journal

G R A H A M PIKE

1. RE-IMAGINING GLOBAL EDUCATION IN THE NEOLIBERAL AGE

C hallenges a n d O pportu n ities

INTRODUCTION

In th is c h a p te r, 1 w a n t to e x p lo re th e la stin g im p a c t o f n e o lib e ra lism on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f g lo b al e d u catio n , in b o th K -1 2 a n d h ig h e r e d u c a tio n se c to rs, in th e U n ite d K in g d o m a n d C an ad a. In so d o in g , I h o p e to illu s tra te th e u rg e n t n e e d fo r a re a s s e s s m e n t of, a n d re in v e s tm e n t in, g lo b a l e d u c a tio n ’s v is io n a ry g o a ls a t a tim e w h e n e c o n o m ic in terests, as d e te rm in e d by th e g lobal free m a rk e t, tru m p th e b ro a d e r co n c e rn s o f p lan etary h e a lth a n d th e c o m m o n g o o d . C o n flic t an d c o n tro v e rsy , in p o litical as w ell as e d u c a tio n a l d o m a in s, h a v e a lw a y s sh a p e d th e g lo b a l e d u c a tio n n a rra tiv e but th e n e o lib e ra l v a lu e s th a t d o m in a te .c o n te m p o r a ry d is c o u rse on p u b lic e d u c a tio n p o se a c h a lle n g e o f an e n tire ly d iffe re n t m a g n itu d e . T h e se a re p erso n al re fle c tio n s on an era th a t has w itn e s s e d m o n u m e n ta l c h a n g e s in g e o p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic sy stem s, all o f w h ic h , in e v ita b ly , h av e in flu e n c e d e d u c a tio n a l th in k in g . T h e p ro b a b le c o n tin u a n c e o f su c h ra p id c h a n g e , a llie d to the u n c e rta in ty o f its o u tc o m e s, is th e c o n te x t fo r p ro p o s in g a re -im a g in in g o f g lo b al e d u c a tio n at a tim e w h e n its c en tral v a lu e s are o ften p ro c la im e d b u t ra re ly p ra c tise d .

GLOBAL EDUCATION AND INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION: RESPONSES TO GLOBALISATION

G lo b a l e d u c a tio n (a t the p rim a ry a n d s e c o n d a ry lev els o f e d u c a tio n ) an d in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n (a t the te rtia ry lev el) are both re fo rm m o v e m e n ts th a t h a v e a tte m p te d to b ro ad en s tu d e n ts ’ u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e w o rld in th e w a k e o f th e im p a c ts o f g lo b a lis a tio n . P u b lic e d u c a tio n sy stem s, in e v ita b ly , h a v e e m e rg e d fro m - a n d h av e been d e lib e ra te ly s h a p e d to p ro m o te - th e n atio n as th e p rim ary g e o g ra p h ic a l a n d p o litical c o n c e p t. F o r m o re th a n a c e n tu ry , n a tio n a lism h as been in te g ra l to th e p u rp o s e a n d p ra c tic e o f e d u c a tio n (G re e n , 1990, 1997). E d u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n s h a v e la b o u re d to p ro d u c e w o rk e rs w h o w ill m e e t th e n a tio n ’s n e e d fo r ce rta in sk ills an d ta le n ts , c iv ilia n s w h o w ill p e rfo rm th e re q u isite d u tie s as v o te rs, p a re n ts a n d ta x -p a y e rs, a n d c itiz e n s w h o w ill d e fe n d th e ir so v e re ig n ty - e v en b ein g p re p a re d , w h e n n e c e ss a ry , to sa c rific e th e ir o w n liv es in th e in te re sts o f th e n atio n (S m ith , 1998).

In th e latter h a l f o f th e 2 0 th ce n tu ry , b u ild in g on so m e ea rlie r a tte m p ts an d stra te g ie s (H e a te r, 1980, 1984), e d u c a to rs in th e g lobal N o rth b eg an to a rg u e , fro m

R. R e y n o ld s el a t (E ds.), C o n te stin g a n d C o n str u c tin g I n te r n a tio n a l P e rsp e c tiv es in G lo b a l E d u ca tio n , 1 1-25. © 2 0 1 5 S e n se P u b lish ers. A l l rig h ts reserved.

G R A H A M PIK.E

b o th p ra g m a tic an d m o ral p e rs p e c tiv e s, th a t e d u c a tio n s h o u ld b e tte r a c k n o w le d g e a n d re fle c t th e n a tu re o f th e c o n te m p o ra ry w o rld . T h e p ra g m a tic v ie w p o in t e m e rg e s fro m th e in e x o ra b le ris e o f g lo b a lis a tio n : in an e ra w h en n atio n al e c o n o m ie s a re in c re a sin g ly in te rd e p e n d e n t a n d th e p a ss a g e o f g o o d s an d s e rv ic e s is in d iffe re n t to p o litical b o u n d a rie s, an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e w o rld as a g lo b a l v illa g e is m o re a ttu n e d to th e e v e ry d a y re a litie s th a t lin k p eo p le, c u ltu re s a n d p la c e s in a v a st in te rc o n n e c te d w eb . W h e th e r fo r g o o d o r ill, th e a rg u m e n t g o es, g lo b a lis a tio n h as fo re v e r c h a n g e d th e w a y th e w o rld w o rk s a n d e d u c a tio n s h o u ld e rs a re sp o n sib ility to p re p a re stu d e n ts to a d a p t a n d c o n trib u te to th is e n la rg e d c o m m u n ity .

T h e m o ral a rg u m e n t d ra w s c re d ib ility fro m th e realities o f g lo b a lis a tio n but g o e s fu rth e r th a n th e p ra g m a tist v iew . G iv e n th a t w e now liv e in a g lo b a l v illa g e , w e h a v e d u tie s a n d re sp o n sib ilitie s th a t a re sim ila rly far re a c h in g in th e ir sc o p e (D o w e r, 2 0 0 3 ). A s w e a re in tim a te ly in te rc o n n e c te d , a n d th e im p a c ts o f o u r a c tio n s an d d e c is io n s w ill h a v e c o n se q u e n c e s fo r p e o p le a ro u n d th e g lo b e , w e s h o u ld e x te n d o u r ‘c irc le o f c o m p a s s io n ’ to in c lu d e th o s e w h o liv e b e y o n d o u r n a tio n ’s b o rd e r a n d to ‘g iv e th e circ le th a t d e fin e s o u r h u m a n ity sp ecial a tte n tio n an d r e s p e c t’ (N u ssb a u m , 1996, p. 9). T h e c a re a n d c o n c e rn fo r n e ig h b o u rs, o n e o f th e d e fin in g c h a ra c te ristic s o f a w e ll-fu n c tio n in g c o m m u n ity , b e c o m e s a g lo b a l, ra th e r th a n j u s t a local o r n a tio n a l, eth ic. It is an a rg u m e n t g ro u n d e d m o re in m oral p rin c ip le s th a n in law , th o u g h m a n y o f th e k e y p ro n o u n c e m e n ts th a t it d ra w s upo n (s u c h as th e U n iv e rs a l D e c la ra tio n o f H u m a n R ig h ts) ca rry c o n s id e ra b le w eig h t. E d u c a tio n ’s ro le th e n , in th is re g a rd , is to se n s itise n a tio n a l c itiz e n s to th e stark in e q u a litie s a n d in ju stic e s o f th e g lo b a l s y s te m a n d to eq u ip th e m w ith th e to o ls n e c e ss a ry to h elp a m e lio ra te th e liv es o f th e less fo rtu n a te , w h e re v e r th e y m ay resid e.

G lo b a l e d u c a tio n , at th e K -1 2 lev el, d ra w s fro m b o th p ra g m a tic an d m oral a rg u m e n ts. B u ild in g , on e a rlie r a tte m p ts in p e a c e e d u c a tio n to s h a p e p u b lic e d u c a tio n as a v e h ic le fo r d e v e lo p in g m o re to le ra n t y o u n g p e o p le w h o can re s o lv e c o n flic ts w ith o u t re s o rtin g to v io le n c e (H e a te r, 1980), g lo b a l e d u c a tio n c o n tin u e s to fo c u s on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e sk ills an d v a lu e s o f c o o p e ra tio n a n d c o n flic t re s o lu tio n w h ile a ls o im p a rtin g k n o w le d g e a b o u t g lo b al sy s te m s , g lo b al is su e s an d th e in te rc o n n e c te d n e ss o f h u m a n s an d o th e r sp e c ie s. C o m m o n to m any m a n ife sta tio n s o f g lo b al e d u c a tio n is th e c o n c e p t o f th e g lo b al c o m m u n ity , in c o rp o ra tin g th e id ea th a t c itiz e n s o f o n e n atio n sh o u ld n o t o n ly u n d e rs ta n d th e g lo b a l im p lic a tio n s o f th e ir d e c is io n s an d a c tio n s b u t a ls o sh o u ld feel re s p e c t an d c o n c e rn fo r th e c itiz e n s o f o th e r n a tio n s w h o m ay b e im p a c te d by th o s e d e c is io n s o r m ay sim p ly n eed th e ir a tte n tio n a n d care. In th e in tim a te m ilie u o f th e p rim ary a n d s e c o n d a ry c la s sro o m , w h e re th e in c u lc a tio n o f v a lu e s su ch as to le ra n c e , re s p e c t, fa irn e ss a n d c o m p a s sio n is re la tiv e ly easy to ju s tif y as fa llin g w ith in th e m a n d a te fo r p u b lic e d u c a tio n , te a c h e rs can feel c o n fid e n t a b o u t d w e llin g on th e s e a sp e c ts, w h e th e r a t lo cal, n atio n al o r g lo b al levels.

