ukraine, Odessa Potemkin Steps

In particular, Eisenstein’s 1925 film Potemkin is credited with exploring the potential of film editing and montage (that is, cutting between different camera shots). Potemkin, which was made less than a decade after the Russian Revolution, is essentially a propaganda film that dramatizes a mutiny by sailors against Tsarist troops of the old regime. Eisenstein, like other Soviet filmmakers of the time, used his films to experiment with editing techniques and their emotional effect on audiences. This can be clearly seen in the most famous scene in the film, the “Odessa Steps” sequence, in which unarmed civilians flee murderous Tsarist troops who cut them down indiscriminately. Eisenstein uses multiple camera angles and composes his shots for maximum emotional effect: The troops are faceless and sinister, filmed from behind or from the waist down; the pain on the faces of the victims, meanwhile, is filmed in lingering close-up. Instead of using a single camera, Eisenstein composes dozens of shots, cutting rapidly between marching soldiers, fleeing citizens, a murdered young mother, a horrified old woman, a shocked student and, most famously, a baby in a carriage, rolling helplessly down the steps before being viciously slashed by a soldier. (The rolling baby carriage has been referenced in several other movies, including Brian DePalma’s The Untouchables and Woody Allen’s Bananas.)

Though the filmmaking may seem a little rudimentary by today’s standards, the overall effect, especially to an audience unaccustomed to work of such sophistication, was to completely

vision to form our overall perceptions of a meal. The color and smell of food influence your expectations of how a food ultimately will taste and influence your choice of what to eat (Chandon & Wansink, 2012). The sense of taste gives you the opportunity to test the perceptions formulated through the sight, smell, and in some cases the texture or touch of the food.

The fourth sense is touch. Touch helps you to absorb information in various ways. Through the sense of touch, you gauge the temperature and density of an object. Touch enables you to determine if stimuli are too hot or too cold and take action to avoid harm. As with the other senses, touch is something used to make decisions on possible purchases and is taken into account by advertisers try- ing to get people to buy products. Research shows that consumers often experience frus- tration when they are unable to touch certain products, and ultimately perceive them less favorably (Marlow & Jansson-Boyd, 2011). In this instance, although the touch of the prod-

uct may not impact its functionality, con- sumers will perceive it negatively if they are unable to perceive it through tactile stimula- tion. Touch is also used in our relationships with loved ones, to express reassurance, de- sire, love, or closeness.

The final sense is smell. Smell enables you to determine various odors present within an environment. According to Mitro, Gordon, Olsson, and Lundstrom (2012), smell is also used to identify potential mates or to per- ceive danger. Consider, for example, how you might react when you walk into a room that has a strong smell of gas or kerosene. When you step onto a bus or other form of public transportation, your sense of smell is alive to the dozens of odors that are present. Or con- sider how you might react to someone with bad breath. He or she may be a sweet person, but in this instance your sense of smell will be the driving factor in the emotions, memo- ries, and ultimately your perception of him or her (Smeets et al., 2009).

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change the perception of the event. So effective was Eisenstein’s filmmaking, in fact, that it is often forgotten that the events in Potemkin, though loosely based on actual events, are largely fictional and that the massacre of civilians never happened. In Eisenstein’s hands, the event was turned into a powerful indictment of the old regime and, by implication, a vindication of those that overthrew it.

You can view the Odessa Steps sequence here.

Exercise: Think of the different kinds of media you encounter on a daily basis. In what ways do they attempt to influence your perceptions? Do any of them succeed?

Sergei Eisenstein continued: The Deception of the Senses

MISPERCEPTION Perception can also be influenced by previous experience,

emotion, cultural bias, and personal opinion.

Sensory perceptions are thus put through other filters that can enhance but also distort one’s understanding of reality. Food can have an unappealing appearance yet taste good; someone can have a mean appearance yet be pleasant. This sensory deception highlights the importance, and benefit, of the critical- thought process. Critical thought enables you to use the senses to gather information and form perceptions about stimuli within an environment and then test those perceptions to determine reality accurately. Although the senses are physical recordings and responses to certain stimuli, Gordon (2012) explains that they are also “experienced as part objective response to stimuli within a particular context, and part of a more interpretive-associated experience” (p. 909). The interpretive nature of one’s senses can lead to various perceptions being misleading, or deceptive, in understanding, and properly identifying reality.

The norms, morals, and ethical ideals of your culture also influence the way you perceive. People who have grown up on the East Coast of the United States can easily perceive the difference in people from the Midwest. This cultural influence often creates differences in our interactions with people from other places. Or consider the Western view of a slim body type as the cultural ideal. Weisbuch and Ambady (2009) explained that this view is due, in large part, to the prevalence of slim female bodies and their treatment by others in various forms of Western media. However, in other cultures, heavyset body types and curvy figures are seen as much more desirable.

Personal experience also has a tremendous influence on the way you perceive your environment. The senses are used to create memories, and that information is used when similar situations or stimuli are encountered. People will perceive the way food tastes, for example, based on previous experience. While these experiences can be beneficial

and are an integral part of the critical- thinking process, they can lead to biases. A previous interaction with an individual from a certain geographic location can lead to a perception that does not reflect the reality of these individuals overall. A previous feeling of anger can cause you to approach a situation with an unwarranted feeling of invulnerability (Fischhoff, Gonzalez, Lerner, & Small, 2012).

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PREWRITING STRATEGIES

PREWRITING STRATEGIES As mentioned at the beginning of this

chapter, being aware of how your perceptions and experiences influence you is a good way to approach the writing of a paper. There are also various prewriting strategies that you can use to focus and organize your thoughts on your topic of choice. As Lima (2010) explains, the prewriting process provides students with the opportunity to understand their existing knowledge of the topic and to continue to develop that knowledge. The prewriting process allows you to identify your topic and your audience, brainstorm, research, develop a thesis statement, and craft an outline.

One of the most critical steps of the pre- writing process is brainstorming. Brain-

storming, which was created by Alex Osborn in the 1930s, is a technique that allows you to develop a large number of ideas on a topic in a short amount of time (Huey Fen, 2010). Developing ideas pertaining to your topic is important, as it will shape the direction of your essay and the research you need to do. While you may have plenty of ideas on a top- ic, brainstorming gives you the opportunity to set them down on paper and identify the main ideas or points around which you will be building your essay. When brainstorming, there are several techniques that you can use to develop ideas pertaining to your topic: list- ing, free-writing, journalistic questions, three perspectives breaking down the topic, and mapping/webbing.

LISTING: Listing, as the name suggests, involves creating a list of ideas on your topic. Once you

have listed several ideas, review them to try to identify main points. Again, this will provide you with a direction to go in for your research and provide insight on how you may wish to structure your essay.

FREE-WRITING: Free-writing is especially useful when you have a lot of ideas on a topic. Free-writing

allows your mind to wander on a topic without censorship or having to conform to a set of rules. Just write what comes in to your head. Once you have finished recording the thoughts that have come to you, read through them to try to identify main ideas.

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JOURNALISTIC QUESTIONS: The third method of brainstorming is journalistic questions. This involves using the

journalist’s set of basic questions on a story or topic: who, what, when, where, why, and how. These questions can help you develop ideas on your topic in a thorough manner and provide you with avenues of research.

BREAKING DOWN THE TOPIC: Breaking down the topic is useful for when you are unsure of what to write about. This

method allows you to break down the topic into a main topic and several subtopics or points. Using this method can help you identify specific points pertaining to your main topic that you can conduct research on and structure your essay around.

PREWRITING STRATEGIES CONTINUED

THREE PERSPECTIVES: Finding three perspectives on your topic is another method. The three perspectives

that you should use are description, history, and relationships. First, describe the topic in detail and break it down into specific parts. You can also take the opportunity to describe what is interesting about the topic and why you decided to pick it. Next, consider your topic’s history (i.e., the events that may have shaped it and changed it over time). Finally, explore the various relationships that exist within and outside of your topic and how your topic relates to other topics. For example, if you choose the subject of abortion for your essay, ask yourself how the public discourse on the subject is related to politics, religion, or place of origin.

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MAPPING/WEBBING: The final method of brainstorming is

mapping, or webbing. Mapping/webbing allows you to develop ideas on your topic in a visual manner. Using mapping/ webbing, you can demonstrate spatially and physically the relationship between your topic and various other ideas, or subtopics. Using a map or web is a great way for visual learners to understand the topic in more detail (Leopold, 2012). Write your main topic or thesis at the center of a page and then fill in your web or map with supporting ideas. Use lines or arrows or any other method you like to illustrate how topics relate to one another or the order in which they might appear in your final essay. This is an excellent way to develop

the main points and supporting details that you will include in your thesis statement and use as the topics for the supporting paragraphs of your essay.

Writing an essay on a specific topic can be a daunting task; however, when you are able to break it up into smaller pieces it becomes more manageable. While there are plenty of steps involved in writing an essay, brainstorming can help you identify the direction that those other steps will be predicated on. It allows you to identify several ideas on your topic, regardless of your pre-existing knowledge, in a way that will allow you to begin research and formulate the structure of your essay.

PREWRITING STRATEGIES CONTINUED

Conclusion The senses are used to determine a vari-

ety of factors about the physical environment in conjunction with each other. While these senses are used to help test one’s understand- ing or perception of an environment to deter- mine reality, there are several ways that they can be influenced or deceived. Cultural influ- ences affect the way you perceive a group of people or what is viewed as pleasant and de- sirable. Previous experiences affect the way that new experiences are viewed. The way you perceive others can be influenced by the emotions you are currently experiencing. All

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of this underscores the importance of criti- cal thought. Through the analysis and evalu- ation of information, you can test the various perceptions of the senses to accurately deter- mine reality and avoid the influence or de- ception that occurs because of cultural biases, personal experiences, and emotions.

The prewriting process is used to help you manage the large task of writing an essay while identifying and eliminating possible bi- ases in the information used. One of the ways this can be achieved is through brainstorm- ing. There are several strategies that can be used based on one’s pre-existing understand- ing of the material. These strategies can help you record ideas on the topic, identify biases, and decide on the main points that will help provide direction in the research and struc- ture of your essay.

PROBLEM SOLVERS: John Harrison By Declan Joyce

In this sidebar series, we look at the ways in which different kinds of media have been used to manipulate an audience and change their perception of events.

John Harrison (1693-1776) was a self-taught English carpenter and clockmaker raised in a working- class family in Yorkshire, England. To understand the magnitude of the problem he tackled, it is first necessary to provide some historical background.

On October 22, 1707, during the War of Spanish Succession, four homebound English warships ran aground on the Isles of Scilly off the southwest coast of England, with the loss of 2,000 men. The cause of the disaster was not a storm or battle, but something much more mundane: the ships’ crews didn’t know where they were. The cause of the Isles of Scilly disaster, like so many of the thousands of maritime tragedies that have happened ever since men first took to sailing out of sight of land, can be summed up in one word: longitude.

Measuring latitude has always been straightforward for sailors. It can be found by measuring the length of the local day or by using guide stars above the horizon. There are no such celestial means, however, for finding longitude. Effectively lost once they were out of sight of land, sailors used a rough form of calculation known

Food for Thought Exercise

Three Perspectives Brainstorm Using the three perspectives brainstorming technique, record ideas that

you have on how perception has been or can be deceptive.

DESCRIPTION:

HISTORY:

RELATIONSHIP:

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as “dead reckoning” that was often wildly inaccurate. Ships and lives were destroyed when land appeared much closer than expected; thousands of sailors succumbed to scurvy, starvation, and thirst as ships wandered lost around a trackless ocean.

The solution to the problem, oddly enough, had been known for almost two centuries. If you carried a clock on board that could show the exact time in your home port, you could compare that time with your local time to calculate an exact longitude. For example, if your home port was London, which is located at zero degrees East, and your onboard clock told you that it was midnight in London at the same time that it was noon locally (local noon is found by using a sextant to measure the sun’s zenith), then you knew you were on the other side of the world, at exactly 180 degrees East. Combining this with your latitude would fix your exact position.

Just one problem. How do you build a clock of moving parts that can be relied upon to keep perfect time for months on a ship that is rolling, heaving, crossing oceans, sailing through storms, and dealing with extremes of temperature, humidity, and pressure? The problem was so enormous, especially in an age when worldwide trade by sea was gaining

speed, that in 1712 the British Parliament offered a prize of 20,000 pounds (the equivalent of about $4 million today) to anyone finding a solution.

Like many of his contemporaries, John Harrison devoted years to pursuing the enormous prize. In 1730, after 15 years of experiments and labor, Harrison presented his proposed drawings to the British astronomer royal, who was so impressed that he provided Harrison with an introduction to George Graham, at that time the country’s foremost clockmaker. Graham agreed immediately to provide financial help and Harrison set to work. Five years later, his first marine chronometer was built and ready for testing. It is known as the H1 and is one of history’s most famous timepieces. Its interacting, multilayered complexities are far too great to be explored in a piece of this length, so instead we offer an animation of a pendulum Harrison created called a grasshopper escapement. This design allowed the pendulum to swing peacefully and accurately even in heavy seas and gale- force winds. As you study this animated image, remember that it represents only a part of the chronometer’s overall complexity.

In 1736, Harrison took his chronometer on a return voyage to Lisbon, and it

performed perfectly. The sailing master, in fact, noted that his own calculations placed the ship 60 miles away from its true landfall, whereas the chronometer located it perfectly. Harrison went on to design smaller, even more sophisticated devices, and eventually adapted some of his inventions to smaller, hand- held watches. This is the equivalent, perhaps, of someone inventing the mainframe computer and then refining it to the point where it is the size of a smartphone.

John Harrison continued:

CLICK TO VIEW ANIMATION

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REFERENCES

Burke, C., & Grosvenor, I. (2011). The Hearing School: An exploration of sound and listening in the modern school. Paedagogica Historica, 47(3), 323-340. doi:10.1080/00309230.2010.530273

Cant, M., & Hefer, Y. (2013). Visual merchandising displays – Functional or a waste of space in apparel retail stores? Gender & Behaviour, 11(1), 5336-5341.

Chandon, P., & Wansink, B. (2012). Does food marketing need to make us fat? A review and solutions. Nutrition Reviews, 70(10), 571- 593. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00518.x

Cohen, J. (2004). Objects, places, and perception. Philosophical Psychology, 17(4), 471-495. Fischhoff, B., Gonzalez, R. M., Lerner, J. S., & Small, D. A. (2012). Evolving judgments of terror risks: Foresight, hindsight, and

emotion: A reanalysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 18(20), e1-ee16. doi: 10.1037/a0027959 Gepshtein, S. (2010). Two psychologies of perception and the prospect of their synthesis. Philosophica Psychology, 23(2), 217-281. Gordon, M. S. (2012). Finding the senses. Psychologist, 25(12), 908-909. Huey Fen, V. (2010). The use of brainstorming and role playing as a pre-writing strategy. International Journal of Learning, 17(3),

537-558. Leopold, L. (2012). Prewriting tasks for auditory, visual, and kinesthetic Learners. TESL Canada Journal, 29(2), 96-102. Lima, R. (2010). Practical writing – An online interactive writing experience. Tesl-Ej, 14(3), 1-6. Lynn, S. K., Zhang, X., & Barrett, L. (2012). Affective state influences perception by affecting decision parameters underlying bias and

sensitivity. Emotion, 12(4), 726-736. doi: 10.1037/a0026765 Marlow, N., & Jansson-Boyd, C. V. (2011). To touch or not to touch; that is the question. Should consumers always be encouraged

to touch products, and does it always alter product perception? Psychology Marketing, 28(3), 256-266. doi:10.1002/mar.20391 Mitro, S., Gordon, A., Olsson, M., & Lundstrom, J. (2012). The smell of age: Perception and discrimination of body odors of different

ages. Plos One, 7(5), e38110. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038110 Noble, C. H., & Kumar, M. (2010). Exploring the appeal of product design: A grounded, value-based model of key design elements and

relationships. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 27(5), 640-657. doi:10.11/j.1540-5885.2010.00742.x Perception. (2013). In Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/perception Smeets, M. M., Veldhuizen, M. G., Galle, S., Gouwelos, J., de Haan, A. A., Vernooij, J., & Kroeze, J. A. (2009). Sense of smell disorder

and health-related quality of life. Rehabilitation Psychology, 54(4), 404-412. doi: 10.1037/a0017502 Weisbuch, M., & Ambady, N. (2009). Unspoken cultural influence: Exposure to and influence of nonverbal bias. Journal of Personality

and Social Psychology, 96(6), 1104-1119. doi: 10.1037/a0015642

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CH3. EMOTION AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

CHAPTER THREE.

Emotion and Emotional Intelligence By Kristen DiCarlo

Introduction This chapter discusses the importance

of emotional intelligence in making decisions and the cognitive distortions that result from emotional bias, denial, rationalization, and other thinking errors. All of these, and the way they operate on people, must be understood to develop critical-thinking skills not only in academic writing but also in daily life. Try to approach the information in this chapter with an objective mind, and consider how to apply these concepts as you develop your persuasive essay.

Opening Questions 1. How should emotional intelligence be used in the decision-making process?

