Discussion Question 1

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Handout 1.1: Learning Theories

Orientation	Theory	Characteristics	Applications
*Teacher-Centered*	Behaviorism	● Focuses on observable changes in behavior ● Views the teacher’s role as providing information and supervising practice ● Describes learning as the result of stimulus–response actions ● Uses incentives and rewards for motivation	● Basal readers ● Minilessons ● Worksheets
*Child-Centered*	Constructivism	● Describes learning as the active construction of knowledge ● Recognizes the importance of background knowledge ● Views learners as innately curious ● Suggests ways to engage children so they can be successful	● Literature focus units ● K-W-L charts ● Thematic units ● Word sorts
	Sociolinguistics	● Emphasizes the importance of language and social interaction on learning ● Views reading and writing as social and cultural activities ● Explains that children learn best through authentic activities ● Describes the teacher’s role as scaffolding children’s learning	● Literature circles ● Shared reading ● Reading and writing workshop ● Author’s chair
	Information Processing	● Recommends integrating reading and writing ● Views reading and writing as meaning-making processes ● Explains that readers’ interpretations are individualized ● Describes children as strategic readers and writers	● Guided reading ● Graphic organizers ● Grand conversations ● Interactive writing

Handout 1.2: The Four Cueing Systems

System

Terms

Applications

Phonological System

The sound system with approximately 44 sounds and more than 500 ways to spell them

● Phoneme (the smallest unit of sound)

● Grapheme (the written representation of a phoneme using one or more letters)

● Phonological awareness (knowledge about the sound structure of words)

● Phonemic awareness (the ability to orally manipulate phonemes in words)

● Phonics (knowledge about phoneme–grapheme correspondences and rules)

● Decoding words

● Using invented spelling

● Noticing rhyming words

● Dividing words into syllables

Syntactic System

The structural system that governs how words are combined into sentences

● Syntax (the structure or grammar of a sentence)

● Morpheme (the smallest meaningful unit of language)

● Free morpheme (a morpheme that can stand alone as a word)

● Bound morpheme (a morpheme that must be attached to a free morpheme)

● Forming compound words

● Adding prefixes and suffixes to root words

● Using capitalization and punctuation

● Writing simple, compound, and complex sentences

Semantic System

The meaning system that focuses on vocabulary

● Semantics (meaning)

● Synonyms (words that mean the same or nearly the same thing)

● Antonyms (opposites)

● Homonyms (words that sound alike but are spelled differently)

● Learning that many words have multiple meanings

● Studying synonyms, antonyms, and homonyms

● Using a dictionary and a thesaurus

Pragmatic System

The social and cultural use system that explains how language varies

● Standard English (the form of English used in textbooks and by television newscasters)

● Nonstandard English (other forms of English)

● Varying language to fit specific purposes

● Comparing standard and nonstandard forms of English

Handout 1.3: The Balanced Literacy Approach

Component	Description
*Reading*	Children participate in a variety of reading experiences using picture-book stories and novels, informational books, books of poetry, textbooks, and Internet materials.
*Phonemic Awareness and Phonics*	Children learn to manipulate sounds in words and apply the alphabetic principle and phonics rules to decode words.
*Literacy Strategies and Skills*	Children learn to use problem-solving and monitoring behaviors called strategies and automatic actions called skills as they read and write.
*Vocabulary*	Children learn the meaning of words through listening to books teachers read aloud and from content-area study.
*Comprehension*	Children learn to use reader factors, including comprehension strategies, and text factors, including text structures, to understand what they’re reading.
*Literature*	Children become engaged readers who enjoy literature through reading and responding to books and learning about genres, text structures, and literary features.
*Content-Area Study*	Children use reading and writing as tools to learn about social studies and science topics in thematic units.
*Oral Language*	Children use talk and listening as they work with classmates, participate in grand conversations, give oral presentations, and listen to the teacher read aloud.
*Writing*	Children learn to use the writing process to draft and refine stories, poems, reports, and other compositions.
*Spelling*	Children apply what they’re learning about English orthography to spell words, and their spellings gradually become conventional.

Handout 1.4: The Common Core State Standards

Chapter	Reading Strand: Literature	Reading Strand: Informational Text	Reading Strand: Foundational Skills	Writing Strand	Speaking and Listening Strand	Language Strand
2 - Examining Children’s Literacy Development			X	X		X
3 - Assessing Children’s Literacy Development	X	X	X	X	X	X
4 - Cracking the Alphabetic Code			X
5 - Learning to Spell			X			X
6 - Developing Fluent Readers and writers			X	X
7 - Building Children’s Word Knowledge						X
8 - Facilitating Children’s Comprehension: Reader Factors	X	X			X
9 - Facilitating Children’s Comprehension: Text Factors	X	X		X
10 - Scaffolding Children’s Reading Development	X	X
11 - Scaffolding Children’s Writing Development				X
12 - Integrating Literacy Into Thematic Units	X	X		X	X	X

Handout 1.5: Levels of Scaffolding

Level	Reading	Writing
Modeled	Teachers read aloud, modeling how good readers read fluently using books that are too difficult for children to read	Teachers demonstrate how to write a composition, creating the text, doing the writing, and think aloud about their use of strategies and skills.
Shared	Teacher and children read books together, with children following as the teacher reads and then repeating familiar refrains.	Teacher and children create the text together; then the teacher does the actual writing. Sometimes children assist by spelling familiar words.
Interactive	Teacher and children read instructional-level texts together and take turns doing the reading. Teachers help children read fluently and with expression.	Teacher and children create the text and share the pen to do the writing. They spell words correctly and add capitalization, punctuation, and other conventions.
Guided	Teachers teach guided reading lessons to small, homogeneous groups using instructional-level books.	Teachers teach lessons on writing strategies, skills, and procedures, and children participate in supervised practice activities.
Independent	Children read self-selected books independently, and teachers conference with children to monitor their progress.	Children use the writing process to write stories, informational books, and other compositions.