A t th e te rtia ry level o f e d u c a tio n , in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n h as b e c o m e o n e o f th e fa s te s t-g ro w in g a n d m o s t in flu en tial d e v e lo p m e n ts in c o lle g e s a n d u n iv e rs itie s in re c e n t y e a rs (T a y lo r, 2 0 0 4 ). D ra w in g fro m e a rlie r tra d itio n s in c o m p a ra tiv e

12

R E -IM A G IN IN G G L O B A L E D U C A T IO N IN T H E N E O L IB E R A L A G E

e d u c a tio n su g g e s tin g th a t n atio n al sy s te m s o f e d u c a tio n c o u ld b e n e fit fro m a c ro s s ­ fe rtilis a tio n o f re le v a n t id eas a n d p ra c tic e fro m o th e r sy s te m s (D o lb y & R a h m a n , 2 0 0 8 ) in te rn a tio n a l ed u catio n h as s o u g h t to fa c ilita te th e m o v e m e n t a n d e x c h a n g e o f k n o w le d g e , stu d e n ts a n d p ro fe sso rs b etw een in s titu tio n s in d iffe re n t n a tio n s a n d to p ro m o te th e b en efits o f an in te rn a tio n a l study e x p e rie n c e . O n e o f th e early m a n ife s ta tio n s o f in te rn a tio n a l ed u c a tio n , b u ilt o n th e a ltru istic v is io n s in teg ral to th e fie ld o f in te rn a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t, saw m any c o lle g e a n d u n iv e rsity s tu d e n ts e n g a g e in a v o lu n te e r e x p e rie n c e th ro u g h o rg a n isa tio n s su ch as th e P e a c e C o rp s a n d V o lu n ta ry S e rv ic e O v e rse a s. T o d a y , th e ra tio n a le fo r in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n is m o s t u su a lly s te e p e d in p ra g m a tism : stu d y in g a b ro a d w ill en h a n c e a s tu d e n t’s p ro s p e c ts o f e m p lo y m e n t a t a tim e w h e n th e w o rk fo rc e d e m a n d s sk ills su c h as a d a p ta b ility an d c ro s s-c u ltu ra l se n s itiv ity . F u rth e rm o re , c re a tin g a c o sm o p o lita n ca m p u s a t o n e ’s o w n in stitu tio n fa c ilita te s th e in te rc h a n g e o f p e rs p e c tiv e s from a ro u n d th e w o rld an d th u s a llo w s ev en d o m e s tic s tu d e n ts to b e n e fit fro m s o m e th in g o f an in tercu ltu ral e x p e rie n c e . In th e c o n te s te d e n v iro n m e n t o f a c a d e m ic fre e d o m th a t p e rv a d e s m o s t h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in stitu tio n s, th e v a lu e -la d e n id e a ls o f g lo b a l ed u catio n a re less in ev id en c e, th o u g h th e y m ay still m o tiv a te m a n y stu d e n ts a n d facu lty to e m b a rk u p o n in te rn a tio n a l study a n d re s e a rc h e x p e rie n c e s. S u ch id eals m ay also be im p lic it in in stitu tio n al p ro n o u n c e m e n ts a b o u t th e v a lu e o f in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f g lo b a l citizen s.

THE IMPACTS OF NEOLIBERALISM

G lo b a l e d u c a tio n

R u n n in g p a ra lle l to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e g lo b a l a n d in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n m o v e m e n ts has been th e in c re a sin g ly p e rv a s iv e in flu e n c e o f n e o lib e ra lis m (H a rv e y , 2 0 0 5 ) in e d u c a tio n sy stem s. D u rin g th e 1980s, a t a b o u t th e sam e tim e as th e g lo b al e d u c a tio n m o v e m e n t w a s b e g in n in g to id en tify its key te n e ts a n d a ttra c t in te re s t fro m p rim a ry a n d se co n d ary te a c h e rs in th e d e v e lo p e d w o rld , th e m a r k e t- d riv e n id e o lo g y o f n e o lib e ra lism w a s fin d in g a fo o th o ld in th e g o v e rn a n c e o f sch o o l sy s te m s a n d in th e s tru g g le fo r c o n tro l o f cu rric u lu m . T h e m a jo r th r u s t o f n e o lib e ra l in itia tiv e s w a s a sh ift a w a y fro m th e ‘eth ical lib e ra lis m ’ (M a n z e r, 1994) o f th e p o s t-w a r y e a rs to w a rd s re q u irin g sch o o l c u rric u la to fo cu s p rin c ip a lly on d e v e lo p in g th e k n o w le d g e a n d sk ills re q u ire d fo r g lo b al c o m p e titiv e n e s s, b a se d on a p e rc e p tio n th a t sc h o o ls w e re fa ilin g to a d e q u a te ly p re p a re stu d e n ts fo r e n su rin g th e ir n a tio n ’s s u c c e s s in th e ra p id ly e x p a n d in g g lo b a l e c o n o m y (M itc h e ll, 2 0 0 3 ). T h e c la s sic h a llm a rk s o f n e o lib e ra l th in k in g in e d u c a tio n in clu d e: c u rric u la in c re a sin g ly o rie n te d to th e im p e ra tiv e s o f a fre e -m a rk e t g lo b al e c o n o m y a n d th e h o n in g o f sk ills n e c e ssa ry to p e rp e tu a te it; a n in s iste n c e on ‘ lea rn in g o u tc o m e s ’ th a t a re c lo sely a llie d to th e p e rc e iv e d n e e d s o f e m p lo y e rs; th e p rio ritis a tio n o f S T E M (s c ie n c e , te c h n o lo g y , e n g in e e rin g an d m a th e m a tic s ) su b je c ts o v e r th e ‘s o f te r’ a n d m o re c re a tiv e arts, h u m a n itie s a n d so cial s c ie n c e s; a n a ttrib u tio n o f g re a te r v a lu e to le a rn in g th a t can be im m e d ia te ly m e a s u re d ; a n d an in c re a sin g

13

G R A H A M PIK E

c o m m e rc ia lisa tio n o f e d u c a tio n th a t v ie w s le a rn in g as a p ro d u c t to be ac q u ire d , ra th e r th an as a life lo n g w ay o f being.

T h e p ra g m a tic g o a ls o f g lo b al e d u c a tio n w e re n o t n e c e ss a rily v ie w e d as in c o m p a tib le w ith th e n e o lib e ra l a g e n d a ; in fact, lists o f e ss e n tia l sk ills fo r th e late 2 0 th c e n tu ry e m p lo y m e n t p ro d u c e d by c o rp o ra te an d in d u s tria list th in k -ta n k s w e re o ften re m a rk a b ly sim ila r to skill sets p ro m o te d by g lobal e d u c a to rs an d w e re u se d by so m e in a d v o cacy c a m p a ig n s fo r g lo b al e d u c a tio n ( O ’S u lliv a n , 1999). T h e m o ral a rg u m e n ts fo u n d in th e g lo b al e d u c a tio n lite ra tu re , h o w e v e r, w e re often v ie w e d as a th re a t to th e e ffic ie n t p ro d u c tio n o f su ita b ly q u a lifie d w o rk e rs fo r th e in c re a sin g ly c o m p e titiv e g lo b al e c o n o m ic sy ste m . A s m a th e m a tic s , s c ie n c e an d te c h n o lo g y a c h ie v e d h ig h e r sta tu s in th e p o litic s o f c u rric u lu m d e v e lo p m e n t, the so fte r id eals o f g lo b al e d u c a tio n e m b e d d e d in th e so cial sc ie n c e s, e sp e c ia lly id eas re la te d to th e w id e n in g o f th e c irc le o f c o m p a s sio n an d to th e p u rs u it o f so cial ju s tic e g lo b a lly , w e re su b je c te d to m o re fre q u e n t a tta c k in m an y c o u n trie s or w e re s q u e e z e d o u t o f an in c re a sin g ly c ro w d e d a n d re g u la te d c u rric u lu m (P ik e , 2 0 0 8 ; T y e, 2 0 0 9 ). T h e g u id in g p rin c ip le s o f a n e o lib e ra l a p p ro a c h to e d u c a tio n - sta n d a rd is a tio n o f c u rric u lu m , q u a n tifia b le o u tc o m e s, a c c o u n ta b ility th ro u g h p e rfo rm a n c e m e a s u re m e n t - p re s e n te d c o n sid e ra b le c h a lle n g e s to th e fu n d a m e n ta l te n e ts o f g lo b al e d u c a tio n th a t v ie w le a rn in g as a jo u r n e y w ith an u n d e te rm in e d d e stin a tio n an d a d o p t th e b eliefs an d v a lu e s o f th e stu d e n t as th e sta rtin g p o in t fo r th a t jo u r n e y . T h e p re d o m in a n t n e o lib e ra l fo c u s on th e a c q u is itio n o f a fix e d body o f k n o w le d g e , in ev itab ly p rio ritis e d by e d u c a tio n a l g o als th a t in s ist on m e a s u ra b le o u tc o m e s, w a s la rg e ly at o d d s w ith th e n a s c e n t g lo b a l e d u c a tio n m o v e m e n t th a t w a s stru g g lin g to d efin e its e p is te m o ló g ic a ! p a ra m e te rs a n d w h ic h , in an y c ase, w is h e d to g iv e m o re w e ig h t to sk ills d e v e lo p m e n t an d th e e x p lo ra tio n o f v a lu e s .