2. What is emotional bias, and how is it connected to enculturation?

3. How are emotions used in denial and in rationalization?

4. What are cognitive distortions, and why should they be avoided in academic writing?

5. What are the elements of an effective thesis statement?

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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND MAKING DECISIONS Emotional intelligence, loosely defined, is

the ability to identify and control one’s emo- tions in the decision-making process (Ho- erger, Chapman, Epstein, & Duberstein, 2012). Emotional intelligence is crucial in making good decisions in every aspect of life, and being able to manage and control your emo- tions while making decisions makes it much more likely that you will arrive at an effec- tive solution (Hoerger et al., 2012). Assessing every situation as an individual occurrence instead of basing decisions solely on past experiences can also assist in arriving at the best solution. Making sound decisions can be difficult for people already very busy with work, school, and family obligations. When you feel stressed, you are liable to make de- cisions without properly assessing the prob- lem at hand. At stressful times like this, it is crucial to use logic over emotion when mak- ing decisions that can have a large impact on oneself and others (Matthews, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2011).

Big decisions include things like purchasing a car, buying a house, or getting married. These are decisions that do require a certain level of emotion, but also require logic; this is when emotional intelligence is needed. Emotional intelligence helps individuals to determine how much emotion should be involved in making particular decisions (Sadri, 2012). It’s great that a shiny red sports car makes you feel excited, but is it a good idea to buy one? Can you afford it? Someone you just met might seem like the person of your dreams, but how well do you know him or her? On what aspects of his or her personality are you basing your decision? Emotional intelligence helps in avoiding cognitive distortions that can hinder logic and the skills necessary to be an effective critical thinker in life, love, and work. Let’s take a look at a few of the mental habits and distortions that can hinder us.

Emotional Bias Emotional bias, the feeling that something

must be true because you strongly feel it to be so, distorts the critical-thinking process and leads to conclusions and decisions based on feelings rather than fact (Tam, 2011). Emo- tional bias should be excluded from academic writing because such writing demands an ob- jective approach supported by concrete ideas. Past experiences can also affect one’s emo- tions, which can cause bias when a similar occurrence arises (Tam). Emotional bias can cause you to make decisions based on feeling

good rather than considering the evidence at hand and allow you to circumvent the pain- ful emotional effects of evidence that is not in keeping with what you believe. Emotional bias is present in peer pressure or any social grouping process because, in this context, people often feel pressure to act in a way that is socially acceptable (Viviani et al., 2010). Emotional bias can be avoided in academic writing by considering, absorbing, and using credible sources to back up your reasoning.

When you feel stressed, you are liable to make decisions without properly

assessing the problem at hand.

MENTAL HABITS AND DISTORTIONS

“Someone you just met might seem like the person

of your dreams, but how well do you know him or her?”

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Enculturation Enculturation, in the context of emotional

intelligence, is a practice in which individu- als behave based on the implied requirements of a particular culture (Yoon, Hacker, Hewitt, Abrams, & Cleary, 2012). Instead of doing what you feel is right, you may act based on how others of the same culture may perceive you if you fail to act or think in a culturally correct way. Everyone is part of a particular culture, and culture plays a valuable role in defining individuals and their relationship to the world. However, from an academic standpoint it can cause problems when we are confronted with factual information that does not conform to what we have always assumed to be true. Enculturation can be avoided in academic writing by ensuring that outside influences are managed properly.

CRITICAL THINKERS: Nellie Bly By Declan Joyce

Few career options were available for women in the mid- to late-19th century in the United States.

Denied college educations, women were essentially excluded from prestigious occupations and had to make do with being seamstresses, piece-workers, shop clerks, domestic servants, nannies, or governesses. Unless, of course, you were Nellie Bly.

Born Elizabeth Jane Cochran in Pennsylvania in 1864, Bly learned from her father the virtues of hard work and determination. At the age of 16, she talked her way into a job at a Pittsburgh newspaper even though the editor initially refused to hire her. Bly worked on a series of investigative reports on the conditions of women factory workers in Pittsburgh but was reassigned to cover fashion and society stories, which were considered more appropriate for a woman. Bored stiff, she left the paper and traveled to Mexico to report on the lives of working people there and narrowly avoided jail when she criticized the dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz for imprisoning a journalist.

In 1887, Bly again talked her way into a newspaper’s offices, this time the New York World, published by the legendary Joseph Pulitzer. Perhaps hoping to get rid of her, an editor offered her an assignment: to fake insanity, get herself committed to the women’s lunatic

asylum on Blackwell’s Island, and write about conditions there. Bly agreed, even though there was no guarantee that the paper would be able to get her out of the asylum once she had been committed. The next day, she checked into a women’s residence on lower Second Avenue and began acting so erratically that the police were called. She was subsequently examined by several “experts,” declared insane by all of them, and committed to the asylum.

The Blackwell’s Island Insane Asylum, located in the middle of New York’s East River on what is now Roosevelt Island, operated with little or no oversight. Bly quickly learned that conditions were ghastly. Food was spoiled and inedible, difficult patients were tied down with ropes, and the staff was almost uniformly abusive. It was, Bly wrote, a place where one was more likely to be driven to insanity rather than recover from it. In one passage, she describes the staff tormenting a patient:

“This made the poor creature cry the more, and so they choked her. Yes, actually choked her. Then they dragged her out to the closet, and I heard her terrified cries hush into smothered ones. After several hours’ absence she returned to the sitting-room, and I plainly saw the marks of their fingers on her throat for the entire day.

This punishment seemed to awaken their desire to administer more. They returned to the sitting-room and caught hold of an old gray-haired woman whom I have heard addressed both as Mrs. Grady and Mrs. O’Keefe. ... They grabbed her, and my heart ached as she cried:

Bly quickly learned that conditions were ghastly.

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‘For God sake, ladies, don’t let them beat me.’

‘Shut up, you hussy!’ said Miss Grady as she caught the woman by her gray hair and dragged her shrieking and pleading from the room. She was also taken to the closet, and her cries grew lower and lower, and then ceased.”

After 10 nightmarish days, Bly was re- leased from the asylum at the interces- sion of the newspaper and duly wrote up her account, “Ten Days in a Madhouse,” which was published both in the World and, later, in book form. An investigation of the facility followed, assisted by Bly. The city’s department of public charities later increased funding for care of the mentally ill by almost $1 million a year,

Nellie Bly continued:

Nellie Bly

Denial and Rationalization

As they say in Alcoholics Anonymous cir- cles, denial is not a river in Egypt. It refers rather to a state of mind wherein there are certain aspects of reality that one is unable or unwilling to confront. This can be the re- sult of some kind of trauma or life-altering experience (Peace, 2012). When someone is in denial, his or her judgment is clouded and emotions get in the way of logic and criti- cal thinking. This is normal, but the use of emotional intelligence is necessary in order to make good decisions and solve problems ethically and efficiently (Peace, 2012).

Rationalization, which is related to denial, occurs when an individual makes excuses as a means of defense (Zepf, 2011). Rationaliza- tion encourages unreasonable decisions and illogical behavior because the individual is trying to avoid the truth (Zepf). This occurs usually when one tries to evade judgment from others or block feelings of guilt or dis- comfort regarding a situation or decision. Denial and rationalization are both concepts that should be dealt with by the careful use of emotional intelligence.

Cognitive Distortions

Cognitive distortions are also known as cognitive errors or thinking errors and can lead to faulty judgment. All individuals have thinking patterns that influence their ability to think critically. Learning to identify your own cognitive errors will increase your abil- ity to base your reasoning on logic and fact (Fetterman & Robinson, 2011). Fallacies and fallacious reasoning are covered in more de- tail in Chapter 4, but several cognitive dis- tortions are covered in this chapter, as the two are closely related. When writing your essay, it is important that you are familiar with these. There is no way an audience can be properly persuaded by an essay that uses cognitive distortions or fallacies.

an enormous sum at the time. It was, Bly wrote, her only consolation from her experience on Blackwell’s Island to know that the people she encountered would receive better treatment.

The following year Bly approached her editors with an even more ambitious plan: to take a trip around the world in 80 days (or less, if possible) based on the 1873 adventure novel by Jules Verne. She would make almost the entire trip without a chaperon. In November 1889, she set out alone, crossing the Atlantic by steamship and visiting England, France, Italy, Suez, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Japan before taking a steamship across the Pacific and a train cross-country to New York. She made the trip in a little over 72 days, more than a week faster than Jules Verne’s Phileas Fogg.

In 1895, Bly married, retired from journalism, and became one of the leading female industrialists in the United States. She died of pneumonia in 1922 at age 57. In her relatively short life, she helped to redefine what women are capable of and lived to see women receive the vote, which she had correctly predicted would happen around 1920. She was buried, without ceremony, in a modest grave in the Bronx’s Woodlawn Cemetery.

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2 Global Labeling With global labeling, individuals tend to generalize one or

two isolated attributes to a negative universal finding. An example of global labeling would be when someone thinks of himself as a complete loser because he was unsuccessful in completing a particular task, even though he may have successfully completed a dozen other tasks on the same day. We can also globally label someone else, as when one

negative encounter with another individual may cause us to write him or her off as a jerk (Fetterman & Robinson, 2011; Maric, Heyne, van Widenfelt, & Westenberg, 2011). Yes, most of us have had the experience of finding a friend in someone we initially didn’t like, and our lives would have been the poorer if we had gone by our first impressions only.

3 Emotional Reasoning Emotional reasoning is the belief that what is felt must

automatically be true. If an individual feels uninteresting and dumb, according to this reasoning, then he or she must in fact be uninteresting and dumb. In this cognitive distortion, the individual assumes that unhealthy emotions actually mirror the way life situations really are: If it is felt, then it must be

true. This emotional phantasm can only be countered by the application of reasoning and critical thought. Are you really a loser, or do you just feel like one in that moment? Is the “jerk” perhaps a great person that you happened to encounter at a bad moment?

4 Shoulds This cognitive distortion involves having a fixed set of

notions about how everyone should behave. Anyone who breaks the rules makes the individual feel angry. When an individual aims “should” statements in the direction of others, he or she is usually feeling resentment, frustration,

or anger. “Musts” and “oughts” are close cousins to “shoulds” and “should nots.” All of these can also be self-directed; for example, because we believe we should exercise, we experience feelings of guilt when we do not.

5 Blaming Blaming can work two ways: when an individual holds

others accountable for his or her pain, or when an individual blames himself or herself for every problem that occurs. An example of the former is when an individual blames others because he or she is feeling bad about himself or herself.

However, nobody can make a person feel any particular way, because each individual has control over his or her own emotional reactions and behaviors (Maric et al., 2011; Wilson, Bushnell, Rickwood, Caputi, & Thomas, 2011).

In this cognitive distortion, being wrong is regarded as im- possible and individuals will go to any length to prove their correctness. Someone who is fixated on always being right is not concerned with how badly an argument makes the op- posing party feel, or how leaky his or her argument is in the

first place, because the only thing that matters is winning. It is virtually impossible to write an effective persuasive essay if you are not willing to examine facts and issues with which you may not agree.

1 Always Being Right

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Catastrophizing Catastrophizing is when we immediately jump to the worst

conclusions about a particular event. For instance, if you fail to win a scholarship you applied for, this is taken to mean that you will probably not be able to complete college and will

end up an unemployed, homeless alcoholic. Critical thinking recognizes that mistakes, failures, and misfortunes are bound to happen in the course of a life and that individual setbacks should not be taken to represent your whole life.

7

8

9 Polarized Thinking

Overgeneralization With overgeneralization, a general opinion is formed

based on a single piece of evidence or a solitary incident. If anything bad occurs just once, overgeneralization assumes it will occur continually. An individual may perceive a

solitary troublesome event as the latest setback in a never- ending series of unfortunate events (“Self-compassion and interpersonal,” 2010; Wilson et al., 2011).

In polarized thinking, situations are either one way or the other; there is no middle ground or compromise. In this cognitive distortion, individuals feel as though they have to be perfect or they are a failure; there is no in-between. We place situations or other people in either/or categories

without allowing for the complexity of most people and situations. Polarized thinking is also referred to as black-and- white thinking (“Self-compassion and interpersonal,” 2010; Wilson et al., 2011).

10 Filtering Filtering occurs when you take the undesirable details of a

particular situation and expand upon them while excluding or ignoring any positive details. This happens when we single out one undesirable element and dwell on it obsessively so that our perception becomes, for us, the truth. This leaves

us unable to properly apply emotional intelligence or think critically in situations because judgment is negatively altered (“Self-compassion and interpersonal,” 2010; Wilson et al., 2011).

6 Personalization In this cognitive distortion, people compare themselves to

others to determine who is better looking, smarter, or more likeable. Personalization is a cognitive distortion wherein an individual believes that everything someone else does or says is some type of personal or direct reaction. Conversely,

people can see themselves as being to blame for an incident for which they were not responsible or over which they had no control. For instance, a person blames herself for being late to a social event when she was in fact caught in heavy traffic (Maric et al., 2011; Wilson et al., 2011).

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ALTERED PERCEPTION: Orson Welles By Declan Joyce

Most of us enjoy being gently spooked on Halloween, perhaps by a cackling plastic skeleton or a Simpsons special. On the night before Halloween in 1938, however, things got considerably spookier.

That night, the 23-year-old Orson Welles, already a well-known director of theater, was at CBS radio studios in downtown Manhattan for the broadcast of the Mercury Theatre on the Air, a weekly radio drama written and directed by Welles. Their subject that Sunday was a radio dramatization of H.G. Wells’ 1898 novel, The War of the Worlds. (The two men are sometimes thought to be related, although their last names are spelled differently.) Like Sergei Eisenstein using the medium of film (see page 14), Welles intended that night to use the properties of the young medium of radio to manipulate his audience—or, more specifically, to scare them witless.

Welles’ intention, though he later denied it, was to convince his audience that the alien invasion described in the novel was actually happening. This might seem like a stretch today, but recall that the year was 1938, when the scientific community and general public knew much less about our solar system, space travel, or the possibilities of alien visitation than is the case today.

Welles counted on several things to fool his audience. First, over the previous year, citizens in the United States had become used to alarming radio reports, most of them dealing with the rise of fascism in Europe, the persecution of Jews and other minorities, and the gathering clouds of war. In this atmosphere of unease and uncertainty, reports of an invasion of the planet by hostile aliens seemed much less far-fetched that they would today.

Second, Welles manipulated his audience into forgetting that they were listening to a radio drama. At the beginning of the show, Welles read a few pages of the adapted script and then the program switched to an authentic-sounding weather report and then to a dance concert supposedly being played live in a downtown hotel by “Roman Roquello and His Orchestra” (it was in fact the CBS Orchestra playing in the studio). To anyone not listening to the show attentively, it was easy to forget that you were listening to a radio drama and not to a concert, which was precisely Welles’ intention. As a result, when the music was interrupted by a series of increasingly urgent news bulletins about an alien attack in Grover’s Mill, New Jersey, it seemed very authentic, especially when accompanied by the sounds of panicked citizens, screams, and explosions, all of them produced live in the studio by members of the company.

Third, Welles took advantage of the fact that, at the time, the Mercury Theatre on the Air was not a well-known show. On Sunday nights, most listeners tuned into the popular comedy show, the Chase and Sanborn Hour. But Welles knew that at 12 minutes past the hour, Chase and Sanborn would begin the show’s first musical number, at which point listeners would usually start checking in at other stations. By then, his “Martian invasion” was in full swing.

Welles was also aided by the fact that

Developing a Thesis Statement

In this week of your class, you will work on developing a thesis statement. The thesis statement is the framework for any academic essay (Carroll, 2012). Your persuasive essay will include an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion, otherwise known as the five-paragraph essay model.

The first paragraph of an academic essay should be the introduction. The introduction should be an overview of what will be covered in the paper. Do not use cited information in the thesis statement. Cited information in the introduction is acceptable, but the thesis statement should state the writer’s position

The introduction should be an

overview of what will be covered in

the paper.

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his program was a “sustaining show,” meaning that it ran without commercial interruption. This allowed him to sustain the illusion of an invasion for a full 40 minutes. As the program progressed, the situation appeared to become increasingly desperate, with dozens of citizens purportedly vaporized by alien rays and “reporters” describing ever more catastrophic scenes. At one point, there was complete silence. Toward the end of the broadcast, another “reporter,” supposedly atop the CBS building, described the poison smoke drifting over the city as vast Martian death machines mowed down the populace and citizens threw themselves into the East River “like rats.” Finally, he too was struck down and all that was left was a supposed ham radio operator calling out to a destroyed city: “2X2L calling CQ. Isn’t there anyone on the air? Isn’t there anyone on the air…? Isn’t there… anyone?”

If Welles wanted to scare his audience, it worked. Thousands of citizens believed the invasion was real. Normally quiet switchboards were jammed as residents of New Jersey called relatives to say a last goodbye;

citizens attempted to board up windows or cover them with tape to escape the effects of the poison gas; and children were given wet rags to serve as improvised gas masks. The following morning, newspapers all over the country, including The New York Times, carried reports of the mass panic.