In th e U K , fo llo w in g a d e c a d e o f s ig n ific a n t g ro w th in w o rld s tu d ie s (th e p re fe rre d te rm at th e tim e), a tta c k s by R o g e r S c ru to n (1 9 8 5 ), a ju n i o r m in is te r in M a r g a re t T h a tc h e r’s g o v e rn m e n t, a n d o th e rs o f lik e m in d (e.g., M a rk s, 1984; C o x & S c ru to n , 1984) m a rk e d a se rio u s a n d s ig n ific a n t sh ift in th e p o litic a l d is c o u rse su rro u n d in g th e le a d in g m o v e m e n ts in so cial an d p o litical ed u c a tio n . F ro m h a v in g e n jo y e d so m e, a lb e it lim ite d , su p p o rt fro m th e D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a tio n and S cie n c e , w o rld stu d ie s w as n o w d ire c tly u n d e r a tta c k by g o v e rn m e n t m in is te rs and in flu e n tia l a c a d e m ic s. F u rth e rm o re , a n d p e rh a p s m ore im p o rta n tly , th e fre e d o m e n jo y e d by te a c h e rs to d eb ate th e p la c e and s c o p e o f te a c h in g c o n te m p o ra ry g lo b al issu e s in th e K -1 2 c u rric u lu m w a s se v e re ly re s tric te d by th e m u ltip le im p a c ts o f th e 1988 E d u c a tio n R e fo rm A c t th a t h e ra ld e d th e arriv al o f the first N a tio n a l C u rric u lu m in E n g la n d an d W a le s. N o t only w a s th e N a tio n a l C u rric u lu m , fo r th e m o s t part, u n re c e p tiv e to th e su b s ta n c e a n d sty le o f te a c h in g a d v o c a te d by w o rld stu d ie s, b u t also th e p erv a s iv e an d re le n tle ss sh ift to w a rd s th e s ta n d a rd is a tio n o f c u rric u lu m a n d a s s e s s m e n t left te a c h e rs w ith little tim e o r en erg y to e x p lo re w a y s to in te g ra te to p ic s th a t w e re d e e m e d to be p e rip h e ra l, d e sp ite so m e e v id e n c e o f in itial re s is ta n c e on th e p a rt o f g lo b a l e d u c a to rs (V u llia m y & W eb b , 1993).

In C a n a d a , th e fed eral g o v e rn m e n t, u n d e r th e a u sp ic e s o f th e C a n a d ia n In te rn a tio n a l D e v e lo p m e n t A g e n c y (C 1D A ), h a d c o m m itte d s ig n ific a n t fu n d in g to g lo b a l e d u c a tio n p ro je c ts in e ig h t o f th e ten p ro v in c e s b e g in n in g in 1987.

14

R E -IM A G IN IN G G L O B A L E D U C A T IO N IN T H E N E O L IB E R A L A G E

In n o v a tiv e p ro jects u n d e rta k e n in c o lla b o ra tio n w ith te a c h e r s ’ u n io n s, in c lu d in g th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f ‘g lo b a l s c h o o ls ’ in so m e p ro v in c e s, n u rtu re d a g e n e ra tio n o f g lo b a l e d u c a to rs th a t b u ilt on b e st p ra c tic e id e a s fro m m a n y c o u n trie s. S chool b o a rd s a ctiv ely p ro m o te d g lo b a l e d u c a tio n as a k ey s tra n d in th e so c ia l stu d ie s c u rric u lu m a n d fu n d e d te a c h e rs ’ w o rk sh o p s a n d su m m e r in stitu tes. H o w e v e r, by th e m id -1 9 9 0 s, th e tid e o f w id e s p r e a d su p p o rt fo r g lo b al e d u c a tio n in C a n a d a w as ra p id ly tu rn in g . C ID A , w ith o u t w a rn in g , c u t its fu n d in g fo r th e p ro v in c ia l g lo b a l e d u c a tio n p ro jects in 1995, leav in g m an y p ro je c ts a n d o rg a n isa tio n s s tru g g lin g fo r alte rn a tiv e fu n d s an d d e stro y in g th e p ro v in c ia l an d n a tio n a l d ia lo g u e s a n d su p p o rt n e tw o rk s th a t w e re so im p o rta n t to te a c h e rs. R ecen tly e sta b lish e d G lo b a l S c h o o ls d is c o v e re d th a t th e ir v is io n s w e re no lo n g e r in lin e w ith sch o o l b o a rd m a n d a te s an d w ith e re d on th e v in e. In e x o ra b ly , th e h allm ark s o f n e o lib e ra l id eo lo g y b eg an to ta k e h o ld in e d u c a tio n th in k in g a n d sy s te m s in C a n a d a as e ls e w h e re th ro u g h o u t the d e v e lo p e d w o rld .

G lo b a l ed u c a tio n w a s p a te n tly u n p re p a re d fo r th e n eo lib eral o n sla u g h t. N o t only w e re so m e o f its k ey p rin c ip le s a p o o r fit w ith n e o lib e ra l th in k in g , but also the m o v e m e n t its e lf h ad p a id in s u ffic ie n t a tte n tio n to the fu n d a m e n ta ls o f g a in in g c re d ib ility w ith in e ith e r a c a d e m ic o r p o litic a l e sta b lish m e n ts. In d e e d , b ein g e s s e n tia lly a g ra s sro o ts m o v e m e n t, g lo b a l e d u c a to rs h a d e sc h e w e d th e id e a o f a lig n in g th e m se lv e s w ith e s ta b lish m e n t th in k in g , a rg u in g th a t su ch th in k in g w a s at th e ro o ts o f m an y c o n te m p o ra ry g lo b a l crises and, th e re fo re , n e e d e d to be c h a lle n g e d . A d d itio n a lly , g lo b a l e d u c a tio n p ro p o n e n ts h ad m ad e m an y a ss e rtio n s a b o u t th e e fficacy o f th e ir fa v o u re d te a c h in g a n d le a rn in g stra te g ie s, b u t had d e v o te d little tim e to p ro v id in g su p p o rtin g , re s e a rc h -b a s e d e v id e n c e (L is te r, 1987; M e rry fie ld , 1998). W h e n fa c e d w ith th e sw e e p in g re fo rm s o f c u rric u la and a s s e ssm e n t p ra c tic e s th a t n e o lib e ra l th in k in g in s tig a te d , g lo b a l e d u c a to rs w e re ill- e q u ip p e d to d e m o n s tra te the v a lid ity o f th e ir b eliefs a n d p ra c tic e o r to a d a p t to the c h a n g in g c irc u m sta n c e s in e d u c a tio n th in k in g . C h a lle n g e s to g lo b a l e d u c a tio n ’s c re d ib ility hav e been fu rth e r e x a c e rb a te d by th e p e rv a s iv e im p a c ts o f su b s e q u e n t g lo b a l ev en ts, n o ta b ly 9/11 a n d th e e c o n o m ic c o lla p se o f 2 0 0 8 . T h e iro n y , o f co u rse, is th a t g lo b a l e d u c a to rs b e lie v e th a t th e ir v is io n fo r e d u c a tio n is k ey to d e v e lo p in g sa fe r an d m o re su s ta in a b le s o c ie tie s, b u t th ey are s tru g g lin g to be heard a m id s t th e s trid e n t n e o lib e ra l v o ices.

In te r n a tio n a l e d u c a tio n

In c o n tra s t to g lo b al ed u c a tio n , in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n has th riv e d u n d e r th e in flu e n c e s o f n e o lib e ra lism . A s p u b lic h ig h e r ed u c a tio n in s titu tio n s a c ro s s m any p a rts o f th e d e v e lo p e d w o rld hav e e n d u re d c o n siste n t, a n d s o m e tim e s d ra s tic , cuts to th e ir fu n d in g fro m g o v e rn m e n ts, th o s e in stitu tio n s h av e a c tiv e ly p u rs u e d o th e r re v e n u e so u rc e s to m a k e u p th e d eficit. A t th e sa m e tim e, th e a ttra c tio n s o f a cro s s- b o rd e r ed u catio n al e x p e rie n c e h av e been re c o g n is e d in m an y fa s t-d e v e lo p in g e c o n o m ie s, p a rtic u la rly C h in a, In d ia a n d th e o il-ric h n a tio n s o f th e M id d le E a st, by in c re a sin g n u m b e rs o f c o lle g e a n d u n iv e rsity stu d e n ts w h o v ie w th e sta tu s o f ‘in te rn a tio n a l s tu d e n t’ as a p a s s p o rt to h ig h e r p a id e m p lo y m e n t in th e ir h o m e

15

G R A H A M P IK E

c o u n try or, in m an y cases, as a b rid g e to o b ta in in g p e rm a n e n t re s id e n c e in a m ore d e v e lo p e d co u n try . T h is has c re a te d a b u rg e o n in g p ool o f e a g e r in te rn a tio n a l stu d e n ts w h o a re w illin g to pay p re m iu m tu itio n fees, o fte n m an y tim e s th e c o st o f tu itio n in th e ir h o m e c o u n try , to p u rs u e a d ream . T h is is n e o lib e ra lis m in e d u c a tio n w r it large: ed u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n s w ith a d e s p e ra te n e e d fo r fu n d s an d , in m any c ases, a d w in d lin g local p o p u la tio n , se llin g th e c re d e n tia ls d e m a n d e d by a g ro w in g e lite o f w e a lth y stu d en ts from b e y o n d th e ir n a tio n a l b o rd e rs. A s th e m a rk e t fo r e d u c a tio n a l c re d e n tia ls is larg ely u n re g u la te d a n d g lo b al in sc o p e , it o ffe rs th o se stu d e n ts w h o can a ffo rd th e fe e s a w id e c h o ic e o f e d u c a tio n p ro v id e rs an d th u s sets up in te n se c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n e d u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n s w o rld w id e w is h in g to m in e th is ric h se a m o f ad d itio n a l re v e n u e .

O f c o u rse , h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in s titu tio n s th a t a re key p la y e rs in th is m a rk e t o ffe r c o g e n t a n d p a ss io n a te a rg u m e n ts, o fte n s u p p o rte d by g o v e rn m e n t p olicy (G o v e rn m e n t o f C a n a d a , 2 0 1 4 ), se n io r p o litic ia n s (G illa rd , 2 0 0 9 ), an d u n iv e rsity p re s id e n ts (T o o p e , 2 0 1 1 ) in d e fe n c e o f th e ir in te rn a tio n a l s tu d e n t re c r u itm e n t s tra te g y . S u ch a rg u m e n ts g en e ra lly fo cu s on th e so c ia l a d v a n ta g e s o f d iv e rse , m u ltic u ltu ra l a n d m u ltilin g u a l c la s sro o m s, th e b e n e fits o f in te rn a tio n a l e x c h a n g e p a rtn e rs h ip s th a t p ro v id e o p p o rtu n itie s fo r d o m e s tic stu d e n ts to stu d y in o th e r c o u n trie s, th e p o ten tial fo r fa c u lty e x c h a n g e a n d c ro s s -b o rd e r re s e a rc h c o lla b o ra tio n s, a n d th e im p e tu s th a t in te rn a tio n a l stu d e n ts p ro v id e in m an y w a y s to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f g lo b al citizen sh ip on n a tio n a l c a m p u s e s. T h e se lo ftie r, m o re p a la ta b ly a ltru istic g o als are u n d e n ia b ly b en eficial: th e v ib ra n c y o f th e c o sm o p o lita n cam p u s is in fin itely p re fe ra b le to th e lim ite d v isio n o f th e c o lle g e o r u n iv e rsity th a t cate rs p rin c ip a lly to th e n eed s o f its local m id d le -c la ss n e ig h b o u rh o o d s; in a g lo b al e c o n o m y a n d a n in c re a sin g ly in te rd e p e n d e n t g lo b al sy s te m , it m a k e s em in e n tly g o o d se n s e for fu tu re e m p lo y e e s to g a in e x p e rie n c e o f o th e r cu ltu re s, la n g u a g e s a n d w a y s o f k n o w in g a t th e sam e tim e as e a rn in g th e ir re q u ire d cre d e n tia l. T h e d e sira b ility o f w h a t th e fo rces o f n e o lib e ra lism hav e h e lp e d to c re a te in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in s titu tio n s, I w o u ld su b m it, is n o t in q u e stio n ; h o w e v e r, th e p re d o m in a n c e o f e c o n o m ic n e e d as a key - a n d o ften u n q u e s t io n e d - d riv e r o f th e c u rre n t tre n d s in in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n ra ise s m any q u e stio n s th a t sit u n c o m fo rta b ly w ith th e rh e to ric e m a n a tin g fro m th e s e sa m e in s titu tio n s. A s th e au th o rs o f th e 4th G lo b a l S u r v e y on th e In te r n a tio n a liz a tio n o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n n o te , th e fin d in g th a t ‘in c re a se d /d iv e rs ifie d re v e n u e g e n e ra tio n ’ is n o t re g a r d e d as im p o rta n t by in stitu tio n s is ‘s u r p ris in g ’, g iv e n th e e v id e n c e to th e c o n tra ry ; they s u g g e s t th a t ‘it is q u ite likely ... th a t re s p o n d e n ts o ffe re d a m ore “ p o litically c o rre c t” a n sw e r to th is q u e s tio n ’ (E g ro n -P o la k & H u d so n , 2 0 1 4 , pp. 51 52).

T h e rh e to ric e m a n a tin g from g o v e rn m e n t p o licy sta te m e n ts a n d in s titu tio n a l stra te g ic p la n s m ay ta lk o f th e b e n e fits o f in te rn a tio n a l c o lla b o ra tio n fo r k n o w le d g e ex c h a n g e a n d s tu d e n t p re p a re d n e ss w h ile th e re a lity , n o tw ith s ta n d in g th e actu al b e n e fits th a t m ay a c c ru e fro m s tu d e n t a n d facu lty m o b ility , is m ire d m o re in e c o n o m ic se lf-in te re st a n d in s titu tio n a l c o m p e titiv e n e s s. T h e m o ra l d ile m m a in h e re n t in th is reality is su m m a ris e d su c c in c tly in an internal re p o rt fro m a C a n a d ia n u n iv ersity ;

16

R E -IM A G IN IN G G L O B A L E D U C A T IO N IN T H E N E O L IB E R A L A G E

T h e fu tu re for O n ta rio (a n d in d e e d all w e ste rn ) u n iv e rsitie s w ill be a d iffic u lt, e v e n p e rilo u s, jo u r n e y . T h e ab ility o f so c ie ty to fu n d e x p e n s iv e e d u c a tio n fo r a larg e p e rc e n ta g e o f a d im in is h in g local p o p u la tio n is in q u e stio n . O n e p o ss ib le a s p e c t o f th is fu tu re is fo r th e p u b lic ly fu n d e d u n iv e rsitie s to m a rk e t e d u c a tio n to o th e r ju ris d ic tio n s a t a p ro fit to fin a n c e th e ir p u b lic (p ro v in c ia l) o b lig a tio n . T h is is a sig n ific a n t d e v e lo p m e n t an d s h o u ld be d e b a te d in th e c o n te x t o f th e m issio n o f th e p u b licly s u p p o rte d p o st-se c o n d a iy e d u c a tio n sy s te m o f O n tario . (C a rle to n U n iv e rs ity , 2 0 1 1 , p. 15)

R e c e n t tre n d s su g g e s t th a t th is reality is n o t lik ely to c h a n g e in th e fo re se e a b le fu tu re. W h ile re v e n u e from in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n ac tiv ity h as larg ely b e n e fite d , to th is po in t, c o u n trie s in th e N o rth , n a tio n s th a t u se d to b e n e t e x p o rte rs o f stu d e n ts, su ch as C h in a, are n o w su c c e s sfu lly m a rk e tin g th e ir o w n e d u c a tio n a l p ro d u c ts to stu d e n ts fro m o th e r n a tio n s. F u rth e rm o re , th e e m e rg e n c e o f ‘e d u c a tio n h u b s ’, b a c k e d by s ig n ific a n t p riv a te in v e s tm e n t, in lo c a tio n s su c h as th e U n ite d A rab E m ira te s , S in g a p o re a n d M a la y s ia in d ic a te s th a t th e m o re p ro s p e ro u s n a tio n s in th e g lo b a l S o u th a re d e te rm in e d to b e c o m e se rio u s p la y e rs in th e in te rn a tio n a l ed u c a tio n m a rk e tp la c e (K n ig h t, 2 0 1 1 ). A s g o v e rn m e n ts in the N o rth b e c o m e in c re a sin g ly re lia n t o n in tern atio n al tu itio n re v e n u e to o ffse t re d u c tio n s in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n fu n d in g , c o m p e titio n fo r in te rn a tio n a l stu d e n ts lo o k s se t to in te n sify .

T h is is th e p a ra d o x o f in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n : a m o v e m e n t b o rn o u t o f th e id eals o f in te rn a tio n a lism an d e n ric h m e n t th r o u g h c u ltu ra l e x c h a n g e , an d still able to d e liv e r o n th o s e id eals a t th e m ic ro level, se e m s in e x tric a b ly c a u g h t u p a t th e m a c ro level in th e w e b o f c o m m e rc ia lisa tio n th a t th e v e ry d iffe re n t id e a ls an d p ra c tic e s o f n e o lib e ra lism h a v e fo rc e d u p o n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n (K n ig h t, 2 0 0 8 ; de W it & B ra n d e n b u rg , 2 0 1 1 ). In c ritiq u in g th is tre n d I d o n o t w is h to d o w n p la y th e s ig n ific a n c e o f th e e n o rm o u s b e n e fits th a t in stitu tio n s, in d iv id u a l stu d e n ts an d fa c u lty h a v e g a in e d th ro u g h in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n ; n o r w o u ld I w ish to d o u b t th e m o tiv e s o f th o s e in v o lv e d in th e in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n m o v e m e n t w h o striv e d aily to c re a te m o re g lo b al u n d e rs ta n d in g , k n o w le d g e e x c h a n g e an d in te rc u ltu ra l se n s itiv ity th ro u g h th e ir a c tio n s. W h a te v e r th e p rim ary m o tiv a tio n , th e in te rn a tio n a lisa tio n o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n w o u ld se e m to o ffe r th e o n ly s e n s ib le path fo r in s titu tio n s to ta k e in th e p u rs u it o f g re a te r h u m a n d e v e lo p m e n t an d in te rn a tio n a l se c u rity . H o w e v e r, a s th e v ic e c h a n c e llo r o f a B ritish u n iv e rsity p o in ts o u t, in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n as a m o v e m e n t se e m s p ro fo u n d ly u n e a sy w ith th e id ea o f e n g a g in g in d e b a te w ith ‘a lte rn a tiv e fo rm s o f g lo b a lis a tio n ’, e v e n th o u g h in te rn a tio n a lly m o b ile stu d e n ts o fte n ‘play a k ey ro le in d e v e lo p in g th e s e n ew g lo b a l so cial m o v e m e n ts a n d fo rm s o f p o litical a c tio n ’ (S c o tt, 2 0 1 0 , p. 3). S u ch d e b a te is no m o re, a n d n o less, th a n sh o u ld be e x p e c te d a t in s titu tio n s o f h ig h e r le a rn in g th a t v a lu e th e n o tio n o f a c a d e m ic fre e d o m an d th e rig h ts o f th e a c a d e m ic c o m m u n ity to c o m m e n t on th e d e c is io n s o f th e ir g o v e rn m e n ts a n d e m p lo y e rs .2