Welles always claimed that he never intended to cause any panic, but others involved with the broadcast dispute this, claiming that Welles knew exactly what he was doing. At one point, the president of CBS showed up in pajamas and dressing gown (he had apparently been anticipating a quiet evening at home) to find out what all the hullaballoo was about. Welles, informed of his boss’s insistence that he let listeners know it was just a drama, refused. He had his audience exactly where he wanted.

The complete “War of the Worlds” radio broadcast can be listened to here.

Orsen Welles continued:on the chosen topic. Do not ask a question in the thesis statement; it should be in the form of a statement. Asking a question in the introduction paragraph is okay, but again, the thesis statement should state the writer’s position on the topic.

The thesis statement should be the last sentence of the introduction paragraph. Keep the thesis statement to one sentence, as this is most visually appealing to the audience and easier to assimilate. Although two sen- tences are acceptable, one sentence for the thesis statement is generally clearer and more direct (Carroll, 2012). The thesis state- ment should state the writer’s claim and in

The thesis statement should be the

last sentence of the introduction

paragraph.

turn set the pace for the entire academic es- say. The audience should be able to tell what the paper is about just by reading the stand- alone thesis statement. This can be accom- plished by assuming that the audience has no idea what the chosen topic is (Carroll, 2012). Take a position on the chosen topic by clearly stating whether the audience should be for or against the chosen topic within the thesis statement.

For you as the writer, the thesis statement can be considered a writing prompt that you respond to in the academic essay (Carroll, 2012). The ultimate goal of your essay in this course is to persuade the audience to accept your position on the chosen topic, even readers that might not have been predisposed to agree with you. In addition, the writer must designate three main points as to why the audience should agree with their position in the thesis statement. These three main points also form the basis of each body paragraph in the five-paragraph essay model. The thesis statement’s three main points should also match the three body paragraphs in order.

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Exercises

1

2

3

4

5

6

Propose a situation in which one would need to use emotional intelligence. Why should emotional intelligence be used in critical thinking?

Think of an example of when someone would make an emotional decision versus a logical decision. Is it possible for individuals to think critically through emotions? Why or why not?

Offer a scenario in which emotional bias would be present. How can this be avoided in the upcoming persuasive essay?

Provide an instance of how rationalization can get in the way of the critical-thinking process. What cognitive distortions have rationalization present?

Name a cognitive distortion that was encountered personally or was noticed through others. How could cognitive distortion been avoided?

Why should a persuasive essay and its thesis statement be written in the third person?

Conclusion This chapter discussed the significance of emotional intelligence

in making decisions and evaluating evidence. Understanding this is critical to the development of your critical-thinking skills not only in academic writing but also in everyday situations. Additionally, this chapter outlines some of the cognitive distortions to avoid both in academic writing and in life. Finally, we discussed how to properly develop a thesis statement. As you move forward in the class, try to consider this material with an unbiased mind and relate these ideas to the development of your persuasive essay.

Avoid Cognitive Distortions

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Carroll, J. (2012). Teaching the thesis. School Library Monthly, 29(2), 18-20. Retrieved from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http:// search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1000888&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Fetterman, A. K., & Robinson, M. D. (2011). Routine cognitive errors: A trait-like predictor of individual differences in anxiety and distress. Cognition & Emotion, 25(2), 244-264. doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.486941

Hoerger, M., Chapman, B. P., Epstein, R. M., & Duberstein, P. R. (2012). Emotional intelligence: A theoretical framework for individual differences in affective forecasting. Emotion, 12(4), 716-725. doi:10.1037/a0026724

Maric, M., Heyne, D. A., van Widenfelt, B. M., & Westenberg, P. (2011). Distorted cognitive processing in youth: The structure of negative cognitive errors and their associations with anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 35(1), 11-20. doi:10.1007/s10608- 009-9285-3

Matthews, G., Roberts, R. D., & Zeidner, M. (2011). Emotional Intelligence 101. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company. Retrieved from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e000tna&AN=421636&site =ehost-live&scope=site

Peace, W. J. (2012). Comfort care as denial of personhood. Hastings Center Report, 42(4), 14-17. doi:10.1002/hast.38 Sadri, G. (2012). Emotional intelligence and leadership development. Public Personnel Management, 41(3), 535-548. doi:

10.1177/009102601204100308 Self-compassion and interpersonal cognitive distortions. (2010). In Hacettepe University Journal of Education, (39), 1-9. Retrieved

from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=58736284&site=e host-live&scope=site

Tam, D. (2011). Quantification of emotional bias by an emotional-gain model. BMC Neuroscience, 12(1), 1. doi: 10.1186/1471-2202-12- S1-P326

Viviani, R., Lo, H., Eun-Jin, S., Beschoner, P., Stingl, J. C., & Horn, A. B. (2010). The neural substrate of positive bias in spontaneous emotional processing. Plos ONE, 5(11), 1-9. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015454

Wilson, C. J., Bushnell, J. A., Rickwood, D. J., Caputi, P., & Thomas, S. J. (2011). The role of problem orientation and cognitive distortions in depression and anxiety interventions for young adults. Advances in Mental Health, 10(1), 52-61. doi: 10.5172/ jamh.2011.10.1.52

Yoon, E., Hacker, J., Hewitt, A., Abrams, M., & Cleary, S. (2012). Social connectedness, discrimination, and social status as mediators of acculturation/enculturation and well-being. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(1), 86-96. Retrieved from http://library.gcu. edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ965208&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Zepf, S. (2011). About rationalization and intellectualization. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 20(3), 148-158. doi: 10.1080/0803706X.2010.550316

REFERENCES

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Fallacies By Elizabeth Larson, Thomas Dyer, and John Steele

Introduction Once you have chosen a subject that you

wish to write about, you need to analyze the arguments that you find on the topic as you conduct your research. This is an important step and one that we will focus on in the first part of this chapter. Fallacies are mistakes or errors in arguments and reasoning and are very common among writers in the early stages of a college education. In the age of the Internet and social networking, arguments based on fallacies are running rampant. Giles (2012) believes that the Internet has resulted in false information and conclusions being bounced around the world in record time, with great consequences.

Developing a basic understanding of fallacies is an important part of this course, and so we have developed a media element that explains the major fallacies in a user- friendly format and provides examples. This interactive website, which is included as one of your resources for this course, allows you to review the fourteen most common logical fallacies through various modes of instruction, including text, graphics, and video. The resource is an important extension of this text and will strengthen your knowledge of fallacies and reasoning errors. You should plan on spending time carefully reviewing this content as part of your study this week.

CHAPTER FOUR.

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Deductive Fallacies Simply put, deductive fallacies are those in

which the process of deduction, or reasoning, goes wrong. There are three deductive fallacies that we will discuss here: the fallacy of division, circular reasoning, and the either/ or fallacy. The fallacy of division happens when you assume that something that is true of a thing must also be true for every part of that thing. Currently, the media is awash in this kind of thinking. For example, America is the fattest country on earth. However, it does not follow that all Americans are fat. The September 11th attacks were carried out by Muslims, but not all Muslims are terrorists. Writers are especially prone to this kind of fallacy if their emotions run high on a particular topic.

The Fallacy of Division

Circular Reasoning

Either/or Fallacy

Circular reasoning is reasoning in which the conclusion rests on an assumption that is “proved” by restating the conclusion (“Cir- cular reasoning,” 2009). This fallacy is also known as “begging the question.” The prem- ise is restated instead of proving it with evi- dence. For example, “Abortion should be legal because it already is legal in the United States and other countries.” There is no evidence of- fered in this argument; it simply repeats the claim that was presented as evidence for the claim itself.

The either/or fallacy, less formally known as “black-and-white thinking,” assumes that there are only two options with regard to a particular issue when in fact more exist. This type of reasoning attempts to sway the audience by limiting its options and only works when the audience does not have the proper knowledge of the topic being discussed. For example, “Either you support the president on gun control or you are not a patriotic American.” As you can see, there really are more choices here. One can be against gun control and still be a patriotic American. This is not a valid argument.

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Inductive Fallacies Inductive fallacies take specific instances

and stretch them into general rules. We will review three of the most common inductive fallacies: hasty generalization, post hoc ergo propter hoc, and false analogy. A hasty gen- eralization is an inductive fallacy that occurs when a person makes a conclusion from a sample that is too small (“Hasty generaliza- tion,” 2009). For example, if something is true of A and B, it must also be true of C, D, E, F, and so on. Usually, students commit hasty generalizations because of bias or some form of prejudice. Sternberg (2004) warns that one must be aware of making hasty generaliza- tions based on limited exposure to various cultures. Hasty generalizations can be about individuals, places, or things.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc, which is Latin for “after this, therefore because of this,” assumes that if one thing happens before another, it must have caused it (“Post hoc ergo propter hoc,” 2009). But just because two things happen in succession does not mean there is a causal relationship. For example, before the cause of malaria was discovered, it was believed that night air was the cause of the disease because people who went out at night tended to catch malaria. The real reason, of course, was that mosquitoes, the carrier of the malaria virus, tend to be active at night.

A false analogy means that the similarities

between two things being compared are not substantial enough to assume that the characteristic of one of them applies to the other. Arguments from an analogy can be misleading and arise when the cases are insufficiently similar to support the reasoning (“Analogy,” 2013). Think about the legalization of marijuana, which is one of your essay topic choices. Consider the statement, “Caffeine is addicting but is not illegal in America, so marijuana should not be illegal.” Yes, the two substances have an addictive quality in common; however, the comparison of the two is not valid because of other significant differences. For example, unless you drink ten double espressos a day, driving a car under the influence of caffeine is not usually dangerous, whereas it can be under the influence of marijuana.

Hasty Generalization

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

False Analogy

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Reasoning Fallacies

Analogical Order

Analogical Reasoning

Another category of fallacy is the reasoning fallacy. We will look at just one of these, the is/ ought fallacy. This fallacy occurs when the assumption is made that because things are a certain way, they should always be that way. David Hume, the 18th-century Scottish philosopher, believed that this type of argument placed too much value on moral reasoning (Pigden, 2011). In reality, just because something is a certain way does not necessarily mean that it ought to be that way. The objectives and concepts this week require a great deal of attention, perhaps more than any other topic in this course. The information this week is challenging. To be successful, you may need to allow more time during this Topic to study the fallacies outlined in this chapter as well as the others outlined in the media resource. As stated, 14 fallacies are covered, so you may want to break them up throughout the week. The media element that was mentioned above has been designed specifically to make this information easier to understand and absorb, so please be sure to study it carefully.

As discussed in Chapter 2, the human mind is constantly being bombarded with information gathered by the five senses. How the human brain filters and organizes that information is a component of critical thinking. One way to do this is to relate new information to things one already knows. Two wooden beams may resemble a cross. On a map, Italy resembles a boot. These similarities are the mind’s way of trying to make sense of information by grouping it with pre-existing knowledge into what is known as a schema. This organization of information based on similarities is known as analogical order. It is a very effective method because it allows you to see the similarities and differences between two objects and make inferences based on them.

An analogy is a way of asserting a comparative relationship between items, concepts, or phenomena. Analogical reasoning occurs when thinking is dependent or relies on an analogy. This type of reasoning has played a fundamental role in the human thought process as its investigative nature aids in creativity and discovery. Joseph Priestley, the 18th-century English theologian and chemist, noted that an “analogy is our best guide in all philosophical investigations; and all discoveries, which were not made by mere accident, have been made by the help of it” (as cited in Bartha, 2013, para. 1).

Analogical reasoning is also widely used in a problem-solving context. Analogies involve identifying the relational similarities between two sets. The relational similarities allow correspondences to be established between one set and another. Analogical reasoning uses systemic correspondences to take the solution from one problem and apply it to a problem that shares similar characteristics. This allows a problem-solver to identify the similarities between the old and new problem, map those features, and adapt the procedure from the old problem to solve the new one (Bartha, 2013).

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Suppose you are the doctor of a patient who has a life threatening tumor in his stomach. It is impossible to operate on the patient, but unless the tumor is destroyed the patient will die. There is a kind of ray that can be used to destroy the tumor. If the rays reach it all at once at a sufficiently high intensity, the tumor will be destroyed. Unfortunately, at this intensity the healthy tissue the rays pass through on the way to the tumor will also be destroyed. At lower intensities the rays are harmless to healthy tissue, but they will not affect the tumor, either. What type of procedure might be used to destroy the tumor with the rays and at the same time avoid destroying the healthy tissue? (As cited in Gick & Holyoak, 1980)

Prior to being presented with Duncker’s radiation problem, participants were asked to read a story about an analogous military problem about a general who wishes to capture the enemy’s fortress. The fortress was surrounded by different roads, all of which were laden with mines that would trigger an explosion if a large-scale force passed through. The general’s solution was to divide his army into smaller groups. Each group was sent down one road, and simultaneously converged upon the fortress. The attack was a success and the fortress was captured (Gick & Holyoak, 1980, 1983).

1. How can the analogous military problem help participants solve the radiation problem?

2. In what ways are the two problems similar?

The Classic Radiation Problem In one famous research study, participants were

presented with Duncker’s classic radiation problem:

PROBLEM SOLVERS: Carl Jones By Declan Joyce

In 1979, the Mauritius kestrel was a rare bird -- only one breeding pair remained alive and only four or five birds overall.

The beautiful 10-inch-tall raptor had once been abundant on the island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, with an estimated precolonial population of around 300 breeding pairs. The population crash was caused by a combination of habitat destruction, agricultural pesticides, farmers who (incorrectly) believed that the kestrels stole chickens, and the introduction of invasive predators such as feral cats, mongooses, and crab-eating macaques, all of which could easily scale the trees and cliff faces where the kestrels nest. The prospects for the species’ survival were so grim, in fact, that some biologists suggested leaving the bird to its inevitable fate rather than wasting resources on what they viewed as a lost cause. As the naturalist David Quammen wrote in his book The Song of the Dodo: “With reduced habitat, fragmented habitat, degraded habitat, DDT, cyclones, paranoid poultry owners, exotic predators, and genetic impoverishment all standing against it, F. punctatus [Latin name for the Mauritius kestrel] was in a world of hurt.”

In 1979, the Welsh biologist Carl Jones took over the program, mainly because no one else wanted the job.

Argument by Analogy Analogies are often used in arguments, although not every analogy is an argument. People

often use analogies to make comparisons between two similar items. This type of argument reasons that because X has some similarities to Y, they must be similar in other unknown respects.

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His instructions, in fact, were to spend a year or two shutting down the program and then leave the bird to its fate. Jones, however, believed the bird could be saved. Quammen again: “Voices of authority … have variously told him that he couldn’t, he wasn’t, he mustn’t. His response has been to demonstrate that he could indeed, he was indeed, and furthermore he bloody well would.”

In that spirit, Jones set to work. He trapped mongooses and cats one at a time. He climbed trees and scaled cliff faces to remove kestrel eggs from nests for captive raising. Testing an idea, he removed only one egg at a time and left raw meat in the hope that the extra protein might induce the mother to lay again. It worked. Using this method, Jones increased the average number of eggs laid per bird in a season from about three or four to eight. The removed eggs were incubated and the chicks were captive-reared with as little human contact as possible. Some hatchlings were foster-parented using European kestrels, who were obligingly devoted to their new charges. Some European kestrels’ eggs were placed with Mauritius kestrel mothers in the wild to give the mothers practice at incubation while their own birds were being raised in captivity. Once the mothers had proven competent at incubation, they were allowed to incubate their own eggs.

When young kestrels were old enough they were “hacked,” which in birding circles refers to the process of gently introducing a captive-bred bird to life in the wild. The kestrels were placed in a safe box that allowed them protection from predators and space to exercise their wings in preparation for their first flight. They were carefully observed as they learned to fly and hunt. If a kestrel needed help with hunting skills, it was recaptured and trained with lures, and then re-released.

Slowly, egg by egg, year by year, the kestrel population came back from the brink. By 1984, after five years of work, it was estimated at 50, and in 1994 at about 250. Inbreeding depression, a form of genetic inferiority that can develop as a result of interbreeding between closely related individuals, had been a major worry all along but thankfully did not occur. In the mid-90s, the Mauritius kestrel’s conservation status was upgraded two categories from “critically endangered” to “vulnerable.” The captive program was scaled back because it became less necessary as a population of wild birds re-established itself. Today, the program mainly serves as a safeguard, making sure that numbers remain steady. Although estimates vary, there are at least 500 and as many as 800 Mauritius kestrels currently living on the island.

Mauritius kestrel continued:

PREMISE 1: Object A and Object B share properties C1, C2, C3 …

PREMISE 2: Object A has property D.

CONCLUSION: Object B has property D.

The structure of an argument by analogy is as follows:

As will probably be clear to you from read- ing the section of this chapter that deals with fallacies, argument by analogy may not al- ways be valid. The validity of the argument largely depends on the strength of corre- spondence between the two items. Here’s an example in which the analogical argument is probably sound:

Mauritius kestrel

Slowly, egg by egg, year by year, the kestrel population came back

from the brink.

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I have three friends who sold their houses through XYZ Realty and received their asking price. Each

of their houses is similar to mine in terms of size and number of rooms. If I use XYZ Realty, I should get an offer

for my full asking price.