17

G R A H A M PIK E

RE-IMAGINING GLOBAL EDUCATION: THE NEED FOR PRAGMATIC ALTRUISM

A t a tim e w h en p u b lic e d u c a tio n has been m a d e m o re a c c e ss ib le to p e o p le in m o re a n d m o re c o m m u n itie s , th ro u g h b o th e c o n o m ic a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l a d v a n c e s, th e p o te n tia l for in flu e n c in g th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o m m u n itie s a n d so c ie tie s th ro u g h e d u c a tio n has n e v e r b een g re a te r. H o w e v e r, th e sa m e e c o n o m ic an d te c h n o lo g ic a l ad v a n c e s h av e stim u la te d e x p e c ta tio n s for e d u c a tio n th a t a re in c re a sin g ly fo c u s e d on th e sa tisfa c tio n o f a relativ ely n a rro w se t o f g o a ls , larg ely o rie n te d to w a rd s th e p u rs u it o f e c o n o m ic p ro sp e rity a n d W e s te rn -s ty le m aterial co m fo rts. W h ile th e v e ry h u m an d e sire fo r p erso n al a n d so cial im p ro v e m e n t is e n tire ly u n d e rs ta n d a b le , I w o u ld su g g e s t th a t a key ro le fo r p u b lic e d u c a tio n at th is critic a l s ta g e in h u m an d e v e lo p m e n t is to instill a m u ch m o re so p h istic a te d v isio n o f p e rso n a l a n d p la n e ta ry w e ll-b e in g . S uch v isio n has to b e g lo b al in sco p e, ra th e r th an d e sig n e d to fuel n atio n al o r re g io n a l c o m p e titiv e n e s s; it n e e d s to b e lo n g te rm and n o n -p a rtis a n , ra th e r th an tie d to tra n s ie n t p o litical m a n d a te s; fu n d a m e n ta lly , it n e e d s to re c o g n ise th e in h e re n t in c o m p a tib ility b e tw e e n tw o key id e a ls th a t are o ften p e rc e iv e d as b o th d e s ira b le a n d a tta in a b le , n am ely ‘d e v e lo p m e n t’ an d ‘e q u ity ’ (S a c h s, 2 0 1 3 ). O v e r th e p a st 30 y e a rs th e n e g a tiv e im p a c ts o f th e fru its o f d e v e lo p m e n t e n jo y e d by th e w e a lth y to p 15 % o f h u m a n ity , re s u ltin g la rg e ly fro m th e e x p lo ita tio n o f fo ssil fu els, h a v e b e c o m e in c re a sin g ly clea r. A t th e s a m e tim e th e r e has b een a g ro w in g a c c e p ta n c e o f th e id e a th a t su ch b e n e fits c o n s titu te hu m an rig h ts in th a t, i f th e y are a v a ila b le to so m e , th e y s h o u ld be a v a ila b le to all, re g a rd le s s o f g e o g ra p h ic lo c a tio n , w e a lth , e th n ic ity , c la s s o r g e n d e r. U n fo rtu n a te ly , e q u a l a c c e ss to all th e c o m fo rts e n jo y e d by th e w e a lth y e lite is, in all lik e lih o o d , n o t p o ss ib le on a p la n e t w ith fin ite an d d im in is h in g re s o u rc e s (in c lu d in g w a te r), lim ite d u se a b le s p a c e fo r in c re a se d fo o d p ro d u c tio n a n d w a s te d is p o sa l, a n d a s te a d ily g ro w in g p o p u la tio n . T h is in c o m p a tib ility c re a te s a m o ral d ile m m a for h u m a n k in d o f im m e n s e p ro p o rtio n s: do w e c o n tin u e to p u rs u e th e c u rre n t p ath o f d e v e lo p m e n t, fu e lle d by n e o lib e ra l v is io n s an d v a lu e s , an d a c c e p t th a t a c c e ss to its d e sire d g o a ls w ill re m a in u n e q u a l? O r do w e striv e fo r e q u ity on a g lo b a l sc a le and re c o g n is e th a t o u r p re v a ilin g c o n c e p t o f d e v e lo p m e n t w ill n e e d to u n d e rg o q u ite d ra s tic re v isio n s th a t w ill u n d o u b te d ly c h a lle n g e a n d c h a n g e th e life sty le s o f th e p riv ile g e d ?

C e n tra l to in fo rm e d d is c u ssio n o f su ch d ile m m a s is g lo b a l e d u c a tio n , in m an y fo rm s an d fora: fro m th e n e c e ssity o f b a sic s c h o o lin g fo r th e o n e b illio n tra p p e d in p o v e rty , e sp e c ia lly g irls, to th e n e e d fo r b ro a d e r p u b lic in fo rm a tio n in th e d e v e lo p e d w o rld a b o u t th e g lo b a l re a litie s w e face an d fo r a c o n c e rte d fo c u s on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c re a tiv e so lu tio n s. In d eed , it c o u ld be a rg u e d th a t th e c u rre n t g lo b a l c rise s re p re se n t, in so m e m e a s u re , a fa ilu re o f p u b lic e d u c a tio n , p a rtic u la rly in th e d e v e lo p e d w o rld . E lim in a tin g a b je c t p o v e rty an d re d u c in g c lim a te c h a n g e h av e been w ith in o u r g ra s p fo r sev e ra l d e c a d e s; th e o p p o rtu n itie s h a v e been m isse d d u e to th e c h o ic e s w e h av e m ade. T o be fair, th e s e c h o ic e s h av e b een m a d e u n w ittin g ly in m o s t cases: th e m a jo rity o f p e o p le h av e sim p ly n o t re c e iv e d s u ffic ie n t in fo rm a tio n th ro u g h fo rm a l or in fo rm a l e d u c a tio n to u n d e rs ta n d th e

18

R E -IM A G IN IN G G L O B A L E D U C A T IO N IN T H E N E O L IB E R A L A G E

in te rc o n n e c te d n e ss o f all p e o p le s a n d e n v iro n m e n ts a n d to a p p re c ia te th e full g lo b a l im p a c ts o f th e ir d e c is io n s as c o n su m e rs, v o te rs, w o rk e rs an d h o m e -m a k e rs. S ch o o l c u rric u la h a v e re m a in e d la rg e ly n atio n s ta te -o rie n te d a n d o b s e s s e d w ith d is c ip lin e -s p e c ific a n d d is c o n n e c te d k n o w le d g e , th e re b y in h ib itin g s tu d e n ts fro m s e e in g th e ‘big p ic tu re ’ an d c re a tin g a lte rn a tiv e v is io n s o f th e fu tu re . C ritic a l in fo rm a tio n a b o u t key g lo b al sy ste m s, n o ta b ly th e e c o n o m ic sy stem a n d its in e x tric a b le c o n n e c te d n e ss to e n v iro n m e n ta l a n d so cial sy stem s, h as b een w ith h e ld as th e p ro v in c e o f ‘e x p e rts ’, re s u ltin g in w id e s p r e a d p u b lic ig n o ra n c e a b o u t th e h a rm fu l a n d d is c rim in a to ry e ffe c ts o f e v e ry d a y a ctio n s. It h a s to be th e ro le an d re s p o n sib ility o f p u b lic e d u c a tio n to n u rtu re c itiz e n s w h o are a b le a n d p re p a re d to m a k e in fo rm e d a n d e th ically s o u n d d e c is io n s w ith re g a rd to th e m a jo r g lo b a l issu es o f th e day. T h e re is n o o th e r so cial in s titu tio n th a t has th e re a c h a n d c a p a c ity to fu rn ish fu tu re d e c isio n m ak ers w ith th e k n o w le d g e , sk ills a n d d e te rm in a tio n n e c e ss a ry to c o m e to g rip s w ith m o ral q u e stio n s o f th is m ag n itu d e. T h is is w hy g lo b al e d u c a tio n is so u rg e n t a n d so cru cial. It is w h y , in th e c u rre n t e ra o f n e o lib e ra lism , g lo b a l e d u c a tio n m u s t fin d a w ay to be h e a rd a m o n g th e g lo b al c a c o p h o n y th a t is ste e rin g h u m a n k in d in th e d ire c tio n o f u n su s ta in a b le d e v e lo p m e n t w ith sc a n t re g a rd fo r th e lo n g -te rm c o n se q u e n c e s (M o n b io t, 2 0 1 4 ; U n ite d N a tio n s , 2012).