The strength of this type of argument rests on the extent of the similarities between the two sets. If similarities within the premise are relevant to the similarity in the conclu- sion, then the argument is considered to be strong. The greater the degree of similarity between the two sets, the stronger the argu- ment. This is because the similarities are con- vincing enough to make a persuasive argu- ment that the two items are similar in other unknown respects.

The analogical argument loses effective- ness when we use it to attempt to connect items, concepts, or phenomena that lack sim- ilar qualities. When the analogical argument

is incorrectly applied, the argument is falla- cious in nature and becomes a false analogy. In a false analogy, the similarities between compared items are not sufficient or substan- tial enough to assume that the characteristics of one can apply to the other. For example, “Cigarettes are addicting but are not illegal in this country, so marijuana should not be illegal as well.” Here, the argument is that marijuana should be legalized because it is like cigarettes. While the items compared do share a commonality, there is not enough similarity between them to make a strong case that marijuana should be legalized.

It is important to note that analogical argu- ments are not deductively valid. There is no infallible way to determine which analogical arguments are valid and which ones are not. However, a critical thinker can still evaluate the argument to determine its viability using the following assessment tools:

“Cigarettes are addicting but are not illegal

in this country, so marijuana should not be illegal as well.”

Relevance: Are the similarities relevant to the argu-

ment? The similarities must be relevant to the argument; otherwise it becomes a false analogy.

Truth: Are the two objects indeed similar? What

makes them similar? The two objects must be similar or the conclusion becomes null and void.

Number of Instances: The strength of the argument rests on how

many similarities there are between the two items. The probability of the arguments being true increases as the number of instances increases.

Differences: Are there only a few differences between

the two items? Even if X and Y do have some similarities, if the differences are greater or more significant, the argument is weak (“Analogical argument,” 2001).

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A FAMOUS ANALOGY William Paley (1713-1805) argued for the existence of God through the analogy of a

watchmaker. If, he said, we found a watch lying in a field or on the floor, we would, upon inspection, realize that the watch was intricately made. In fact, much too intricate to have occurred randomly—someone had to have created the watch:

The inference we think is inevitable, that the watch must have had a maker—that there must have existed, at some time and at some place or other, an artificer or artificers who formed it for the purpose which we find it actually to answer, who comprehended its construction and designed its use (2010, p. 441).

Like the watch, Paley believed, the creation of Earth and all of its living organisms was too intelligent to be a random occurrence. Only an intelligent designer could have created something that is so complex. Paley argued that, “The marks of design are too strong to be gotten over. Design must have had a designer. That designer must have been a person. That person is GOD” (2010, p. 441).

The analogy is that the watch is to the watchmaker as the universe is to God. Do you consider this to be a valid analogy? If not, can you identify any fallacies in the reasoning?

“The marks of design are too strong to

be gotten over. Design must have had a designer.”

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Persuasive Essay Outline In this week of the class, you are required to

write an outline for your essay. Keep in mind all of the foregoing information as you find and evaluate sources and construct a topic that you wish to investigate. Once you have a thesis statement for your persuasive essay, it is time to create an outline. This will allow

you to organize your evidence in a logical order that can be presented as an argument. A detailed outline will provide you with a roadmap of your first draft. It should include detailed information for each paragraph in the essay. The introduction should include a thesis statement or premise. In the outline,

each supporting paragraph should have a topic sentence and enough evidence and support to substantiate the argument. The goal of an outline is to see the shape or direction in which your essay is headed. Here is a graphic outline of the entire structure:

Introduction

i. Attention Grabber ii. Establish Context of Essay iii. Thesis Statement

Supporting Paragraph #1 (should focus on first topic in thesis statement)

i. Topic Sentence ii. Concrete Evidence #1 iii. Evidence #2 iv. Evidence #3

Supporting Paragraph #2 (should focus on second topic in thesis statement)

i. Topic Sentence ii. Concrete Evidence #1 iii. Evidence #2 iv. Evidence #3

Supporting Paragraph #3 (should focus on third topic in thesis statement)

i. Topic Sentence ii. Concrete Evidence #1 iii. Evidence #2 iv. Evidence #3

Conclusion

i. Sum up key points ii. Restate thesis statement in a different wayP

E R

S U

A S

IV E

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S A

Y O

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L IN

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5

2

3

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GREAT PERSUADERS: Frederick Douglass By Declan Joyce

In this sidebar series we look at speeches that have stood the test of time.

On the Fourth of July, 1852, in Rochester, New York, the former slave Frederick Douglass (1818-1895) delivered a speech to the “Ladies of the Rochester Anti-Slavery Sewing Society,” who may have gotten rather more than they asked for. Instead of encouraging the people of Rochester to continue their abolitionist work or thanking them for their efforts, Douglass loosed upon them a broadside of such controlled righteous fury that the audience was rendered silent throughout.

The speech was long (although certainly not overlong), but it had one very clear central theme: For the people of the United States to be celebrating their freedom and democratic ideals while millions of their fellow men suffered an unending nightmare of torment was not just morally wrong—it was obscene:

“This Fourth [of] July is yours, not mine. You may rejoice, I must mourn. To drag a man in fetters into the grand illuminated temple of liberty, and call upon him to join you in joyous anthems, were inhuman mockery and sacrilegious irony. ... Fellow citizens; above your

national, tumultuous joy, I hear the mournful wail of millions! Whose chains, heavy and grievous yesterday, are, today, rendered more intolerable by the jubilee shouts that reach them….

O! Had I the ability, and could I reach the nation’s ear, I would, today, pour out a fiery stream of biting ridicule, blasting reproach, withering sarcasm, and stern rebuke. For it is not light that is needed, but fire; it is not the gentle shower, but thunder. We need the storm, the whirlwind, and the earthquake. The feeling of the nation must be quickened; the conscience of the nation must be roused; the propriety of the nation must be startled; the hypocrisy of the nation must be exposed; and its crimes against God and man must be proclaimed and denounced.”

This short excerpt, however powerful, cannot do justice to the entire speech, which contains more than 10,000 words, or almost 40 double-spaced pages. Douglass was only 34 at the time and even people in the North had difficulty believing that a black man and former slave could write and speak as Douglass

Summary Analogical reasoning asserts a rela- tionship between two items through com- parison. The basic form is A is like B, C is like A; therefore C is like B.

An analogical argument is an argu- ment in which the conclusion rests on two items’ that are alike in certain respects being alike in all other aspects.

Analogical arguments are not de- ductively valid. A critical thinker must look for relevance, truth, the number of instances, and any notable differences to determine the strength of an argument by analogy.

Outlines are an essential component of the writing process. An outline allows writers to organize the main points of their essay in a logical and orderly format.

An outline provides you with a road- map for your first draft. A well-developed outline will include the thesis statement, information for each supporting paragraph, and a conclusion.

Frederick Douglass

A critical thinker must look for

relevance.

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did. He was a profound, living rebuttal to the doctrine that black people, being naturally inferior and of limited intelligence, did not suffer in slavery the way the white race would.

What is it about Douglass’s speech that gives it such force and endurance? There are too many reasons to list here, but among them is the fact that he was speaking directly to his own experience. Douglass spent the first 20 years of his life as a slave in Maryland, and as a boy had often been awakened at night by the clinking of chains and the piteous cries of chain gangs as they marched past the house in which he lived. His words, therefore, have the force and sincerity of one who is describing his own experience and pain.

Second, while most people who make a speech take care not to insult or offend their audience, Douglass took the good people of Rochester to

task in no uncertain terms, ripping aside their abolitionist self-congratulation and accusing them of hypocrisy, of corruption, of moral blindness, and of complicity in profound evil. (It is to the credit of the gathering that there was sustained and sincere applause when Douglass’s speech ended.)

Third and by no means last, Douglass attacks (and that is the right word) his audience with the force of reason. Although filled with moral fury, he is perfectly in control, building his case systematically, destroying every counter- argument, addressing every objection, rooting his arguments in history, and leaving his audience with no reasonable conclusion other than that the evil of slavery stands because it is they who permit it to.

You can read the entire speech here.

Frederick Douglass continued:

If you could give a speech to any audience on any topic, who and what would you choose? What is it about the particular topic and audience that makes you choose them? Are any of your reasons similar to ones Douglass might have had?

EXERCISE:

“The important thing is to never stop questioning.” (Albert Einstein)

• Think about the above quote by Albert Einstein. What does this quote mean to you?

• Focus on how this quote applies to the process of the scientific method.

• How can one analyze information to determine its credibility?

Focus Questions

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The Scientific Method

According to The Concise Corsini Encyclo- pedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science, the scientific method is “a set of procedures designed to establish general laws through developing and evaluating theories that at- tempt to describe, explain, and predict phe- nomena” (“Scientific method,” 2004, para. 1). The scientific method is nothing new. Long before it was formalized and named, this method has been used, as people have had problems to solve since man first inhabited the Earth.

No one person can take credit for discovering or inventing the scientific method, as the process has been developed over time. Its beginnings, however, can be traced back to the Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato. Aristotle was one of the first to discuss learning through observation. Plato was one of the first to theorize that the laws of the universe could be discovered through the process of intellectual reasoning (Mak, Mak, & Mak, 2009).

Sometimes different components of the scientific method have been conducted by different people living in different times. For example, according to Mak et al. (2009), Aristotle hypothesized that heavy objects fall at a faster rate than lighter objects. However, Aristotle was never one to perform experiments, and consequently his hypothesis was later disproven by the astronomer and mathematician Galileo Galilei, who tested Aristotle’s hypothesis by dropping two metal balls of differing weights off the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy. Galileo found that the metal balls fell at the same rate regardless of weight. This is an excellent example of how learning evolves over time. With regard to the writing process, it shows the wisdom of researching work that has been done in the past before arriving at your own conclusions.

The first step in the scientific method involves questioning and brainstorming to define the problem or determine the question. Taking the previous example, Aristotle questioned the rate of speed at which an object falls. Forming a question is a crucial

The scientific method refers to a series of steps that allows one to solve a problem, answer a question, or investigate a topic.

Define the Problem and or Ask a

Question

Do Background Research

Construct a Hypothsis

Test or Conduct Experiment

Analyze Results and Draw Conclusions

Communicate Results

“Aristotle hypothesized that heavy

objects fall at a faster rate than lighter

objects.”

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step in the process, as you must clearly define the problem or question to be answered in order to be able to arrive at a clear answer.

Once the problem or question is clearly defined, the next step is to do background research on the topic. This allows the researcher to view what research has previously been conducted on the topic and helps refine the question.

Next, the researcher will develop a hypothesis about the topic based on the research. The hypothesis is what the researcher believes will happen when an experiment is conducted. The researcher is usually trying to prove that his or her hypothesis holds up, but if it doesn’t, it does not mean the experiment has been a failure. In fact, learning has occurred because the researcher is now able to eliminate one possible explanation.

Once the experiment has been conducted, the researcher will analyze the results. This allows him or her to evaluate the outcome and determine whether the hypothesis holds up. Testing the validity of a study or experiment ensures that the results were accurate by confirming that there were no confounding variables and that the test was done correctly. If the study is done incorrectly, the data gathered is of no value. Validity and reliability are two measures that are used to determine the credibility of a study or argument. Reliability refers to how constantly the experiment or study has recorded the same results over time (Jackson, 2011). If you drop the balls from the Leaning Tower 100 times and they always land together, there is a very good chance that your conclusion is reliable and that the balls will not land separately on the 101st try. Validity, considered the more important of the two, assesses whether or not the test measured what it was supposed to measure. Both are important elements of the scientific method as they help ensure that the results are accurate.

Scientific Method in Everyday Life

The scientific method directly relates to the purpose of this class, as the process allows you to avoid using fallacious reasoning by evaluating your research and evidence for re- liability and validity. It can also be very useful in other aspects of life.

Validity and reliability are two measures that are used to determine the credibility of

a study or argument.

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You likely use the scientific method in daily life without even realizing it. For example, you may hypothesize that taking the side streets versus the freeway during rush hour would be a faster route home. What’s your next step? To use the side streets and see what happens. If it works, then the hypothesis is at least plausible. The next step would be to measure reliability by repeating the experiment every day for a week or two or by asking friends who travel the same route to try the experiment also. If the results are the same across the board, you likely have proven your hypothesis.

One of the most important things you can take away from this chapter is to always question what you are told. People will often attempt to persuade you by using arguments that are not supported with any logical information. Fallacies can be convincing and often sound very logical. As a result, fallacious arguments are often perceived as being credible when in reality they have no logical basis. Simply stated, the scientific method can help you determine if an argument is credible or contains fallacious content.

Below there are three arguments. Two are fallacious while one is supported with logical evidence. Which argument is most credible? How was this conclu- sion reached?

ARGUMENT ONE I believe that grass-fed beef is health- ier than grain-fed beef because the package says that it is healthier.

ARGUMENT TWO Some studies show that grass-fed beef is healthier than grain-fed beef because it has more nutritional value.

ARGUMENT THREE According to Robinson (2011), studies have shown that grass-fed beef has many health benefits that corn-fed beef lacks, including more Omega-3 fatty acids, more vitamins, and more anti-oxidants.

Hopefully you were able to determine that the third statement is the most credible. The first statement uses circular reasoning, as there is no evidence to support the statement. Also, just because it says so on the package does not mean it is true. The second statement is somewhat more convincing, as it mentions “some studies.” The problem is, what studies? Who performed them? Was it a farmer, a butcher, or the FDA? This statement contains nothing that establishes any credibility for the study. It also does not indicate why grass-fed beef is healthier than corn-fed beef nor does it provide a citation to support the study. A citation allows the reader to go to the original source and review the study. The third statement cites the source of the study as well as the reasons why grass-fed beef is healthier than grain-fed beef.

Key Points to Remember 1. The quote from Albert Einstein stressed the importance of questioning and

analyzing the information one is given to determine that it is credible.

2. The scientific method can be used to determine the credibility of information.

3. An individual can use the scientific method to determine validity and reliability of a resource and identify and disregard fallacious content.

4. The scientific method can be useful in one’s life to dissect the information that one receives in order to make more informed choices.

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Analogical argument. (2001). In Encyclopedia of Ethics. Retrieved from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?qurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww. credoreference.com/entry/routethics/analogical_argument

Analogy. (2013). In The Hutchinson Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?qurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww. credoreference.com/entry/heliconhe/analogy/1

Bartha, P. (Fall 2013). Analogy and analogical reasoning. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/reasoning-analogy/.

Circular reasoning. (2009). In The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. Retrieved from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/ login?qurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.credoreference.com/entry/penguinpsyc/circular_reasoning

Gick, M., & Holyoak, K. (1980). Analogical problem solving. Cognitive Psychology, 12(80), 306-356. Gick, M., & Holyoak, K. (1983). Scheme induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive Psychology, 15(1), 1-38. Giles, J. (2012). Truth goggles. New Scientist, 215(2882), 44-47. Hasty generalization. (2009). In A Dictionary of Philosophical Logic. Retrieved http://library.gcu.edu:2048/

login?qurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.credoreference.com/entry/euppl/hasty_generalization Jackson, S. L. (2011). Research methods: A modular approach (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. Mak, D. K., Mak, A. T., & Mak, A. B. (2009). Solving everyday problems with the scientific method: Thinking like a scientist. Singapore:

World Scientific. Paley, W. (2010). Natural theology (12th ed.). Chillicothe OH: DeWard Publishing Company. Pigden, C. (2011). Hume on is and ought. Philosophy Now, 83. Retrieved from http://philosophynow.org/issues/83/Hume_on_Is_

and_Ought Post hoc ergo propter hoc. (2009). In A Dictionary of Philosophical Logic. Retrieved http://library.gcu.edu:2048/

login?qurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.credoreference.com/entry/euppl/post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc Quammen, D. (1997). The song of the dodo. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Robinson, J. (2011). Pasture Perfect. Vashon Island Publishing: Vashon, Washington. Scientific method. (2004). In The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science. Retrieved from http://library.

gcu.edu:2048/login?qurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.credoreference.com/entry/wileypsych/scientific_method Sternberg R. (2004, July). Culture and intelligence. American Psychologist, 59(5), 325-338.

REFERENCES

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CH5. THINKING AND LANGUAGE

Thinking and Language By Elizabeth Larson

Complex language is a unique human trait. According to Descartes, language is one of the two characteristics that separate people from “machines” or “beasts” (as cited in Cow- ie, 2010). Humans use it to communicate their thoughts and share feelings and ideas. Our thoughts are encoded with language, which is then transmitted through speech or writ- ing.

Philosophers have long debated whether language is innate and whether thought is dependent on language. Plato described thought and language as abstract concepts known as “forms”, in which “entities and

qualities designated thereby can be sub- sumed” (Gill, 1997, p. 132). Prussian philoso- pher Wilhelm von Humboldt hypothesized that thinking and language are inseparable. However, even though there is disagreement with regard to thinking and language’s rela- tionship, most scholars recognize the impor- tance of language in critical thinking.

In this chapter, we will look at the relation- ship between thinking and language, its met- aphorical nature, and the use of figurative language. We will also look at inductive and deductive reasoning as well as how to write the first draft of a persuasive argument essay.

CHAPTER FIVE.

Opening Questions:

What is the relationship between thinking and language?

How do humans acquire language?

What is the role of language in the critical-thinking process?

What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?

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Relationship Between Thinking and Language

The Innateness of Language

The philosopher Wittgenstein (2010) once said, “The limits of my language means the limits of my world” (p. 74). His argument is that language dictates the limitations of thought. Is thought dependent on language or does language help shape our thoughts? Answering that question is like trying to determine which came first, the chicken or the egg. However, many scholars believe that language commands thought, thus shaping our worldview. According to Elizabeth Spelke, professor of psychology at Harvard, from birth infants have a language-dependent system that is used for thinking about objects (as cited in Bouchard, 2013). However, others believe that thought is not dependent on language and that thinking can occur without the accompaniment of language. Regardless of which came first, language is essential in the human thought process. Language allows us to interpret our thoughts and to conceptualize the world we live in.

Philosophers have long debated whether language is innate (hard-wired) or an acquired skill. Humanity is the only species that has an advanced method of communication. Whereas “other species communicate through ritualized and repetitious songs, calls, or gestures, humans have developed linguistic systems that can express a literally infinite variety of separate and distinct thoughts” (“Evolution of Language,” 2013, pg. 1). Language is a vastly complex system, governed by complex grammar rules and properties that humans seem to use almost without conscious effort. How this is possible is what has puzzled the field of linguistics for centuries.

One of the main proponents of the innate- ness of language is linguist Noam Chomsky. He theorized that language is hard-wired into humans, allowing them the ability to create and understand language from birth. Within the human brain, he believes, is a lan- guage acquisition faculty that contains innate

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knowledge of universal linguistic rules, con- straints, and principles. These innate princi- ples are what constitute the starting point of language acquisition (Thomas, 2004).

Chomsky also theorized that there is a universal grammar to language. The basic premise of universal grammar is that all languages have a common structure and set of universal principles. There are also grammatical categories that are inherent to every language. These categories (nouns, verbs, etc.) are what facilitate language development during childhood. This principle holds true no matter what language it is because the way in which certain sentences are perceived to be correct is universal and independent of meaning (Thomas, 2004).

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The Acquisition of Language

Others have argued that language is a learned skill, one acquired after birth. Noted psychologist B.F. Skinner argued that language acquisition comes through the principles of classic conditioning. From birth, the acquisition of language is driven by environmental influences. Correct utterances are positively reinforced until a child realizes his or her value. Once that value is reinforced, people, objects, actions, and

the images that the child has formed in his or her nonverbal working memory can be represented with words (Dawson & Guare, 2011). For example, typically an infant’s first word is either “mama” or “dada,” as most parents will repeat the word over and over to the infant. When the infant says “mama” or “dada,” he or she is rewarded with a hug or smile, thus reinforcing the use of the word.

F o o d f o r T h o u g h t :

What is Chomsky’s main argument about how people acquire language?

What is Skinner’s main argument about language acquisition?

Write a two- to four-sentence summary of how you believe humans acquire language.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis/Linguistic Relativity In the early 19th century, philosophers

started to explore the concept of linguistic relativity, which looks at how the structure of language affects a person’s worldview. The principle of linguistic relativity is largely credited to Benjamin Lee Whorf and Edward Sapir, although it has been around since the late 18th century. Sapir and Whorf were of the belief that language shapes our world- view. Language encodes the cultural and cognitive categories that affect how a person thinks and acts. Their findings have become known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. In 1929, Sapir (1958) argued:

Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. ... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (p. 69)

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CRITICAL THINKERS: George Orwell By Declan Joyce

Few writers have written as much about the relationship between thought and language as George Orwell (1903-1950).

Born Eric Blair into an English social class he later wryly described as “lower upper middle,” he was a bright student and won a scholarship to Eton, one of England’s top schools. In 1922, when he was 19, Blair entered the British colonial service and was posted to Myanmar as an administrator. He excelled at the job and picked up the complex local languages with ease, but found himself

George Orwell

increasingly burdened by the nature of his work, which he recognized as oppressive and demeaning to the native population. He left the service in 1926 and alarmed his family by declaring his intention to be a writer.

They needn’t have worried. Blair went on to become an acclaimed novelist as well as one of the 20th century’s foremost journalists, essayists, and critics. Unlike most journalists, he made it a practice to experience in person the issues he wrote about. For example, to learn about the lives of homeless men in England, he became one of them, tramping around the country and recounting his experiences in Down and Out in Paris and London (it was to spare his parents any embarrassment about their son becoming a “tramp” that he published the book under the pseudonym “George Orwell”). To learn about the lives of miners in the north of England, he lived there, visited the mines, and wrote about it in The Road to Wigan Pier. And to write about the Spanish Civil War in Homage to Catalonia, he became a soldier on the republican side, was shot through the neck, and almost died.

As a writer, Orwell believed in simplicity, clarity, and honesty and deplored the trend towards cliché, laziness, stock phrases, and sloppiness in most contemporary writing. Sloppy, careless thinking, he believed, led to sloppy, careless writing composed mainly of a string of clichés designed to conceal the fact that the writer has not really thought about his or her subject. Lazy writers need not accept the responsibility for thinking about what they write. In his famous 1946 essay “Politics and the English Language,” Orwell wrote:

“You can shirk [responsibility] by simply throwing your mind open and letting the ready-made phrases come crowding in. They will construct your sentences for you—even think your thoughts for you, to a certain extent—

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis can be divided into two components: linguistic determinism and linguistic relativism. Linguistic deter- minism centers on the idea that the structure of language determines thought. This can be further broken down into two different ver- sions. The strong version states that language determines all thought and actions. Thought (cognitive categories) is bound by the re- straints of the linguistic categories, thus af- fecting how we perceive things. Essentially, thought is imprisoned by language. This ex- treme position on linguistic determinism has largely been rejected by scholars. The weak version of this hypothesis is a modified ver- sion of the original. In the weak version, lan- guage does influence thought and perception, but a person’s worldview is not defined by it (Badhesha, 2002). Most linguists agree with the weak version at least partly.

The second component of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, linguistic relativism, focuses on how a language is used to encode the way a person conceptualizes his or her world. Each language is organized in a way that is determined by what is most important to the people using it. Whorf (1940) noted, “Humans dissect nature along lines laid down by our

Saphir-Whorf continued on page 53.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis can be divided

into two components: linguistic determinism and

linguistic relativism.

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and at need they will perform the important service of partially concealing your meaning even from yourself.”

Orwell spend most of World War II as a journalist based in London (he had been turned down for active service for

health reasons) and was able to witness first-hand how honest, direct language was often as much a casualty of war as people or homes. In political life especially, he wrote in the same essay, language is often not so much a means of communicating with others as it is a way to deceive, to distract, and to dissemble:

“In our time, political speech and writing are largely the defense of the indefensible. ... Consider for instance some comfortable English professor defending Russian totalitarianism. He cannot say outright, ‘I believe in killing off your opponents when you can get good results by doing so.’ Probably, therefore, he will say something like this: ‘While freely conceding that the Soviet regime exhibits certain features which the humanitarian may be inclined to deplore, we must, I think, agree that a certain curtailment of the right to

political opposition is an unavoidable concomitant of transitional periods, and that the rigors which the Russian people have been called upon to undergo have been amply justified in the sphere of concrete achievement.’”

Orwell took his notion of the power of language to shape thought a step further in his 1950 novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four. The protagonist of the novel, Winston, is a citizen of a huge, all-powerful super- state known as Oceania, in which the Inner Party, led by the shadowy Big Brother, controls every aspect of life. In particular, the Party polices political orthodoxy, any deviation from which is known as “thoughtcrime.” One of the ways they set about controlling thought is to replace the English language with something called “Newspeak,” a basic, colorless language that will make dissent impossible because citizens will no longer have the language to think about or express it. In a passage from the book, one of Winston’s colleagues, Syme, describes to Winston his work on the language:

“Don’t you see that the whole aim of Newspeak is to narrow the range

“You can shirk [responsibility] by simply throwing your mind open and letting the ready-made phrases come crowding in. They will construct your sentences for you—even think your thoughts for you, to a certain extent—and at need they will perform the important service of partially concealing your meaning even from yourself.”

ORWELL GEORGE

of thought? In the end we shall make thoughtcrime literally impossible, because there will be no words in which to express it. Every concept that can ever be needed, will be expressed by exactly one word, with its meaning rigidly defined and all its subsidiary meanings rubbed out and forgotten. Already, in the Eleventh Edition, we’re not far from that point. But the process will still be continuing long after you and I are dead. Every year fewer and fewer words, and the range of consciousness always a little smaller.”

Is Orwell’s point valid? Would we no longer be able to conceive of political rebellion if there were no words in the language to do so? Or would we always be able to find words, however rudimentary, to communicate enough of what we feel? It’s become a cliché to say that contemporary Western youth have become both politically disengaged and impoverished in the way they communicate, outsourcing their communications to texts like “OMG!” or “Wer r u?” Is this a form of Newspeak that Orwell did not anticipate, one in which the infinite subtlety of language is eroded not by a political power but by citizens themselves?

George Orwell continued:

In particular, the Party

polices political orthodoxy,

any deviation from which is known as

“thoughtcrime.”

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native languages … the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds—and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds” (pp. 213-14). For example, in English, the second person pronoun is “you.” In Indonesian, however, there are several variations of the second pronoun: kamu, Anda, and Bapak/Ibu (+ proper name). In verbal communication, the choice of pronoun is dependent on the politeness rules that govern the particular situation. These rules are in turn determined by age, social status, gender, and intimacy of relationship (Kadarisman, 2000). Another example is French, in which close friends are addressed using the second-person singular tu and older people or new acquaintances with the second-person plural vouz. Having different pronouns for different politeness rules helps reinforce cultural ideas. English has only one second pronoun, reinforcing the idea of treating everyone equally.

Saphir-Whorf continued from page 51:

LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM Linguistic determinism centers on the idea that the structure of language determines thought.

LINGUISTIC RELATIVISM Linguistic relativism focuses on how a lan- guage is used to encode the way a person conceptualizes his or her world.

Does the language we speak impact our perception?

As discussed earlier, language impacts thoughts and perceptions. Word choice can influence thought processes and perceptions of the information being presented. For example:

Say the following words out loud:

Chairman Mailman Workman

What gender do you picture after hearing each word?

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Figurative Language

Symbolism

Figurative language is an important part of the critical-thinking process. It allows us to use words or phrases to conceptualize new thoughts and meanings. Unlike literal language, figurative language is a departure from the traditional meaning of a word. Much of the Bible is written in figurative language. For example, in Matthew 26:26-28, Jesus takes a loaf of bread and says, “Take and eat; this is my body.” He then takes a cup of wine and says, “This is my blood of the covenant which is poured out for many for the forgive- ness of sins” (NIV). In these two passages, Je- sus uses figurative language to represent the body and blood that he will sacrifice. Figura- tive language includes the following:

Language is essentially a system of symbols that we use to communicate. By definition, a symbol is intended to stand for something other than itself. In language, these system of symbols can range from sounds (verbal com- munication) to concrete (written communica- tion). Symbolism in language occurs because there is a signifier (word, letter, sound, etc.) that is used for what is being denoted (ob- ject, idea). In most languages, this system of symbols is largely arbitrary and there is no special relationship between the symbol and what it is meant to symbolize. In others (e.g., Chinese), the written symbols often bear some resemblance to the object being identi- fied.

Street signs are a great example of a writ- ten symbol. In the United States, if you see a large black letter P superimposed by a red circle with a line through it, you understand that you are in a no-parking zone. This is be- cause we attach meaning to symbols, allow- ing the symbol to represent something else. Languages are based on agreements about what symbols mean, and this agreement al- lows us to express ourselves to others.

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Similes use the words “like” or “as” to make a comparison between two objects. Example: She is sly like a fox.

Metaphors compare two things without using “like” or “as.” Example: Don’t you know that you yourselves are God’s temple? (I Corinthians 3:16, NIV).

Idioms are groups of words that have a figurative meaning. Example: He was on top of the world.

By definition, a symbol is intended to stand for something

other than itself.

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Language in a Cultural Context

Language is a living entity that evolves and adapts as the society of which it is a part does. According to Strunk and White (1979), “Language is perpetually in flux; it is a liv- ing stream, shifting, changing, receiving new strength from a thousand tributaries, los- ing old forms in the backwaters of time” (p. 119). For example, words like apple, twitter, and tablet often mean something different today than they did in even the recent past. An apple is still a piece of fruit, but it is also a global brand that has become synonymous with consumer technology. This shift occurs because language is a reflection of current trends in culture and society. Another exam- ple is the word “hot.” For centuries, the word was an adjective denoting a high tempera- ture. If something was hot, people knew not to touch it. Starting in the 1970s, the meaning of the adjective changed. If something was “hot,” it meant it was stolen. For example: The car was really cheap, so I think it’s hot. Mil- lennials, those born around the turn of the century, use the word to describe something that is attractive or exciting. In the infamous words of one socialite, “That is so hot.” Some- times words even morph into something akin to their opposite. Think, for example, of what a hipster means when he describes a musi- cian as “bad.”

INDUCTIVE VS. DEDUCTIVE REASONING

One of the most basic principles of philosophy looks at the theory and construction of arguments. This analysis is often referred to as logic. The term “logic” is derived from the Greek word logos, which, loosely translated, means “reason” or “art

of reasoning.” Part of logic is to look at the valid- ity or the reasoning behind an argument. Thinking logically and having the ability to use valid rea- soning is an essential part of the critical-thinking process.

The term “logic” is derived from the Greek word logos.

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Deductive Reasoning

A Deductive reasoning, or deduction, is a top-down

processing approach that moves from a general claim to a particular one (logical conclusion). In deductive reasoning, the premise logically guarantees the conclusion. This is because the “premises are intended to provide such strong support for the conclusion that, if the premises are true, then it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false” (“Deductive,” 2003, para. 1).

Syllogisms are a form of deductive reasoning. A syllogism is a simple deductive argument that consists of two premises and a conclusion. In Prior Analytics, Aristotle defined a syllogism as “a discourse in which, certain things having been supposed, something different from the things supposed results of necessity because these things are so” (Aristotle, trans. 2000). For Aristotle, syllogisms were important because they were a part of the study of logic. Logic can help circumvent weak arguments within science and philosophy.

Here is the classic example that is used to teach a syllogistic argument:

Major Premise: All men are mortal. Minor Premise: Socrates is a man.

Conclusion: Therefore Socrates is mortal.

In this example, both of the premises are true; therefore, the conclusion is also. Not all deductive arguments are necessarily valid, however. Deductively valid arguments are those in which the truth of the premise guarantees the truth of the conclusion. Arguments that cannot make a logical connection are considered invalid.

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Inductive Reasoning

B Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive

reasoning. Induction uses specific observations to make broad generalizations. Aristotle noted that induction “is a proceeding from particulars to a universal. For instance, if the pilot who has knowledge is the best pilot, and so with a charioteer, then generally the person who has knowledge about anything is the best” (Aristotle, trans. 2000, Chapter 12). Inductive reasoning is usually when the past is used to explain a present or future occurrence.

Inductive reasoning is more open-ended and exploratory in nature than deductive reasoning. The central focus is using observations to look for a general pattern. This type of reasoning is typically used for things like the scientific method. Scientists can use inductive reasoning to observe and identify specific patterns and then formulate a hypothesis or theory.

By looking at the numbers, one can see a pattern starting to emerge. In this case, the pattern is the multiples of 7. Based on inductive reasoning, the next number in the pattern will be 42.

EXAMPLE:

Items A, B, and C all have characteristic Q.

Therefore, all items in the same category as A, B, and C will more than likely have characteristic Q.

In math, inductive reasoning is used to find the next term in a pattern:

7, 14, 21, 28, 35…

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Inductive arguments are based on a cogent argument (i.e., one having a high probability of being true). Typically, these arguments are used to make a conclusion based on obser- vations and patterns. There are three main types of inductive arguments:

ALTERED PERCEPTION: The AIDA Model By Declan Joyce

Almost everyone believes that they are immune to advertisements and the ways in which they attempt to manipulate consumers.

However, given that consumer spending represents a huge proportion of the U.S. economy (as high as 70 percent, by some estimates) and that consumers learn about most of the products they buy through ads, it seems they are not as immune as they might like to think.

On the other hand, no one is dragging shoppers into an Apple store, a Best Buy, or a supermarket and making them purchase particular items. They do have some control over what they buy, but why do some buy Apple instead of Microsoft? Why a Ford rather than a Toyota? Why one brand of bread, or cereal, or pasta sauce, or washing machine over another? Advertising is not the only reason—you might, for example, buy a particular product because a friend recommended it or because you had a successful experience with the product in the past—but it is a big one.