W h a t is m o st n e e d e d , 1 w o u ld su g g e st, is a k in d o f p ra g m a tic a ltru ism - a b le n d o f in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n ’s re s p o n siv e n e s s to th e o p p o rtu n itie s p re s e n te d by th e fo rc e s o f g lo b a lis a tio n , b u t w ith a critical len s th a t re fle c ts th e lo n g e r-te rm v is io n a n d so cial ju s tic e eth ic o f g lo b a l e d u c a tio n . G lo b a lisa tio n , fo r g o o d o r ill, is h e re to stay b u t n eo lib e ra lism is j u s t o n e o f m an y p o ss ib le d o c trin e s th a t can in fu se a n d d ire c t e d u c a tio n ’s re s p o n s e to it. In b u y in g in to th e n e o lib e ra l a g e n d a , e d u c a tio n sy stem s in m any c o u n trie s h a v e a llo w e d th e m a n d a te s o f th e free m a rk e t to d e te rm in e th e c o n te n t a n d g o a ls o f e d u c a tio n , to alig n it w ith a re s tric tiv e a n d sin g u la r e c o n o m ic v isio n an d , in fact, to d is to rt th e v e ry c o n c e p t o f v a lu e in th e 2 1 st ce n tu ry . A s S tefan C o llin i (2 0 1 1 ) n o te s in h is re v ie w o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in B ritain:

B ritish so c ie ty h as b een su b je c t to a d e lib e ra te ca m p a ig n , in itia te d in fre e - m a rk e t th in k ta n k s in th e 1960s a n d 1970s a n d p u s h e d s tro n g ly by b u sin e ss le a d e rs a n d rig h t-w in g c o m m e n ta to rs e v e r sin ce, to e le v a te th e s ta tu s o f b u sin e ss a n d c o m m e rc e a n d to m a k e ‘c o n trib u tin g to e c o n o m ic g r o w th ’ th e o v e rrid in g g o al o f a w h o le sw a th e o f so cial, cu ltu ral a n d in te lle c tu a l a c tiv itie s w h ic h h a d p re v io u sly been u n d e rs to o d a n d v a lu e d in o th e r te rm s, (p. 9)

W h ile th e ‘k n o w le d g e e c o n o m y ’ is o ften to u te d as th e key d riv e r o f p ro s p e rity in th e 2 1 st cen tu ry , th e k n o w le d g e th a t is d e e m e d v a lu a b le te n d s to b e th a t w h ic h su p p o rts d o m in a n t m o d els o f e c o n o m ic g ro w th , ra th e r th a n s u s ta in a b le an d e q u ita b le v is io n s o f h u m a n d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e d e sire to ‘m a n a g e ’ k n o w le d g e , so th a t in te llig e n c e , in n o v a tio n a n d c re a tiv ity can b e b e tte r p a c k a g e d to b e n e fit b u sin e ss a n d in d u stry , lead s to th e sta n d a rd is a tio n , m e a s u re m e n t an d a c c o u n ta b ility re fo rm s o f th e n e o lib e ra l e ra (B o tte ry , 2 0 0 6 ). K ey to a b ro a d e r, m o re v is io n a ry in terp re tatio n o f a k n o w le d g e e c o n o m y is th e c o n c e p t o f a ‘lea rn in g

19

G R A H A M PI ICE

s o c ie ty ’ (S tig litz & G re e n w a ld , 2 0 1 4 ), a so c ie ty th a t p ro m o te s c o n tin u o u s le a rn in g fo r all, n o t fo r th e lim ite d g o al o f e c o n o m ic a d v a n c e m e n t b u t fo r th e m ore h o listic p u rp o s e o f in d iv id u al a n d so c ie ta l im p ro v e m e n t. T h is is n o t to a d v o c a te a re tu rn to th e n a iv e o p tim ism th a t p ro m u lg a te d th e b irth o f th e g lo b a l e d u c a tio n m o v e m e n t. P ra g m a tic a ltru ism d e m a n d s a firm a n d u n y ie ld in g g rip on the v is io n a ry g o a ls o f g lo b a l e d u c a tio n w h ile b e in g n im b ly re s p o n siv e to p re v a ilin g e c o n o m ic , p o litical a n d so cial tre n d s. It d e m a n d s h a w k ish m o n ito rin g o f c u rre n t e d u c a tio n a l tre n d s an d a d e te rm in a tio n to v o c a lly c ritiq u e th o s e th a t a re in v e s te d so lely in sh o rt-te rm e c o n o m ic an d m aterial g ain s. I t d e m a n d s, to o , a re a lis a tio n th a t th e d e sire fo r se lf-im p ro v e m e n t, in c lu d in g e c o n o m ic a d v a n c e m e n t, re m a in s th e p rim a ry d riv e r o f th e p u rs u it o f k n o w le d g e ; th e n e c e ss a ry in te lle c tu a l leap is th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h o w th e n e e d s o f s e lf a n d so c ie ty , o f p e rs o n an d p la n e t, are in e x tric a b ly in tertw in ed .

MAPPING THE MOTIVATIONS FOR GLOBAL AND INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION: AN ANALYTICAL MATRIX

A c en tral p ro b le m o f d o m in a n t p a ra d ig m s is th a t th e ir la rg e r g o a ls a re rarely c o n te s te d ; th e p a ra d ig m ’s o rth o d o x y b e c o m e s th e p re v a ilin g le g e n d th ro u g h w h ic h m o s t p e o p le m a k e se n s e o f th e ir d aily lives. T h e p u rs u it o f e c o n o m ic g ro w th , re g a rd le ss o f w h e th e r su c h g ro w th is e q u ita b le , j u s t o r s u s ta in a b le , has b e c o m e su c h a leg en d a n d its in flu e n c e on e d u c a tio n a t all lev els is p e rv a siv e . In an e ra in w h ic h ‘e d u c a tio n fo r e m p lo y m e n t’ h as b e c o m e s y n o n y m o u s w ith ‘e d u c a tio n ’, it is n o t h a rd to se e h o w sch o o l sy s te m s h a v e b o u g h t in to th e n e o lib e ra l a g e n d a o r w h y th e liberal a rts a n d h u m a n itie s a re fe e lin g u n d e r th re a t in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n (E d m u n d s o n , 2 0 1 3 ). A s n o te d e a rlie r in th is c h a p te r, g lo b a l a n d in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n a re sim ilarly u n d e r p re s s u re - i f th e y are to be d e e m e d to h av e v a lu e - to b e c o m e a lig n e d w ith n e o lib e ra l v alu es. In d e e d , th e im p o rta n c e o f a g lo b a l p e rs p e c tiv e h as a lre a d y been a p p ro p ria te d by th o s e a d v o c a tin g fo r th e sk ills re q u ire d fo r th e w o rld o f in te rn a tio n a l b u sin e ss, as seen in th is C a n a d ia n p ro v in c ia l e c o n o m ic strateg y rep o rt:

W e w ill n eed m o re e n tre p re n e u rs , fin a n c ie rs a n d m a n a g e rs. W e n e e d p e o p le w h o a re c o m fo rta b le d o in g b u sin e ss g lo b a lly , w ith m u ltip le la n g u a g e s an d c ro s s-c u ltu ra l skills. T o seize th e o p p o rtu n itie s o ffe re d b y an e c o n o m y th a t fu n c tio n s as a n in te rc o n n e c te d g rid , p e o p le n eed to be a ttu n e d to th e w o rld a n d p re p a re d to p a rtic ip a te in g lo b a l n e tw o rk s. T h e e d u c a tio n sy s te m a t all le v e ls has an im p o rta n t ro le to play in fo s te rin g th is m in d se t. ( P r e m ie r ’s C o u n c il fo r E c o n o m ic S tra te g y , 2 0 1 1 , p. 64)

In th e sp irit o f fo s te rin g d e b a te in o u r re s p e c tiv e in s titu tio n s a n d a c h ie v in g m o re fo c u s e d an d in fo rm e d p o lic ie s an d p ra c tic e in g lo b a l a n d in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n , th e fo llo w in g m a trix (F ig u re I) is o ffe re d as a to o l w ith w h ic h to p lo t a n d a n a ly s e th e p rim a ry m o tiv a tio n s th a t stim u la te a ra n g e o f a c tiv itie s . S u ch m o tiv a tio n s , 1

20

R E -IM A G IN IN G G L O B A L E D U C A T IO N IN T H E N E O L IB E R A L A G E

w o u ld su g g e st, p ro v id e an in d ic a tio n o f th e u n d e rly in g v a lu e s an d b e lie fs th a t s teer th e co u rse o f a c tiv ity at an y in stitu tio n . T h e h o riz o n ta l a x is re p r e s e n ts a c o n tin u u m betw een M a rth a N u s s b a u m ’s tw o p o le s o f ‘E d u c a tio n fo r P r o f it’ an d ‘E d u c a tio n fo r F re e d o m ’ (N u ssb a u m , 2 0 0 9 ), thro u g h w h ic h sh e c o n tra sts th e v ie w o f e d u c a tio n ’s p rim a ry ro le as p re p a rin g stu d e n ts fo r e c o n o m ic e n ric h m e n t w ith th e b e lie f th a t e d u c a tio n is p rin c ip a lly a v e h ic le for h u m a n d e v e lo p m e n t an d e m a n c ip a tio n . T h e v e rtic a l ax is re s p o n d s to th e q u e stio n o f w h o s e in te re sts a re p rim a rily se rv e d th ro u g h g lo b a l an d in te rn a tio n a l ed u catio n : th o se w h o are alre a d y p riv ile g e d (e c o n o m ic a lly , p o litic a lly , so c ia lly ) or th e larg er m a s s o f p e o p le in a so c ie ty o r so cial g ro u p (re c o g n is in g th a t any activ ity is n o t likely to b e n e fit e v e ry o n e , b u t it m ay a t le a s t h a v e th e p o te n tia l to d o so). T h e fo u r q u a d ra n ts thus c re a te d can be u se d to p lo t a c tiv itie s in any in stitu tio n , o r c la ssro o m , an d th e re s u ltin g m ap w ill lik ely e x p o se th e p re d o m in a n t v a lu e s an d b eliefs th a t in fo rm th e p ra c tic e o f g lo b a l an d in te rn a tio n a l e d u catio n .