According to the industry magazine Advertising Age, in 2012, revenue for the U.S. advertising industry (that is, the money that the industry made selling products for its clients) was $33.2 billion. That’s a lot of money, and it represents a lot of work in finding just

what elements in an ad will convince consumers to buy. When you watch ads on TV, or hear them on the radio, or view them on your cell phone, or see them beside the highway on your evening commute, you are not just being exposed to random pieces of information. Ads are, above all, meant to be persuasive and are the product of enormous amounts of money spent on market research, focus groups, product testing, and surveys. No matter how bubbly, charming, amusing, bittersweet, clever, moving, or awesome an ad might be, it has only one purpose: to sell you something, and the more of it, the better.

To help you begin to engage with the ways in which ads are intended to persuade, you can use the AIDA model, which has long been used in the advertising and market-research industries. AIDA stands for the four stages that an ad must progress through in order to make a sale: Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action.

Firstly, an ad must attract your Attention. Think of the music, colors, attractive young people, and fast movement in a typical TV ad, all of them meant to draw your eye. Next is Interest: having got your attention, the ad must keep it somehow. There are many ways to do this, but think for example of a celebrity endorsing the product. If you are fond of the celebrity, this is often enough to keep you watching the entire ad. Next is Desire: during the phase in which your attention is held, the product must be presented in such a way as to make it an object of desire, aspiration, identity, or status. Lastly, and most crucially from the advertiser’s point of view, is Action: you buy the product, either right then online or the next time you go shopping.

The AIDA model is still widely used as a model in the industry, but in the age of TiVo and Netflix, the industry has been forced to find new ways

Inductive arguments are generally weaker than deductive arguments. While deductive arguments are based on laws and principles, inductive arguments tend to use observa- tions. Inductive arguments are solely based on the degree of probability of the premise. If the premises are true, then it is probable that the conclusion is true. While the conclusion may be valid, in an inductive argument one cannot guarantee its certainty so the conclu- sion is more than likely or probably true. An induction does not actually prove anything; it just makes the argument that something is probably true based on specific observations.

Generalizations: A universal statement about a specific group based on evidence.

Cause and Effect: The relationship between two events, in

which one preceded the other.

Analogies: Comparing two items and using that compar- ison to make an argument.

If the premises are true, then it is probable that the conclusion is true.

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of connecting with consumers who increasingly zip through the ads or watch ad-free television. One way to do this is to embed the product in the show, preferably being used in some way by a cast member. This strategy is called product placement. Another, more recent development, is product integration, in which the product is an element of the show’s storyline. For example, AMC’s Mad Men, which is set at an advertising agency, can easily work products into the narrative as the cast members develop campaigns for clients. These products are not chosen at random but are the products of highly lucrative deals between the show’s producers, the advertising agencies, and the client. Art, in this instance, imitates life. The consumer and the advertiser

are currently locked in a kind of arms race, with increasingly ad-weary consumers on one side and increasingly sophisticated methods of selling on the other.

For thought: In the Information Age, the steadily increasing volume of ads makes it harder for advertisers to get noticed. What other methods might advertisers begin to use to stand out from the crowd?

For thought: What are two or three of your most prized possessions? Are they things you bought or things you were given? What is it about them that make them matter to you?

For further reading: For an excellent long-form piece on the research and effort that go into selling junk food, read The New York Times’ “The Extraordinary Science of Addictive Junk Food,” located here.

AIDA Model continued:

This week in your class, you will be writing a first draft of your paper. A first draft is an essential part of the writing process because it allows you to capture the basic form or direction of the essay. Before writing the first draft of any paper, you should identify what the final draft expectations are. This will allow you to address all the requirements and/or key points in your draft and assess whether or not you are meeting the argument’s objectives.

Most importantly, your essay should be persuasive in nature. The goal is to use facts, research, and logic to make an argument that one idea or concept is better than another. A persuasive essay will attempt to persuade the audience to see a certain point of view or take a course of action. Above all, a persuasive argument will use sound reasoning by finding scholarly research that validates its arguments. While spelling and grammar are not generally the focus of a first draft, it is still essential that there be clarity in your writing. Write clearly and concisely. Excessive wordiness or spelling/grammatical errors can lead to confusion. Concise writing is when the most effective words are used, thus eliminating any unnecessary or redundant words. Writing with clarity will make your argument more engaging and convincing.

FIRST DRAFT

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One Final Thought Aristotle (1954) defines rhetoric as “the fac-

ulty of observing in any given case the avail- able means of persuasion” (p. 24). Aristotle determined that in rhetoric there were three artistic proofs used: ethos (ethical proof), pathos (emotional proof), and logos (logical proof). Of the three, logos is most essential in making a persuasive argument.

Ethos is an argument based on the writer’s character. Aristotle uses the word to refer to a speaker’s character as it appears to the audi- ence. This element of persuasion presents the speaker as someone who is trustworthy, lending credence to his or her argument. There are several components of a writer’s credibility: character, compe- tence, credibility, and believability. Persuasion can only be achieved when the speaker’s per- sonal character makes what they have to say credible to the audience (Aristotle, 1954).

Pathos is persuading through the use of emotions. A writer will use the audience’s emotions to connect or influence their ratio- nal judgment. “Persuasion may come through the hearers, when the speech stirs their emo- tions. Our judgments when we are pleased and friendly are not the same as when we are pained and hostile” (Aristotle, 1954, p. 25). Pathos should be used to reinforce logos; it should never replace it. If pathos is the sole basis of an argument, the argument can be misleading or manipulate the reader’s emo- tions.

Logos is the use of logic and reason in an argument. With logos, a writer uses rational and factual information as the basis of his or her argument. It looks at the clarity of the claim, the logic of the reasoning, and the relevance of the supporting evidence. Aristotle noted that persuasion is effected or achieved when the speaker has proven a truth or the apparent truth (Aristotle, 1954). Logos is achieved only when a writer has created a clear claim, used valid reasoning, and provided strong evidence to support his or her thesis.

This art, which I call the art of persuading, and which, properly speaking, is simply the process of perfect methodical proofs, consists of three essential parts: of defining the terms of which we should avail ourselves by clear definitions; of proposing principles or evident axioms to prove the thing in question; and of always mentally substituting in the demonstrations the definition in the place of the thing defined. – Blaise Pascal (Pascal, trans. 1909)

BLAISE PASCAL Persuasion

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Summary

Language is one of the things that set humans apart from other species. Our language is a complex system that allows us to communicate our thoughts.

This complexity has raised the question whether language is something innate within us or if it is acquired.

According to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, humans are born with the capacity for language. Within us is a language faculty that is preprogrammed with a set of linguistic rules that we use to acquire language.

Language is constantly in flux. It will adapt and change to meet the needs of society. Words that had traditional meaning take on new meaning to reflect societal trends.

Deductive arguments claim that the conclusion must logically follow from the premise. In its simplest form, this can be expressed as “If P, then Q.”

Inductive arguments are based on probability. If the premise is true, then to a degree of probability, so will be the conclusion. In its simplest form, this can be expressed as “given P, it is probably true for Q.”

When writing a first draft, it is essential to meet the minimum expectations mandated in the assignment directions. This means meeting the word count, incorporating scholarly research, and checking for any spelling and/or grammatical errors.

Remember that this is a persuasive essay. The goal is to persuade the audience that your stance or call for action is the most appropriate. Please see Chapter 6 for more information on persuasion.

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Aristotle. (2000). Prior Analytics (A.J. Jenkinson, Trans.). University of Adelaide Library. (Original work published 350 B.C.) Aristotle. (2000). Topics (W.A. Pickard-Cambridge). University of Adelaide Library. (Original work published 350 B.C.) Aristotle. (1954). Rhetoric. (W. R. Roberts, Trans.). New York, NY: Modern Library. (Original work published 350 B.C.) Badhesha, R. (2002). Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. Retrieved from http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~johnca/spch100/4-9-sapir.htm Bouchard, D. (2013). The nature and origin of language / Denis Bouchard. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Cowie, F. (2010). Innateness and language. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/

entries/innateness-language/ Dawson, P., & Guare, R. (2011). Executive skills in children and adolescents, a practical guide to assessment and intervention. New

York, NY: The Guilford Press. Deductive and inductive arguments. (2003). In Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://www.iep.utm.edu/ded-

ind/ Evolution of language. (2013). Retrieved from http://library.thinkquest.org/C004367/la1.shtml Gill, J. (1997). If a chimpanzee could talk and other reflections on language acquisition. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. Kadarisman, A. Effendi (2000). How Universal is Chomsky’s Universal Grammar?. TEFLIN Journal, (1) Pascal, Blaise. Minor Works, translated by O. W. Wright. Vol. XLVIII, Part 2. The Harvard Classics. New York: P.F. Collier & Son,

1909–14; Bartleby.com, 2001.www.bartleby.com/48/3/ Sapir, E. (1958). Culture, language and personality. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Thomas, M. (2004). Universal grammar in second language acquisition: A history. London, England: Routledge. Strunk, W., & White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style (3d ed.). New York, NY: Macmillan. Whorf, B. L. (1940). Science and linguistics. Technology Review, 35, 229-31, 247-8. Wittgenstein, L. (2010). Tractatus logico-philosophicus (C. K. Odgen, Trans.). Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5740.

(Original work published 1922)

REFERENCES

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Communication and Persuasion By Thomas Dyer

CHAPTER SIX.

Introduction When you think about the word “persua-

sion,” certain types of people may come to mind. Your brain may gravitate toward savvy politicians who use their influence and silver tongues to persuade voters to their side of the fence or celebrities who attempt to sell a product. Many of you may have friends or family members who have mastered the art of persuasion. Persuasion is the art of securing a buy-in from people to do things that are in their best interest and that may benefit the person employing persuasion as well. Persuasion is also a component of many careers. Teachers must help their students understand that the particular lesson they are being taught is valuable to them both in the present and in the future. Nurses must persuade their patients to take medication or to adhere to special diets and exercise routines that better serve their current and future health needs. Professional counselors have clients who may be resistant to certain strategies that may help them find peace in their lives, and the counselor is responsible for trying to persuade clients to adopt those strategies. Entrepreneurs will likely be sell- ing a product or a service, which often re- quires a great deal of persuasion. As you can see, persuasion is a skill that is applicable not only to your present academic setting but to your future career as well.

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The Art of Persuasion The benefits of being able to communicate

clearly are substantial. It is crucial to be meaningful and concise, which requires writers to stick to the facts and leave out personal stories. Hemmerdinger (2008) states that there is a relationship between simplicity and persuasion—readers want

to know the facts, without filler. They have questions that need to be addressed. Knowing and understanding your audience goes a long way to being able to persuade. This is true in both verbal and written communication. When writing a persuasive essay, it is vital to remember that you are actually writing to someone. Students must ask themselves questions such as, “Who do I intend to read my essay?” and “What is important to my audience?” It is crucial to find out as much as you can about your intended audience. You want to know what matters to them, and this requires research. Drew Westen, a professor of political psychology and psychiatry at Emory University, states simply, “If you want to win hearts and minds, start with the heart” (as quoted in Hemmerdinger, 2008,

p. 24). Emotion plays a considerable role in critical thinking and persuasion, as discussed in Chapter 3.

However, although emotion is significant, it should not be the basis of your essay. Persuasion through emotion alone leads to bias. Once you know who your audience is, you will need to get their attention. This is where an organized thesis is essential, as is a clear conclusion that restates your thesis. Getting someone to change his or her perception requires a clear understanding of your objective. Students should ask themselves what their stance is on an issue and what they hope to accomplish in a particular essay. It is important to consider all facets of an argument so that you can anticipate any objections or counterarguments. A best practice in persuasion is to address questions that those who oppose your argument may have, refute their position, and continue to argue your position with facts. Credible peer- reviewed and scholarly resources are critical to this process.

Now that you have an understanding of persuasion in writing, let’s look at unethical persuasion, which leads to manipulation. We will also discuss the role of bias and how to avoid bias in personal, academic, and professional life. Finally, we will review the relationship between informative, explanatory, and persuasive statements and how to avoid the information overload trap.

“If you want to win hearts and minds, start with the heart.”

Think about the last time you visited a theme park. Many of their rides typically exit into an appropriately themed souvenir shop. Your instinct may be to purchase one of these items. Is this an example of persuasion or manipulation?

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Ethics in Persuasion

Manipulation

Critical thinking and ethics go hand in hand. For persuasion to work and remain ethical, you must be honest in your com- munication. Wein- stein (2009) writes that the goal of ethics is to answer two fun- damental questions: What should we do? And why should we do it? These same two questions should be considered when creating your thesis. The “what should we do” question refers to your stance on the topic and the “why should we do it” question refers to your reasons for tak- ing that stance (i.e., your subtopics). This is why research is so important. When students make claims in their writing without factual support, the reader begins to lose trust and the opportunity to persuade is lost or di- minished. Persuasion without ethics is akin to manipulation. The expectation is that stu- dents are knowledgeable about their topic and have done their research. However, what they do with that knowledge and whether the knowledge is being used ethically is also important (Sternberg, 2011). Often, we at- tempt to persuade through emotion, espe- cially with topics that raise hackles, such as abortion, same-sex marriage, or gun control. However, emotions tend to manipulate more than persuade.

Often, persuasion and manipulation are confused. Persuasion is ideally used for the benefit of all, while manipulation is used to get others to do something for one’s personal benefit. Manipulation tends to conceal its true intentions. According to Simon (2010), those who manipulate are typically aggres- sive, know the vulnerabilities of the victim, use techniques to be compelling, and have no issues with causing harm to others.

Simon (2010) also identifies several ma- nipulative techniques that can be seen in verbal and written communication. Lying is one such technique. It may seem easy in the short term to make claims based on made- up ideas with no evidence, but you will lose

TWO THESIS QUESTIONS

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your ability to persuade others once they see your true intentions. Another form of lying is lying by omission. Any time information that is valuable to the argument is held back, the writer is manipulating. Providing a diversion in your writing is another subtle technique used in writing that is solely manipulative. This can occur when you try to compare your topic to another topic. For example, let’s say your topic is the legalization of marijuana. In your argument, you mention how alcohol is more dangerous than marijuana, so if alcohol is legal, then marijuana should be legal also. The intent is to divert your audience onto an- other topic rather than use evidence to sup- port your stance. This is a form of manipula- tion. By using this tactic, you are also using fallacious reasoning, as discussed in Chapter 4. This would be a good example of a false analogy fallacy. It is important to be aware of manipulative tactics and how to avoid them personally, academically, and professionally.

Often facts are ignored because they do not fit into current

personal worldviews.

AVOIDING BIAS

Now that you have some understanding of persuasion, ethics, and manipulation, you have a foundation to avoid bias in your writing. Writing objectively is necessary to properly persuade your audience. Personal opinions and anecdotal stories should be avoided and replaced with diligent research of peer-reviewed sources that provide evidence to support your stance. Often facts are ignored because they do not fit into current personal worldviews. Dobelli (2013) calls this “the confirmation bias.” The confirmation bias occurs when individuals take information and use only the parts that are compatible with their existing beliefs and filter out anything that does not validate their stances. But just because they may ignore the filtered information does not mean it does not exist.

It is also important to determine the ques- tions or arguments your readers will have and provide answers to those questions through specific research. Van Hecke (2007) states that people need to ask hard questions with an open mind, which can lead to discovery of their own beliefs. Van Hecke (2007) describes this failure of seeing evidence for what it is as a blind spot. It is not enough to sit down the night before an essay is due and begin searching the library for peer-reviewed arti- cles, pull bits of information from the one or two articles you find, and then write your es- say. You may need to read eight to 10 articles before you find the two to three that have the information you need to support your stance and to address counterarguments. Dobelli (2013) describes this as “the availability bias.” The availability bias occurs when individu- als only use the information that is easiest to find. You may have a favorite search engine that you use to hunt for resources and avoid

using the library. Perhaps you have a friend, colleague, pastor, or author you hold in high esteem and, therefore, tend to rely on for in- formation. The availability bias can become a trap if you do not challenge yourself to re- search appropriately.

Remember also to avoid hasty generaliza- tions in your writing. Making statements that apply to large groups of people or things is a generalization. No two people or situa- tions are alike. It is important to avoid “all” or “never” statements. Rather, you should strive to be specific, concise, and clear when com- municating. Be aware of personal biases and how they may come out in your writing. Pas- sion for a particular topic is important, but strong facts and evidence are what will allow your essay to shine. Avoid assumptions about particular genders, groups, and populations.

But just because they may ignore

the filtered information

does not mean it does not exist.

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Deductive and inductive fallacies/reasoning were explored in Chapters 4 and 5 and are two ways of forming an argument:

Which type of reasoning should you choose when writing a persuasive essay?

Deductive Reasoning is when you take an argument from a general

Inductive Reasoning is when you take an argument from a specific fact

to a generalization.

Informative, Explanatory, and Persuasive Writing Broadly speaking, there are three main

writing styles: informative, explanatory, and persuasive. As you will see, each of these three types plays a role in a persuasive es- say. With the informative style, your goal is to simply provide information to the reader. This type of style may or may not require re- search and personal experience may be used if it is to the point. Providing information is how we learn and transfer knowledge to each other. When writing a persuasive essay, you need to inform your audience as part of per- suading them and so you should provide in- formation that acquaints your audience with the topic. Using peer-reviewed and scholarly research will also provide information that will help persuade your audience.