COMMON GOOD

QUADRAM I Sbartd P rospcriiy

EDUCATION FOR PROFIT

QUADRA«1 I Suitampii FHttsni

EÉåÉai 1 I Glolidl (.oumumity

wmmm »FORFREEDOM

1 1

QUADRANT a Targeted

UiteriHttenaJism

PRIVILEGE

F i g u r e I.

P la c e m e n t o f any activ ity in a certain q u a d ra n t m ig h t v a ry fro m o n e in stitu tio n o r c la s sro o m to a n o th e r a c c o rd in g to th e m o tiv a tio n b e h in d it, h o w it is c o n s tru e d an d im p le m e n te d , a n d its re s u ltin g im p act. S u ch v a ria tio n s n o tw ith sta n d in g , 1 o ffer the fo llo w in g c h a rt to in d ic a te w h e re sa m p le a c tiv itie s, in both K -1 2 a n d h ig h e r e d u c a tio n se c to rs, m ig h t b e place d .

21

G R A H A M PIK E

Q u a d ra n t 2: S h a re d P r o sp e r ity

- S tren g th en in g in tern atio n al/in tercu ltu ral c o n te n t o f cu rricu lu m

- F u n d ra isin g for w orthy global causes - S ch o larsh ip s fo r d eserv in g

in tern atio n al students - In tern atio n al d e v e lo p m e n t p rojects

(d e sig n e d and led by d ev elo p e d c o u n try team s)

Q u a d ra n t 4: G lo b a l C o m m u n ity

- In tern atio n al research c o lla b o ra tio n and cap acity b u ild in g , am o n g equal partners

- D e v e lo p in g h o listic and tra n sfo rm a tiv e g lo b al ed u c a tio n cu rricu lu m

- S u stain ab ility in itiativ es th a t perm an en tly red u ce c o n su m p tio n an d w aste

- E x p lo rin g c re a tiv e and e q u ita b le so lu tio n s to g lo b a l p ro b lem s

Q u a d ra n t I: S u sta in e d E litism

- R e c ru itin g fee-p ay in g international students

- P ro v isio n o f p ro g ra m m e s/e sta b lish m e n t o f b ran ch cam p u ses ab ro ad

- F ield trip s/stu d y to u rs to o ther countries

- D e v e lo p in g skills for international b usiness

Q u a d ra n t 3: T a rg e te d In tern a tio n a lism

- S tu d y ab ro ad o p p o rtu n itie s fo r students

- C o n n e c tin g classro o m s v ia te ch n o lo g y

- E x c h a n g e o p p o rtu n itie s for fa c u lty /sta ff

- F o re ig n lan g u ag e te a c h in g as p art o f th e cu rricu lu m

T h e p o in t o f su ch a m ap p in g e x e rc is e is n o t to p ass ju d g m e n t o n a c tiv itie s th a t a re lo c a te d w ith in o n e q u a d ra n t c o m p a re d w ith an o th er. E a c h activ ity m ay h av e m erit, to so m e d e g re e , d e p e n d in g on h o w m u ch th o u g h t has b e e n g iv e n to its p o te n tia l c o n trib u tio n to a j u s t an d s u s ta in a b le g lo b a l c o m m u n ity . F u rth e rm o re , as th e m atrix is in te n d e d to m ap a c tiv itie s fro m th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e ir p rim ary m o tiv a tio n , n o t fro m th e p o in t o f v ie w o f h o w th e in d iv id u a l e x p e rie n c e s ea c h a c tiv ity , it is q u ite p o ss ib le th a t th e re c ru itm e n t o f an in te rn a tio n a l s tu d e n t (a ‘for p r o f it’ m o tiv e) c o u ld re s u lt in an e m a n c ip a to ry e x p e rie n c e fo r th e s tu d e n t ( a ‘for fr e e d o m ’ result). A t th e m a c ro level h o w e v e r, such m ap p in g c a n a ss ist te a c h e rs an d in stitu tio n s in d e te rm in in g th e d e sira b ility o f th e path th ey are p u rs u in g in th e ir g lo b a l an d in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in itia tiv e s an d th e d e g re e to w h ic h s ta te d g o als are b e in g m et.

A n ad d itio n al re a so n for o ffe rin g th is m a trix is to s tim u la te d e b a te a b o u t th e p u rp o s e a n d d ire c tio n o f g lo b al a n d in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n at th e m acro le v e l. It w o u ld a p p e a r th a t p re v a ilin g tre n d s in in tern atio n al e d u c a tio n , c lo sely a llie d to g e n e ra l d rifts to w a rd s th e c o m m e rc ia lis a tio n o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , a re m o v in g

22

R E -IM A G IN IN G G L O B A L E D U C A T IO N IN T H E N E O L IB E R A L A G E

in c re m e n ta lly but In ex o rab ly to w a rd s a h ig h e r c o n c e n tra tio n o f a c tiv ity in Q u a d ra n t 1, stim u la te d an d su p p o rte d by g o v e rn m e n ts th a t e q u a te in te rn a tio n a l ed u c a tio n w ith e c o n o m ic stim u lu s a n d jo b cre a tio n . G lo b a l e d u c a tio n to o , in se e k in g cre d ib ility , is su b je c t to sim ila r p re ssu re s. F o r e x a m p le , th e P re m ie r o f B ritis h C o lu m b ia h as ta rg e te d K -1 2 a n d p o st-se c o n d a ry in te rn a tio n a l stu d e n t re c ru itm e n t, w h ic h a lre a d y c o n trib u te s n e a rly $1.8 b illio n to th e p ro v in c ia l e c o n o m y (K u n in , 2 0 1 1 ), as a k ey p la n k in th e fu tu re jo b c re a tio n stra te g y fo r th a t C a n a d ia n p ro v in c e (G o v e rn m e n t o f B ritish C o lu m b ia , 2 0 1 1 ). T h is v ie w o f g lo b a l an d in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n ’s p u rp o se, s te e p e d in th e p h ilo so p h y o f n e o lib e ra lism , is a fa r cry fro m th e sp irit o f in te rn a tio n a lism th a t is at th e h eart o f w h a t m o tiv a te s an d su s ta in s m o s t te a c h e rs a n d p ro fe ssio n a ls w o rk in g in th e field . T h a t sp irit flo u ris h e s in m an y o f th e a c tiv itie s in Q u a d ra n ts 3 an d 4, w h e re th e ra tio n a le is c o u c h e d m o re in th e b e lie f th a t re s p e c tfu l an d m u tu a lly b en eficial c o n n e c tio n s a m o n g d iv e rse p eo p les an d c u ltu re s, a n d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h o listic v is io n s fo r the g lo b al c o m m u n ity , a re fu n d a m e n ta l to s u s ta in a b le a n d e q u ita b le d e v e lo p m e n t, in c lu d in g b u t n o t lim ite d to e c o n o m ic e n h a n c e m e n t, fo r all g lo b a l c itiz e n s . W ith th e c u rre n t tre n d fa v o u rin g th o s e a c tiv itie s th a t a re d ire c tly tie d to e c o n o m ic b en efits fo r in d iv id u a l in s titu tio n s a n d n a tio n s, th e m o re a ltru is tic an d c o m m u n ita ria n g o a ls o f g lo b a l a n d in te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n a re u n d er th reat.

NOTES

1 F o r a fu lle r d iscu ssio n o f th e im p acts o f n e o lib e ra lism in h ig h e r ed u ca tio n , see P ik e (2 0 1 2 ). 2 F o r a th o u g h tfu l a n d p rin c ip le d s tatem e n t o n in te rn a tio n a lisatio n in e d u c a tio n , see the A c c o r d o n the

In te r n a tio n a liz a tio n o f E d u ca tio n , p u b lish e d by the A sso c ia tio n o f C an a d ia n D e an s o f E d u c a tio n , 2013: h ttp ://w w w .c s s e -sc e e .c a /d o c s /a c d e /A c c o rd _ In te rn a tio n a liz a tio n _ E N .p d f

REFERENCES

B o tte ry , M. (2 0 0 6 ). E d u c a tio n and g lo b a liz atio n : R e d e fin in g th e ro le o f the ed u ca tio n a l p ro fessio n al. E d u c a tio n a l review , 58 (1), 9 5 -1 1 3 .

C arle to n U n iversity. (2 0 1 1 ). R e p o rt o n in te r n a tio n a l recru itm en t. O ttaw a: A u th o r. C o llin i, S. ( 2 0 1 1). From R o b b in s to M cK in sey . L o n d o n R e v ie w o f Books, 3 3 (1 6 ), 9 -1 4 . C o x , C ., & S cru to n , R. (1 9 8 4 ). P ea ce stu d ies. A c ritic a l s u rvey. London: In stitu te for E u ro p e a n D e fe n ce

a n d S trateg ic Studies. de W it, H ., & B ra n d en b u rg , U. (2 0 1 1 ). T h e e n d o f in te rn a tio n a liz a tio n , In te r n a tio n a l H ig h e r E d u ca tio n ,

62, 1 5-17. D o lb y , N ., & R ah m an , A. (2 0 0 8 ). R esearch in in te rn a tio n a l ed u ca tio n . R eview o f E d u c a tio n a l R esea rch ,

75(3), 6 7 6 -7 2 6 . D o w er, N. (2 0 0 3 ). A n in tro d u c tio n to g lo b a l citizen sh ip . E d in b u rg h : E d in b u rg h U n iv e rsity Press. E d m u n d so n , M. (2 0 1 3 ). W hy te a ch ? In d e fe n se o f a r e a l ed u ca tio n . N e w Y ork: B lo o m sb u ry . E g ro n -P o la k , E., & H u d so n , R. (2 0 1 4 ). In te rn a tio n a liza tio n o f h ig h e r e d u ca tio n : G ro w in g exp e c ta tio n s,

fu n d a m e n ta l values. 1AU 4 lh G lo b al Survey. Paris: In tern atio n al A sso c ia tio n o f U niv ersities. G illa rd , J. (2 0 0 9 ). A u stralia: In te rn a tio n a l e d u c a tio n ’s co n trib u tio n . U n iv ersity W o rld N ew s, 78.