The second type of writing is the explana- tory style. Normally, when writing in an explanatory style, you need to explain the nuances of your chosen topic. This type of ex- planation often requires research so that your explanation is not just personal opinion but is supported by facts. The goal of this type of es- say is to answer questions for your audience in a clear and concise way. It is your job as a writer to provide meaning to the information you are providing. Your audience will have questions, such as who, what, where, when, why, and how? It is your job to answer these questions. In persuasive writing, explanation is important. You will need to explain your reasons for taking a stand in your essay and attempt to persuade your audience with ap- plicable evidence.

statement to a specific point.

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The third type, persuasive, has been discussed extensively in this chapter. The art of persuasion is to bring your audience over to your point of view. Providing information and explaining why you have taken a stand, based on the evidence, is just the beginning of writ- ing a persuasive essay. Persuasion requires a connection to the au- dience, which in turn demands trust. Students should plan to win the agreement of their audience. Providing researched information

allows students to avoid unethical persuasion and provides them with what they need to effectively persuade their audience. Be aware of personal bias and avoid generalizations in your writing. If you make a conscious effort to understand and complete the steps outlined in this chapter, you will be on your way to writing a coherent and successful persuasive essay.

Analyze the following paragraph and review the three highlighted sentences: Indicate which sentence is informational, explanatory, and persuasive.

(1)Many nutritional experts blame the obesity crisis in the United States on the development of and rise in popularity of fast food. However, during the past 50 years, the United States has undergone a change in the way farms are operated. (2)Traditionally, farms were rotated-crop farms that grew certain vegetables depending on the season. However, those days are nothing more than a memory, and the toll is being felt by all Americans as this has greatly impacted the health of American society. (3)Americans never questioned this shift because it resulted in lower food costs and the food was inspected by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Americans had no idea about the impact that this change had on the beef that is passed on to the consumer and that consequently impacts the health of the nation.

Sentence (1) is Informational Explanatory Persuasive

Sentence (2) is Informational Explanatory Persuasive

Sentence (3) is Informational Explanatory Persuasive

ASSESSING A PERSUASIVE ARGUMENT

As part of this class, you will be required to peer review one of your classmates’ persuasive essays. There are four elements to bear in mind in assessing a persuasive argument: structure, evidence, logic, and evaluation. A logically structured essay helps writers to be organized and understood in their writing. Without an introduction that informs the audience about the topic and a clear thesis that presents the stance and the reasons why one has taken that stance, the audience will be left adrift.

As you evaluate your peer’s essay in class this week, be sure to look for clear language that is on-topic. Ask yourself, “Does the writer

provide a one-sentence thesis that is clear and concise and presents his or her three subtopics?” If the answer is yes, the probability of a well-written essay is high. The thesis is really the roadmap of the essay. Without a thoughtful thesis, there is little hope for a successful essay.

Having solid evidence has been discussed extensively in this chapter and is the defining difference between an informative essay and a persuasive essay. It is important to determine that your peer shows not only knowledge but also a clear grasp of the topic. Review the essay looking for proof and facts gathered from scholarly and

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peer-reviewed research. You should also determine whether your peer is writing in an ethical manner. Avoiding personal bias is essential. Be on the lookout for the types of bias discussed in this chapter as well as the fallacies discussed in Chapter 4. Finally, evaluate the connection between informative, explanatory, and persuasive writing. Ask yourself, “Did the author provide enough information, support the stance through evidence, and ethically persuade the audience?” Peer reviews are valuable for both the reviewer and the reviewed. Enjoy this experience, as it will provide a world of wisdom toward your future in critical thinking and educational success.

GREAT PERSUADERS: Abraham Lincoln By Declan Joyce

The most famous speech in American history is also one of the shortest, just 10 sentences long and 272 words. So brief, in fact, that members of his audience at Gettysburg thought President Abraham Lincoln was still warming up by the time he finished his speech and retook his seat. So why of all American speeches is it so revered?

More has been written about

Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address than can be summarized here, but one key to understanding it, and the reaction to it, is the political context in which Lincoln spoke. The president was invited to make “a few appropriate remarks” at Gettysburg on November 19, 1863, as part of the dedication of a cemetery for soldiers who had died at the epic battle there the previous July 4th. The Union’s victory at Gettysburg and another at Vicksburg on the same day, was a double blow from which the Confederacy would never recover. Now, with victory more secure if still distant, the president began to consider the question of how the rebellious states would be readmitted to the Union, and on what terms. In other words, what kind of nation would the United States be after the war had been won, and how would that nation compare to the one it had been before the war?

Put simply, there were two schools of thought on the issue. One held

Structure: Is there an introduction? Does it provide a thesis that takes a stand and includes three subtopics? Are there three paragraphs, one for each subtopic? Is there a conclusion?

Evidence: Does the author show knowledge of the topic? Is there proof of scholarly/peer-reviewed research? Did the author avoid unethical persuasion or manipulation? Is there evidence of research through properly formatted APA citations and references?

Logic: Did the author avoid bias in his or her writing? Did the author avoid generalizations and fallacies in his or her writing? Did the author include deductive reasoning?

Evaluation: Overall, is the argument clear, with valid evidence and logic? Did the author include proper information on his or her topic, explain his or her stance, and effectively persuade the audience?

When completing your peer review this week, be sure ask yourself these relevant questions.

Relevant Questions

Peer reviews are valuable for both the reviewer and

the reviewed.

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that negotiation with the South was impossible and that victory could only be achieved by total military subjugation and a forcible ending of the institution of slavery. The second believed that victory should involve only the restoration of the Union, with all rights and liberties restored to states that laid down arms, including the right to own slaves.

Lincoln was firmly in the former camp. On New Year’s Day 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation freeing all slaves, and had little sympathy for those who would fight a war only to let the evil of slavery endure. In a letter that August to his long-time friend James Conkling, Lincoln wrote, “Peace does not appear so distant as it did. ... And then, there will be some black men who can remember that, with silent tongue, and clenched teeth, and steady eye, and well-poised bayonet, they have helped mankind on to this great consummation; while, I fear, there will be some white ones, unable to forget that, with malignant heart, and deceitful speech, they strove to hinder it.”

Lincoln knew that the main speaker at the dedication of the cemetery would be the former Secretary of State and orator Edward Everett. He also knew that Everett, who would speak for a full two hours at Gettysburg, was broadly in sympathy with the opposing view, namely that the restoration of the Union was paramount. To balance Everett, Lincoln focused not on the Constitution of 1789, which does not guarantee any rights of citizenship to black people, but on the Declaration of Independence of 1776, which, in its insistence on the self- evident equality of all men, does. Lincoln both began and ended his speech with an appeal to these values:

“Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. ...

It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us— that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”

Lincoln, in fact, makes no direct reference to the war, to Gettysburg, to the South, to the Confederacy, or to slavery. His appeal is a deeper one, reaching back to the birth of the nation (the word “nation” appears five times in the speech; the Union is not mentioned once) and its most highly cherished ideals: liberty, equality, justice, and democratic government. The nation was at war, he said, not because of the Union or even slavery but to test “whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure.” At

Abraham Lincoln continued:

President Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg

Gettysburg, Lincoln served notice that, so far as it depended on him, there was no coming to terms with the Confederacy and no future for slavery. Both had to go.

The intent of Lincoln’s short oration was not lost on his opponents. The heavily Democratic-leaning Chicago Times described it as “a perversion of history so flagrant that the most extended charity cannot regard it as otherwise than willful.” The New York World reminded him that the United States was not the product of the Declaration of Independence but “the result of the ratification of a compact known as the Constitution.” Lincoln had clearly made his point. In the words of biographer David Herbert Donald, “The bitterness of these protests was evidence that Lincoln had succeeded in broadening the aims of the war from Union to Equality and Union.”

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ALTERED PERCEPTION: Political Advertising By Declan Joyce

The political process has always been changed, sometimes profoundly, by the arrival of new forms of mass media, from mass-circulation newspapers in the 19th century, to radio and broadcast TV in the 20th century, to the Internet and cable TV in the 21st century.

Before mass media, the only way for candidates to get their message heard was to travel from town to town “stumping,” that is, giving public speeches. Today, you can reach more people via a single appearance on cable TV than you could in decades of stumping. However, while this is very useful in some ways, it presents a problem. With stumping, you could tailor your speeches to the concerns of the locals. But how do you say anything specific to a national audience that is not going to offend at least some of them?

One answer is the “sound bite,” brief quotes that politicians make to newsmen concerning the issue or issues of the day. Sound bites are usually insubstantial and generally consist of a disparaging comment about the actions of a political opponent. The candidate usually comes across as bland but

any potential damage is minimized. The point is to avoid saying anything that might offend anyone who might otherwise vote for you.

Politicians also use media in the form of ads, as anyone who has spent time near a TV during an election season knows well. Much of the money that candidates raise, in fact, is used to buy “air time,” that is, advertising space on TV, radio, and Internet. But ad space, especially on TV, is expensive and ads generally run no more than 30 seconds, occasionally a minute or 2. As with a sound bite, there is no time for substantive discussion of issues, so the focus is either a brief summary of the candidate’s achievements or, increasingly, an attack on his opponent.

Earlier in this e-book, we discussed the AIDA model, which is widely used in advertising to describe the process of getting the consumer to buy a product: Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action. Political advertising uses a format that is remarkably similar, and candidates sometimes seem akin to branded products, a collection of the right opinions on the right issues. The principal difference, of course, is that the Action stage is represented by casting your vote rather than by purchasing a product. Before reading further, take a look at this 30-second anti-John Kerry political ad released by the Bush campaign during the 2004 presidential election. The spot was called “Windsurfing” and is considered one of the campaign’s more effective ads.

What do you think? Did the ad make you laugh? Did it offend you? Was it fair? Your reaction might be colored by your own political leanings, of course, but think of the ad in terms of the AIDA model. What elements did the Bush campaign’s Kerry ad use to attract your attention and interest? If you had been of voting age then, or if you were, how

Today, you can reach more people via a single

appearance on cable TV than you could in decades of stumping.

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Summary Persuasion plays a role in daily communi-

cation, whether written or verbal. Students should recognize when they are persuading and when others are attempting to persuade them. This chapter discussed a right way and a wrong way to persuade. The goal of persua- sion is to convince others of the validity of your view using ethical means; anything less leads to manipulation and should be avoided. Remember to be keenly aware of manipula- tive techniques such as lying, omission, and diversion in your writing. Research is the backbone of a persuasive argument. Present your argument with objectivity and without personal bias. Be mindful of the types of bias discussed in this chapter, such as the confir- mation bias, blind spot, and availability bias. Clearly outlining your stance and writing about it in an honest and scholarly way will lead to a knowledgeable, effective, and per- suasive essay.

might it have affected your desire to vote for Bush over Kerry? Would it have been enough to get you out to vote on Election Day?

Whatever might be said about the merits or demerits of the Kerry ad, it was relatively light-hearted, its tone more mocking than vicious. Sometimes, however, politicians cross the line into darker territory. Let’s take a quick look at two of history’s more notorious instances of this. Before reading on, take a look at these two 30-second spots: “The Daisy Spot” from the 1964 Johnson vs. Goldwater campaign, and “The Willie Horton Spot” from the 1992 Bush (41) vs. Dukakis campaign. In both instances, the ads were run only once before public outcry forced them off the air.

Pretty bad, huh? Vote for me or your adorable kiddies get nuked. Vote for me or the criminal black element will rape

your women. Subtle, these ads were not. It’s as if they skipped A, I, and D and went directly to the second A, in which you run in terror from your living room and cast your vote for the one who will save you. It is encouraging, at least, that public outcry forced the ads off the air in both instances. But it is also in some ways the logical conclusion of a system of political engagement that relies so much on immediate impact.

For thought: It’s a truism that most young people are deeply cynical about politics. If so, to what extent do you think the way in which we receive messages from candidates is responsible?

Further reading: The website LivingRoomCandidate.org is a great resource for television ads from all presidential campaigns since 1952. Each of the three video spots in this piece is from this website.

Dobelli, R. (2013). The art of thinking clearly (1st ed.). New York, NY: Harper Collins. Hemmerdinger, J. (2008). The science of persuasion: Political speech can frame elections, but how does it work in the brain? Search

- DC, 19(6), 23-25. Simon, G. (2010). In sheep’s clothing: Understanding and dealing with manipulative people (2nd ed.). Little Rock, AR: Parkhurst

Brothers. Sternberg, R. J. (2011). Ethics: From thought to action. Educational Leadership, 68(6), 34-39. Van Hecke, M. (2007). Blind spots: Why smart people do dumb things. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. Weinstein, B. (2009). Is it still cheating if I don’t get caught? (1st ed.). New York, NY: Roaring Book Press.

REFERENCES

Political Advertising continued:

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CH7. CREATIVE THINKING

Creative Thinking By John Steele

This class has focused from the beginning on critical thinking. Before we summarize the information that you have learned in the class and recap the key elements of the writ- ing process, let’s take a look at another type of thinking: the creative kind.

Creativity has always been a crucial ele- ment of learning. In education, however, cre- ativity tends to take a back seat because it cannot be measured with standardized test- ing. However, this does not mean that it is not an important skill (Goodwin & Miller, 2013). In fact, in recent years, creativity has been increasingly emphasized in discussions about

America’s classrooms (Beghetto & Kaufman, 2013). Goodwin and Miller note that through- out history there have been many creative people who did not perform well in school early in life (2013). Examples include Albert Einstein, Nicolas Copernicus, and Thomas Edison.

According to Newton and Newton (2010), creativity is often missing from elementary school classrooms. The reason, they say, is often teachers’ conceptions of what consti- tutes creativity (Newton & Newton, 2010). The study concluded that elementary teach- ers are often unlikely to recognize the oppor-

CHAPTER SEVEN.

Introduction

“Wisdom will multiply your days and add years to your life. If you become wise, you will be the one to benefit. If you scorn wisdom, you will be the one to suffer” (Proverbs 9: 11-12).

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tunities for incorporating creativity into the classroom because of lack of training. Much of this misconception stems from the asso- ciation that most people make between cre- ativity and the arts; creativity, in this view, is

something that is exercised when playing an instrument or painting or dancing. However, anyone familiar with the sciences knows that creativity is just as essential in the solving of mathematical problems or the creation of ex- periments to test hypotheses.

One way you can be creative in an aca- demic sense is by adapting and being willing to change things that are not working. This could be something as simple as using flash cards to better grasp a tough concept such as fallacies or trying different times of the day to study to see which works best for you. Cre- ativity should be a continual process in your life that leads to new possibilities. Whether this is something as simple as hypothesizing the shortest route home on a Friday or some- thing more complicated, like trying to inter- pret directions on how to put together your new shelves, creativity is a must.

You may be tempted to say that you are not creative. But you are. It is part of your birth- right as a human being. Consider an episode in your life when there was something that you really wanted. Did you find that your cre- ativity, improvisation, and imagination were all involved in the realization of that goal, or at least attempting to reach it, even though that goal may have had nothing to do with what we would conventionally call “creativ- ity”? Everyone, in short, is capable of thinking creatively and imaginatively, but abilities are often discounted because creativity is defined in a very narrow way.

Children are naturally creative, but as we get older we tend to let creative thinking slide out of our lives. If you give a brick to a bright 10-year-old and ask him or her to think of as many creative uses for it as pos- sible, you will likely receive a long list of wacky and wonderful ideas ranging from a doorstop to the source of an invisible ray of power to something to balance on the cat’s head to dropping it off a high building just to

Creativity should be a continual process in your life that leads to new possibilities.

see what happens. Show the same brick to an adult, and he or she might say, “Uh, to build a house?” But those creative powers have not disappeared; adults have just stopped using them as much. The good news is adults can easily reincorporate them into the way they think. If you want to think of what an ideal student might look like, imagine someone that works to develop both their critical and creative powers in pursuing an education.

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Topic and Audience

Develop Thesis Statement

Brainstorming

First Draft

Final Draft

Peer Review

Outline

Writing Process Recap

The past six weeks have allowed you to experience the writing process step- by-step. Like it or not, most of the assignments that you will do in college involve writing, and in college there is a wrong way and a right way to write. You should become fluent in the process of researching, structuring, and writing a paper as soon as possible.

Topic 1 discussed the importance of identifying a topic and an audience. You must select the topic and take a clear position on it. Once you have chosen a topic, you must decide on who your audience will be. In this class, the audience is those who you believe would disagree with your position on the chosen topic.

Brainstorming is twofold in purpose: it can give you a direction for your topic and help you generate ideas. The six different brainstorming strategies that were given in the media piece for Topic 2 were free-writing, breaking down a topic, listing, journalistic questions, three perspectives, and webbing/mapping. Breaking down a topic and the webbing/mapping strategies are great for organizing content. The remaining four strategies are more geared toward generating ideas but also involve organizing the structure of your essay. Brainstorming should guide you in developing a clear position on the topic and identifying the three main subtopics that will form the basis of your argument or thesis statement.