R e trie v e d from h ttp ://u n iv e rsity w o rld n e w s .c o m /a rtic le .p h p ? s to ry = 2 0 0 9 0 5 2 8 1 7 3 1 14651 G o v e rn m e n t o f B ritish C o lum bia. ( 2 0 1 1). The B C j o b s p la n . C a n a d a s ta rts here. V ic to ria , C anada:

G o v e rn m e n t o f B ritish C olum bia.

23

G R A H A M PIK E

G o v e rn m e n t o f C anada. (2014). C a n a d a ’s in tern atio n al e d u ca tio n strategy. R etrie v ed from h ttp ://in te rn a tio n a l.g c .c a /g lo b a l-m a rk e ts -m a rc h e s -m o n d ia u x /e d u c a tio n /in d e x .a sp x ? la n g = e n g

G re e n , A. (1990). E d u c a tio n a n d sta te fo r m a tio n : The rise o f e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m s in E n g la n d , F ra n ce a n d th e USA. N e w Y ork: St. M a rtin ’s Press.

G re e n , A (1 997) E d ucation, g lo b a liz a tio n a n d the n a tio n state. B asin g sto k e: M acm illan. H arv ey , D. (2 0 0 5 ) . A b r i e f h is to ry o f n e o lib e ra lism . O x fo rd : O x fo rd U n iv ersity Press. H eater, D. (1980). W o rld stu d ies: E d u c a tio n f o r in te r n a tio n a l u n d e rs ta n d in g in B ritain. L o n d o n : H arrap. H eater, D. (1 9 8 4 ) P e a c e th ro u g h ed u ca tio n : the co n trib u tio n o f the C o u n c il f o r E d u c a tio n in W o rld

C itizen sh ip . L ew es: T he F a lm e r Press. K n ig h t, J. (2 0 0 8 ). H ig h e r ed u ca tio n in tu rm o il: The c h a n g in g w o r ld o f in te r n a tio n a liza tio n . R o tterd am :

S e n se P u b lish ers. K n ig h t, J. ( 2 0 1 1). E d u c a tio n hubs: A fad, a b ra n d o r an in n o v atio n ? E A IE F o ru m , S p rin g , 3 4 -3 7 . K u n in , R. (2011). The e c o n o m ic im p a c t o f in te r n a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in B r itis h C o lu m b ia . V an co u v er:

B ritish C o lu m b ia C o u n cil fo r In te rn a tio n a l E d u catio n . L ister, I. (1 987). G lo b al and in tern atio n al a p p ro a c h e s in p o litical ed u catio n . In C. H a rb e r (E d ), P o litic a l

e d u c a tio n in B rita in (pp. 4 7 -6 2 ). L o n don: Falm er. M an zer, R. (1994). P u b lic sc h o o ls a n d p o litic a l ideas: C a n a d ia n e d u c a tio n a l p o lic y in h is to ric a l

p e rsp e ctive . T oronto: U niv ersity o f T o ro n to Press. M ark s, J. (1 9 8 4 ). P e a c e studies. P ro p a g a n d a f o r d efe n ce le ssn e ss. L o n d o n : W o m e n an d F a m ilie s for

D efence. M erry fie ld , M. M. (1 9 9 8 ). P e d a g o g y fo r glo b al p e rsp ec tiv e s in ed u catio n : S tu d ies o f te a c h e rs ’ th in k in g

a n d p ractice. T h eo ry a n d R e sea rc h in S o c ia l E d u ca tio n , 2 6 (3 ), 3 4 2 -3 7 9 . M itc h ell, K. (2003). E d u c a tin g th e natio n al citiz en in n eo lib eral tim es: F ro m th e m u ltic u ltu ral s e lf to the

s tra te g ic co sm o p o litan . T ra n sa c tio n s o f th e In stitu te o f B ritish G e o g ra p h ers, 28(A), 3 8 7 —403. M o n b io t, G. (2 0 1 4 , M ay 28). T h e im p o ssib ility o f g ro w th . The G u a rd ia n . R etrie v ed from

h ttp ://w w w .m o n b io t.c o m /2 0 l4 /0 5 /2 7 /th e -im p o s s ib ility -o f-g ro w th / N u ssb a u m , M. (1996). P a trio tism and co sm o p o litan ism . In J. C ohen (E d .), F o r lo ve o f co u n try:

D e b a tin g th e lim its o f p a tr io tis m (pp. 3-17). B oston: B ea c o n Books. N u ss b a u m , M. (2009). E d u c a tio n fo r p rofit, e d u ca tio n fo r freed o m . L ib e r a l E d u c a tio n , 9 5 (3 ), 6 -1 3 . O ’S u lliv an , B. (1 9 9 9 ). G lo b al c h a n g e an d e d u ca tio n a l refo rm in O n ta rio an d C an a d a C a n a d ia n J o u r n a l

o f E d u ca tio n , 2 4 (3 ), 3 1 1 -3 2 5 . P ik e, G. (2 0 0 8 ). G lobal ed u catio n . In J. A rth u r, I. D avies, & C. H ahn (E d s ), The S a g e h a n d b o o k o f

e d u c a tio n f o r c itiz e n s h ip a n d d e m o c ra c y (pp. 4 6 8 —480). L o s A n g eles: S ag e P u b licatio n s. Pike, G. (2 0 1 2 ). From in te rn a tio n a lism to in te rn a tio n a liz a tio n : T h e illu sio n o f a glo b al c o m m u n ity in

h ig h e r e d u catio n . J o u r n a l o f S o c ia l S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , 1 1(3), 1 3 5 -1 5 2 . P r e m ie r’s C ouncil fo r E c o n o m ic S trategy. (2 0 1 1 ). S h a p in g A lb e r ta 's fu tu r e : R e p o r t o f th e P r e m ie r 's

C o u n c il f o r E c o n o m ic S tra teg y. E d m o n to n : G o v e rn m e n t o f A lberta. S ach s, W. (2 0 1 3 ). L ib e ra tin g th e w o rld fro m d e v elo p m en t. N ew in te rn a tio n a list, 460, 2 2 -2 7 . S co tt, P. (2 0 1 0 ). In tern atio n al edu catio n : A lte rn a tiv e s to th e m ark et, In te r n a tio n a l H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , 61,

2 -3 . S c ru to n , R. (1 9 8 5 ). W o rld stu d ies: E d u c a tio n o r in d o c trin a tio n ? L o n don: In stitu te fo r E u ro p ea n

D e fe n ce an d S trateg ic Studies. S m ith , A. D. (1998). N a tio n a lism a n d m o d e rn ism . L o n d o n : R o u tle d g e S tig litz , J. E. & G re e n w a ld , B. C. (2014). C re a tin g a le a rn in g so cie ty : A n e w a p p r o a c h to g ro w th ,

d evelo p m en t, a n d s o c ia l p ro g ress. N e w Y ork: C o lu m b ia U n iv ersity Press. T ay lo r, J. (2004). T o w ard s a strateg y fo r in te rn a tio n a lisatio n : L e sso n s an d p ra c tic e fro m fo u r

univ ersities. J o u r n a l o f S tu d ie s in In te r n a tio n a l E d u c a tio n , 8, 1 4 9 -1 7 1 . T o o p e , S. ( 2 0 1 1, Jan u a ry 26). S tep h en T oo p e: H ow in tern atio n al stu d en ts c h a n g e C an a d ia n sch o o ls. The

G lo b e a n d Mail. R etriev ed fro m h ttp ://w w w .th e g lo b e a n d m a il.c o m /n e w s /o p in io n s /le a d in g - th in k e rs /s te p h e n -to o p e -h o w -in te rn a tio n a l-stu d e n ts -c h a n g e -c a n a d ia n -sc h o o ls /a rtic le 18 8 3 2 7 8 /

24

R E -IM A G IN IN G G L O B A L E D U C A T IO N IN T H E N E O L IB E R A L A G E

T y e , 1C. A. (2 0 0 9 ). A h isto ry o f the g lo b al e d u c a tio n m o v e m e n t in the U n ite d States. In lC irkw ood- T u c k e r (E d ), Visions in g lo b a l ed u ca tio n : The g lo b a liz a tio n o f c u rric u lu m a n d p e d a g o g y in te a c h er e d u c a tio n a n d sch o o ls (pp. 3-24), N e w Y ork: P e te r L an g Pu b lish in g .

U n ite d N atio n s. ( 2 0 12). R e s ilie n t p eo p le, r e s ilie n l p la n e t: A f u tu r e w o rth c h o o sin g . R e p o r t o f ihe U n ite d N a tio n s S e c r e ta ry G e n e r a l‘s h ig h -le v e l p a n e l o n g lo b a l s u sta in a b ility . N e w Y ork: U n ite d N a tio n s.

V u llia m y , G ., & W eb b , R. (1 9 9 3 ). P ro g re ssiv e e d u c a tio n an d the N atio n al C u rricu lu m : F in d in g s fro m a global e d u ca tio n re sea rc h p roject. E d u c a tio n a l R eview , 4 5 (1 ), 2 1 -4 1 .

G ra h a m P ike F a c u lty o f In te r n a tio n a l E d u c a tio n V a n co u ver I s la n d U n iversity

25