The focus of Topic 3 was to create a thesis statement based on the results of the brainstorming activities in Topic 2. The thesis statement is crucial to establishing the foundation of your essay. The two main elements of a thesis statement for a persuasive essay are taking a clear position and stating the three subtopics. The thesis statement should be like the roadmap to an essay in that it will tell the reader the direction that the essay is headed.

There are three thesis statements listed below. Which thesis statement sounds best? Why?

THESIS 1:

THESIS 2:

THESIS 3:

I think that the death penalty is wrong and should not be allowed.

I believe that the death penalty is wrong because it is murder, kills innocent people, and costs more money.

The death penalty is an unacceptable form of punishment because innocent people can be put to death, it costs the taxpayers more money, and it is morally unacceptable for a civilized society.

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By this point, you should be able to determine that the third thesis statement is best. The first statement clearly states the writer’s position but does not include the three subtopics and is not written in third person. The second thesis statement clearly states the writer’s position and three subtopics. However, it is written in the first person, which makes it seem very opinionated. Writing in third person is required for academic writing at Grand Canyon University and in GCU Style, but it also makes for a stronger argument. The third thesis statement clearly states the writer’s position while also including the three main subtopics that will form the three main ideas of the body paragraphs of the essay.

Topic 4 discussed creating an outline. Creating an outline helps you to organize the essay and is a critical step in the writing process. It allows you to see easily how all pieces of your essay fit together and helps you identify any weaknesses. All of the supporting details listed below each topic sentence should support the topic sentence. The next step, outlined in Topic 5, is writing the first draft, which is a critical element of the writing process, rather like a dress rehearsal for a play. The more effort that you put into the first draft, the less you will need to revise the final draft. In sports, it is common to hear the phrase “practice how you will play in the game.” The same holds true for creating the first draft.

Topic 6 gave you a chance to read and peer- review a classmate’s essay and also to have your own reviewed. Having another set of eyes to read and review your work is always

CRITICAL THINKERS: Jean-Francois Champollion By Declan Joyce

During Napoleon Bonaparte’s Egyptian campaigns of 1798–1801, thousands of ancient Egyptian artifacts were brought back to France by soldiers, scientists, and archaeologists.

Many of these were inscribed with hieroglyphic symbols, an ancient ceremonial script for which the meaning had been lost after all non- Christian temples in Egypt were closed by decree of the Roman Empire in the 4th century. One day in 1801, Jean- Francois Champollion, a brilliantly gifted 10-year-old boy, came across one of these inscriptions at the home of his tutor and asked what it meant. Told that no one knew, he resolved there and then that he would one day solve the riddle of those strange markings.

Champollion went on to become an exceptional linguist. By age 16 he could speak a dozen languages fluently, and by age 20 he had added a dozen more, including Hebrew, Sanskrit, Syriac, Chaldean, Persian, and Arabic. His abiding passion, however, remained the culture and languages of the ancient Egyptians.

In 1822, Champollion was asked to decrypt one of the most famous discoveries in the history of archaeology, the Rosetta Stone. This 40-inch-high slab of carved granite dated to 196 B.C. and was discovered in the Nile Valley by a French soldier working on fortifications. The stone was made to mark the coronation of Ptolemy V, and is carved with the same inscription in three languages: Ancient Greek, Demotic (a kind of cursive shorthand of hieroglyphics used mainly for administrative writing), and hieroglyphic. Because Ancient Greek and Demotic were already understood, it was hoped that this would be enough to allow for unlocking the hieroglyphics.

Champollion set to work, eventually devoting more than two years to the task. To get some idea of the challenge he faced, consider an equivalent. Let’s say you speak English and Spanish, so you can read two-thirds of your “stone.” Let’s also say the third language is Korean, which you do not speak. You know what the Korean says, but you do not know the alphabet, the symbols, the language, the vocabulary, or even how it sounds when spoken. Where do

Jean-Francois Champollion

The more effort that

you put into the first

draft, the less you will need to revise the final draft.

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a good idea. Many times it is easier for others to spot mistakes that you may overlook. You may also want to have someone who is not in the class review the essay. For example, for an undergraduate essay, it would be useful to have a friend or relative who recently graduated from college review your paper.

This week, you will complete and submit your final draft. Ideally, if you have followed all the steps closely, your final draft should be easy to write and have all correct elements in place. That said, it is important to keep in mind that becoming a better writer is a process and that improvement comes with time and practice. Don’t be discouraged if you have found this class difficult. The writing assignments in your early classes are like boot camp or basic training. In future classes, as your skills develop, you will be given more leeway with choice of topic, essay length, and structure. For now, the main goal is to give you a basic understanding of what is expected of you at college-level writing.

you start? At the time, hieroglyphics were

universally believed to be a symbolic script, that is, one in which you created pictures of what you wished to refer to, such as a bird, a man, or a lion. After all, if you see a picture of a lion, it’s the most natural thing in the world to assume that the writer wants to represent a lion, and not something else, as was in fact the case. Champollion wondered if hieroglyphics were at least partly phonetic, that is, a script such as the one you are now reading, in which symbols that refer to specific sounds are combined to form words, like C-A-T for cat.

One special area of focus was on cartouches, that is, groups of characters surrounded by a looped line and usually representing the name of a royal person. One of the Rosetta Stone cartouches, representing the name of the pharaoh Ptolemy, had in fact already been discovered to be phonetic but this was assumed to be an exception because Ptolemy was a foreign name that would need to be spelled out phonetically. Researchers before Champollion, in other words, could not let go of the paradigm that the hieroglyphic script must be symbolic.

Put in rather simple terms, Champollion’s breakthrough came when he was given access to another inscription that also had a cartouche, this one representing the name Cleopatra. Because Ptolemy and Cleopatra have several letters in common (P, T, O, E, and L), it followed that if the symbols for these letters occurred in the correct places in the two names, then the language must be phonetic. Although much remained to be done to decipher the entire alphabet, Champollion had discovered the one essential fact: Hieroglyphics were for the most part phonetic, not symbolic.

The various symbols corresponded to letters in an alphabet. He tested his method of some other names, confirming the results. He then raced from where he was working to the home of his older brother, shouting “Je tiens l’affaire!” (which, translated roughly, means “I’ve got it!”).

In 1828, Champollion at last visited the land that had entranced him for so long and was able to walk among the temples and monuments, reading with ease messages from a lost civilization that had not been understood for more than 14 centuries. In a letter to a colleague, he wrote, “I am proud to be able to announce, now that I have followed the course of the Nile from its mouth to the second cataract, that we need change nothing in our Letter on the hieroglyphical alphabet. Our alphabet is good: it can be successfully applied to the Egyptian monuments dating from Roman and Ptolemaic times, and then which is of far greater importance, to the inscriptions on all the temples, places, and tombs of the Pharaonic Era.”

Three years later, Champollion died of a stroke in Paris. He passed away at just 42, but not before he had succeeded in keeping his boyhood promise to unlock the code of Egypt’s past.

Champollion continued:

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PERSUASIVE WRITING FINAL DRAFT CHECKLIST

Before you submit your final draft, use this checklist to make sure everything is ready to go.

1 Does the opening line, also known as the hook, grab the reader’s attention?

2 Have you avoided including unnecessary details in your thesis statement?

4

7

5

8

3

6

Does your thesis statement clearly state your position and include the three subtopics?

Is the thesis statement clear? Does it take a clear position that can be opposed?

Is your thesis statement the last sentence in the introduction?

Does your essay apply the feedback from the first draft? (If you used peer-review feedback, be sure it coincides with instructor feedback.)

Do your subtopics from the thesis statement coincide with the topic sentences in the body of the essay?

Have you met the word count of 750-1,000 words?

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9 Has your paper been proofread and spellchecked? Have you avoided the use of contractions (don’t, it’s, doesn’t)? Have you covered all elements from the grading rubric?

12

13

Have you included two to five scholarly sources and avoided using Internet sources?

Does every paragraph include a citation? Have you also cited any paraphrased information?

Did you write in third person and avoid the use of first-person pronouns?

Have you included a references page? Are all references cited in-text and vice versa?

Is your essay five paragraphs long?

Have you avoided using too many direct quotes?

Does your essay transition well between paragraphs?

10

11

14

15

16

17

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18 Have you written in Arial or Times New Roman 12-point font?

Is your essay double-spaced?

21

Have you checked your essay for fallacies or fallacious reasoning?

Did you review the Turnitin report to ensure that all content is paraphrased properly? (Do not complete final submission without reviewing the Turnitin report.)

19

20

PROBLEM SOLVERS: Humphry Davy By Declan Joyce

On May 24, 1812, a catastrophic explosion at the Felling coal mine in the north of England took the lives of 92 miners, some of them as young as 8 years old.

The ensuing fire raged underground for days and it was six weeks before conditions were safe enough to recover the bodies of the deceased. The cause of the explosion was what miners called

“fire damp,” a highly volatile gas that was sometimes released when new coal faces were opened up. The gas ignited when it came into contact with the flame from the miners’ oil lamps, which were needed to light the otherwise

1812 Miners’ Oil Lamps

A Final Word The Information Literacy post-test this

week will gauge how your knowledge of in- formation literacy has progressed throughout the course. Information literacy, like critical thinking, is key to success in college. Remem- ber to analyze your resources to determine whether they are credible. Several aspects of the source can be analyzed to ensure this. Consider the authority of the author and his or her credentials, position or title, and aca- demic institution. Be sure the source has been peer-reviewed and published in a reputable

Be sure the source has been peer-reviewed, published, and is reputable.

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pitch-black mines. Worse, the problem was becoming more frequent as miners dug ever deeper for coal to power England’s Industrial Revolution. Even when no gas was present, miners lived in constant fear of an explosion, making their extremely hard occupation even more difficult.

A safety committee, formed in the wake of the explosion, approached the English chemist and inventor, Humphry Davy (1778-1829), who had already achieved a measure of fame for his work with Earth elements and gases. In 1815, Davy visited several mines in the north of England. At the end of this visit, he astonished the Chief Mining Engineer John Buddle by saying, “Do not despair, I think I can do something for you in a very short time.”

With his assistant Michael Faraday, who later became an influential scientist himself, Davy went to ground for several months, working non-stop on the problem. He quickly established that the “fire damp” was methane, and that it would trigger an explosion when it reached a critical ratio of about one part to eight parts air. There was no way to avoid the gas and no way for miners to work unless they had lamps. The challenge was to create a reliable, safe lamp that would burn safely even in the presence of the methane.

Davy’s key discovery was that methane was also capable of burning

safely under certain conditions. For example, if the gas were confined to a narrow metal tube, the metal would conduct the heat of the gas and lower its temperature to the point where it burned with a cool, blue, and above all, safe flame. Based on this discovery, Davy built a simple oil lamp, similar to the one already being used by miners, but enclosed the flame in a fine metal mesh. Air (and methane) could pass through the mesh but the holes were too small to allow flame to pass out of the mesh and cause an explosion. Davy also discovered that the flame burned higher when there were concentrations of gas present, and so he equipped later versions of the lamp with a metal plate containing a series of slots that could be used to measure flame height.

The lamp worked perfectly and was soon in wide use in the north of England and, later, Europe. Testifying before a Parliamentary committee, John Buddle spoke of the first time he carried a Davy Lamp into an explosive mixture: “[I]t is impossible for me to express my feelings at the time when I first suspended the lamp in the mine, and saw it red hot; if it had been a monster destroyed, I could not have felt more exultation that I did. I said to those around me, ‘We have at last subdued this monster!’”

Humphry Davy continued:

Key Points to Remember

Critical thinking is a valuable skill that can help you make better decisions in all realms of life by allowing you to analyze and evaluate the information you receive.

A

Both creative and critical thinking are vital to the process of problem solving and growth in nearly every aspect of life.

B

Information literacy demonstrates that you are able to analyze and evaluate a particular piece of information to determine whether or not it is credible.

C

You will write essays throughout the rest of your academic career. The sooner you teach yourself the essential elements of the writing process, the better.

D

scholarly journal or book. Also consider the content and timeliness. Does the author back up the information provided with sources, ci- tations, and research? Are there other reputa- ble sources that support the author’s claims? Timeliness is also important, as professional practices are constantly being updated and older material can become irrelevant quickly.

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Beghetto, R. A., & Kaufman, J. C. (2013). Fundamentals of creativity. Educational Leadership, 70(5), 10-15. Goodwin, B., & Miller, K. (2013). Creativity requires a mix of skills. Educational Leadership, 70(5), 80-83. Newton, L., & Newton, D. (2010). Creative thinking and teaching for creativity in elementary school science. Gifted & Talented

International, 25(2), 111-124.

REFERENCES

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

PAGE A

APPENDIX A. SUPPLEMENTAL

APPENDIX A.

Jane Goodall, Page 9. http://www.janegoodall.org/sites/default/files/pressroom/AP0299-32%20LR.jpg The Odessa Potemkin Steps, Page 15. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ukraine,_Odessa_Potemkin_Steps_(3944794746).jpg Nellie Bly, Page 26. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nellie_Bly_2.jpg Frederick Douglass, Page 42, Source: Brady-Handy Photograph Collection (Library of Congress) George Orwell, Page 51, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg, Page 70, National Archives. Photographer Mathew Brady. (Library of Congress) Jean-Francois Champollion, Page 76, Source: Painting: Leon Cogniet, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leon_Cogniet_-_Jean-

Francois_Champollion.jpg Humphry Davy 1812 Miners’ Oil Lamps, Page 80, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Davy_lamp.png

IMAGE REFERENCES

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PAGE B

APPENDIX A. NOTE SECTION

Notes:

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PAGE C

Notes:

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PAGE D

APPENDIX B. AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES

Marti Abitheira

Marti Abitheira has been at Grand Canyon University as both an adjunct and full- time faculty since 2005, teaching courses in Graphic Design, Elementary and Sec- ondary Education, Communications, and Critical Thinking and Problem Solving. She was one of the first 10 full-time online faculty instructors hired in 2010. She holds teaching credentials in three states (Michigan, California, and Arizona). She is GCU alumna, having earned her Master’s in Education in Curriculum and Instruc- tion with an emphasis in online technology. Marti thoroughly enjoys the variety of student demographics and engagement in the online environment.

R. Jacob Aroz

Jacob Aroz has worked in higher education for more than six years, and has been a full-time online faculty member at Grand Canyon University for the past two. He teaches several courses for new students, mainly PHI-105 Critical Thinking and Problem Solving. His Master’s is in Adult Education and Training and his passion is working with adult students in an effort to meet their unique learning needs and goals. He is excited to continue to work with the special students of GCU, and hopes to help them reach their full potential.

Kristen DiCarlo

Kristen DiCarlo has worked in higher education for more than seven years and is a faculty member in the College of Arts and Sciences and the Ken Blanchard Col- lege of Business. She thinks that innovative teaching styles can assist in students’ academic success regardless of modality. Kristen is currently earning her Ph.D. in General Psychology and is scheduled to graduate in December 2014. Her profes- sional and research interests include instructional design, learning assessments, and historical conceptions of psychology. She has a passion for helping students become stronger writers and thinkers and for learning new and innovative ways to instruct, teach, and motivate students to reach their optimal potential.

APPENDIX B. AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES

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PAGE E

Elizabeth Larson

Elizabeth Larson has worked in higher education for more than eight years and is a full-time online faculty member at Grand Canyon University. She holds a BS in Management and Master’s degrees in both Secondary Education and Psychology. Her interdisciplinary background allows her to integrate other disciplines into her classroom, allowing for a more holistic approach to teaching. Elizabeth has also served on the PHI-105 Technology Committee, and was instrumental in creating some of the technology-based components used in the course. Her research inter- ests include cognitive science and the philosophy of technology. She is passion- ate about education and firmly believes that the knowledge and ideas gained from learning can truly change the world.

Thomas Dyer

Thomas Dyer is an online full-time faculty member at Grand Canyon University and currently serves the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences as the content lead for PHI-105. He also teaches traditional courses as an adjunct in the College of Education. He has more than five years of experience in higher education and holds a B.A.E from Arizona State University, a Master’s in Education Administration and a Master’s in Psychology from Grand Canyon University. His professional interests include research to examine student engagement and participation in the online learning platform, classroom assessment techniques, and academic integrity.

John Steele

John Steele is a full-time online faculty member who teaches Critical Thinking and Psychology at Grand Canyon University. He is a certified K-12 School Coun- selor and certified elementary teacher. John spent three years in the United States Army 82nd Airborne Division upon graduating from high school. He is a GCU Alum- nus, with a Master’s in Education in School Counseling and a Master’s of Science in Psychology. John is currently pursuing his doctoral degree in General Psychology with emphasis in Industrial and Organizational Psychology at GCU. John enjoys teaching, writing, and researching at GCU.

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PAGE F

APPENDIX B. AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES

Declan Joyce

Declan Joyce is the Executive Editor of Grand Canyon University’s e-book program and has worked at GCU since 2010. He holds a BA in History and an MA in Journalism, both from Columbia University in New York. His goal is to produce e-books that help make the student’s experience at GCU a more rewarding and meaningful one. He believes that educated, curious, and compassionate minds can be a great force for good in the world.

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GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITYCHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Text Field 1:
2. Text Field 2: