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THE JOURNAL OE SOCIAL STUDIES RESEARCH VOLUME 36, ISSUE I

Folk Dress, Fiestas, and Festivals: How is Mexico Portrayed in U.S. Primary Grade Social Studies Textbooks?

Sherry L . Field University of Texas, Austin

Michelle Bauml Texas Christian University

Ron W. Wilhelm University of North Texas

Joelle Jenkins Duggan Middle School

This qualitative content analysis was conducted to determine how Mexico and Mexican people are portrayed in contemporary U.S. elementary social studies textbooks. Three textbooks from each of three major publishers were analyzed Findings are presented in five sections: images and photographs, holidays, Mexican people and heroes, contested history, and portrayals of Mexican-U.S. relations. The authors identified three major themes across the textbooks including heavy emphasis on holidays and traditional folk costumes, a dearth of notable Mexican figures, and overall superficial coverage of Mexico and its people. Recommendations are provided for elementary textbook revisions that would more suitably foster cross-cultural understanding between U.S. children and their southern neighbors.

Why Investigate Mexico? The relationship between the United States and Mexico represents a

tapestry increasingly interwoven with historical conflict and the cultural processes of assimilation and acculturation as geo-political and socio-economic borders have been crossed, redrawn and blurred. The rapid influx o f Mexican immigrants in the late 20*̂ ^ and early 21^* centuries presents opportunities as well as challenges for many school systems and educators in the United States. An estimated 12.7 million Mexican immigrants currently constitute 32% of all immigrants in the U . S. (Pew Hispanic Center, 2009) and in the state of Texas,

Folk Dress, Fiestas, and Festivals: Flow is Mexico Portrayed in U.S. Primary Grade Social Studies Textbooks?, Pages 22-46. Copyright ©2012 The Journal of Social Studies Research A l l rights o f reproduction in any form reserved.

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for example, Mexicans and their descendants comprise 85% of the state's Hispanic residents (Pew Hispanic Center, 2007). The latter figure is particularly significant because Hispanic children represent 44% o f all school children enrolled in public schools in Texas (Pew Hispanic Center, 2007). The authors of this paper believe that all of the children in the Unites States would benefit by learning about the historical, political, cultural, and economic relationships of the United States and Mexico (Field, 2003; Field, Bauml, LeCompte, & Alleman, 2009).

Considerable research over the past thirty years has emphasized the importance of building on students' cultural funds of knowledge (Moll, Amanti, Neff, & Gonzalez, 1992), developed within a familial network, to help them connect to new knowledge and skills presented in formal schooling. In order to meet the considerable educational challenges that come with rapid changes in student demographics and cultural heritages, educators must have access to resources that contain accurate information about students' cultures o f origin. Unfortunately, state curriculum standards not only guide, but also often limit the development of rich course content when the main or only resource used is the textbook. This situation is particularly problematic in the early primary grades. Content analyses o f social studies textbooks have indicated that social studies content as evidenced in primary grade texts may be trivial and inconsequential (Larkins, Hawkins, & Gilmore, 1987), lacking in substance and adequate context (Labbo & Field, 1994), and stereotypical or biased (Labbo & Field, 1996; Ndura, 2004; Su, 2007). Further, Wade (1993) found in her review of textbook use that the majority of social studies instructional time was textbook- based. Though no comprehensive analyses of textbook content about Mexico for primary grades have been previously published, textbook content about Mexico and Latin America at the secondary level has been shown to be problematic (Cruz, 2002; Noboa, 2006; Salvucci, 1991).

In this article, we present the results o f our qualitative content analysis of three social studies textbooks series for the primary grades as they portray Mexico, her people, cultures, history, and relationships with Texas and the United States. Given the recent national attention the state of Texas has received for its politically charged social studies curriculum revisions, we believe this study o f currently adopted textbooks in Texas offers timely consideration of curricular materials that represent Mexico as a nation. Additionally, our work expands upon previous studies that employ a content analysis approach to investigate classroom textbooks used to teach children social studies concepts and skills.

Context for the Study Because the Texas school textbook market comprises a large share of and to

some degree drives the textbook business nationally, a brief discussion of the

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Texas state social studies curriculum standards (TEKS, 1997; 2010) is included here to establish the curricular context o f our analysis.

The social studies Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS), adopted in 1997 and revised in 2010, are embedded with ideological constructs designed to build students' understanding of and participation in the free enteiprise economic system. Thus in the TEKS for grades 1-3, we find an emphasis on individualism reflected in a specific focus on selected historical figures (e.g., Abraham Lincoln, Sam Houston), symbols (e.g., the Texas flag), landmarks (e.g., the Alamo), and customs and celebrations (e.g., Cinco de Mayo) (TEKS, 1997; 2010). Such a curricular emphasis on heroes, holidays, symbols, food and music o f a cuhural group often leads to a superficial, "tourisf curricular approach to cultural study (Derman-Sparks, 1989). Because the TEKS as v/ell as curricular standards o f other states may be interpreted in a limiting manner that constrains curriculum, the challenge for teachers, cuniculum developers, and textbook authors is to move beyond cultural tourism to more substantive content, even in the early years.

Surrounded by a deluge of controversy, in 2010 the Texas State Board o f Education approved a revision o f the K-12 TEKS. The revised standards w i l l serve as guidelines for textbook publishers, and the national impact w i l l be significant. Texas, California, and Florida combined purchase about 25 percent of all textbooks—^texts developed for these three states are typically altered for use in other states, but publishing companies tend to cater to their largest clients (Cruz, 2002). Therefore, new textbooks being developed for Texas students w i l l impact the contents o f social studies textbooks in other states (Apple, 1992; Salvucci, 1991).

Theoretical Framework We position our work on the assumption that social studies textbooks

convey messages that shape students' understandings about the world in which they live (Moore & Clark, 2004). As Cruz (2002), noted, " I t is through their school social studies textbook that children receive formal and legitimated information about other cuhures and, relatedly, about what is depicted as 'their own' history" (p. 324). Although textbooks are not the only means through which primary grade students develop knowledge of and about their own and other cultures (Brophy & Alleman, 2006), the influence of these curricular materials is known to be quite strong (Cruz, 2002).

As "message senders" (Moore & Clark, 2004), social studies textbooks are also ideologically driven (Su, 2007). Apple (1992) articulated this point in his discussion o f cuhural polifics sun'ounding textbooks, arguing that shifting ideological perspectives give rise to debates over what and how cultural and historical content is taught in schools. Apple noted, "The text has become the center o f ideological and educational conflict in a number of other countries..."

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(1992, p. 6). Recent analyses of elementary and/or secondary history texts in Israel, Ireland, Ukraine, and Taiwan, for example, reveal how textbook content is written to communicate certain cultural values, norms, and identities ( A l - H a j , 2005; Janmaat, 2006; Su, 2007). Collectively, these studies point to the importance of analyzing curricular materials for the messages they are intended to convey and the knowledge they are intended to impart to students.

The notion of the textbook as an instrument o f cultural knowledge production is reflected in Banks' (1992; 2004) work in multicultural education, which also informed our investigation. Banks explained.

An important challenge for educators in muUicultural nation-states is to "respect and acknowledge the community cultures and knowledge of students while at the same time helping to construct a democratic public community with an overarching set of values to which all students w i l l have a commitment and with which all w i l l identify"(Banks, 2004, p. 12, cited in Banks & Nguyen, 2008, p. 148).

How do textbooks, with their ideological slants and intentional communicative properties, make such a challenge more or less difficult for teachers? Answering a question like this requires the type o f in-depth analyses of textbooks scholars have called for in recent years (Brophy & Alleman, 2008; Levstik, 2008; Thornton, 2008). From the time Banks first conceived o f his four levels o f multicultural integration (contributions, additive, transformation, social action), he hoped curricular materials would move toward higher levels of social action (Bank & Banks, 1992). While the literature on multicultural education has extended Banks' original vision (e.g., Marri, 2005) in a turn toward critical multicuhural education that "seeks to push past going through the motions of multiculturalism" (Ladson-Billings, 2004, p. 52), there is little evidence that textbook writers have adopted such an approach to multicultural education.

The prevalence of textbook use for social studies instruction renders consideration of textbooks' potential for multicultural education significant. Because "the social studies curriculum holds potential to shape young people's world views" (Thornton, 2008, p. 15), we sought to explore how U.S. primary grade textbooks portray the nation o f Mexico.

Methods Two questions guided our investigation about how Mexico is portrayed in

elementary social studies textbooks:

l . H o w is Mexico represented in social studies textbooks for grades 1¬ 3?

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2. What suggestions are provided for teachers related to teaching about Mexico in social studies textbooks for grades 1-3?

For this study, we selected three state-adopted elementary social studies textbook series (see Appendix A ) . These three muhi-book series include Harcourt-Brace (Grades 1-3), Scott-Foresman (Grades 1-3), and Macmillan/McGraw-Hill (Grades 1-3). These series, popularly used throughout the United States, are currently the three state adopted textbook series in use in Texas schools. Adopted in 2003, these textbooks w i l l be used in Texas until 2013 when new K-12 social studies textbooks are expected to be in classrooms.

While each series and each book within a series is different, the textbooks at each grade level target specified Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS), the curriculum framework mandated by the state of Texas for use in elementary schools. Modifying the "expanding environments" construct, the general sequence shared among the series is as follows: Grade One—Home and Family; Grade Two—^Neighborhoods; Grade Three—Communities. A l l o f the textbooks we used in our analysis include material that expands beyond family, neighborhood, and community in the United States.

Data Analysis Our qualitative content analysis (Krippendorff, 2004; Krippendorff & Bock,

2009) o f each series began with careful readings and page-by-page analyses of each textbook and accompanying teacher's edition. We created data charts on which we recorded every reference to Mexico (Miles & Huberman, 1994), and textbook pages were photocopied for subsequent data analysis and preliminary categorization. Representations of Mexico were found in textual passages, photographs, illustrations, maps, tables, charts, captions, references to literature, and teacher's edition notes and recommendations. For the purposes of this content analysis, our focus was strictly conceived. We were primarily interested in references to Mexico and in historical and contemporary citizens o f Mexico. Consequently, references to Mexican-Americans, the Gulf o f Mexico, or migrant people were not included in our analysis. Furthermore, we focused primarily on student textbooks and accompanying teacher's editions.

During the first stage of analysis, we sought topics indicating Mexico's presence in elementary textbooks that transcended all three series and corresponded to national standards in the field. Major categories were identified from our data charts using a constant comparative method of analysis (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). These categories, to be discussed in depth in the findings, include holidays, Mexican people and heroes, contested history, and Mexican- U.S. relations.

After identifying common categories across the textbooks, we engaged in a second level of analysis. Similar to Su's (2007) approach during a study o f

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Taiwanese textbooks from 1978-1995, we explored two themes to address the research questions. First, the theme of "cross-cultural understanding" dealt with the ways in which the textbooks represented Mexico and Mexican people as an independent nation. Here we were concerned with how language and images within the textbooks included messages conducive to fostering respect for the nation and people of Mexico. Second, "national relationships" had to do with how Mexico is represented in relation to the United States, specifically in terms of history, geography, communication, and economics. Using these themes, we analyzed each o f the four categories above and paid special attention to illustrations and photographs accompanying the text.

Findings and Discussion Our findings are presented in five sections. First, images of Mexico and

Mexican cuhures as presented in photographs and illustrations are discussed for each textbook series we analyzed'. Because visual images are powerful means of communication in textbooks (Elgar, 2004), particularly in the early grades (Cruz, 2002), we determined that a comprehensive examination of Mexican life and cultures in photographs and illustrations would serve as a meaningful backdrop against what we found written—or not written—in the textbooks. Following this discussion, we advance the way holidays are included in each series as elements of Mexican cuhures. Next, we explore Mexican people and heroes, contested history, and portrayals of Mexican-U.S. relations in the Scott Foresman, Macmillan/McGraw-Hill, and Harcourt-Brace series.

Although there were a few attempts to move beyond folk dress, fiestas, and festivals in the textbook series we analyzed, we found a shallow, stereotypical approach to multiculturalism (Nieto & Bode, 2008) is perpetuated in the visual images and activities about Mexico and Mexican people across all three series.

Photographs and Illustrations Primary grade textbooks mark a gradual shift for children, fi*om hearing and

reading narrative text that is primarily fictional, toward learning how to read and interpret non-fictional text. Social studies textbooks, particularly, are noted to be heavily fact-burdened. At the same time, primary grade social studies textbooks are typified by rich photographs, illustrations and figures. In many ways, the illustrations portray the "story" o f social studies for young children; thus, this section reports the very powerful visual "story" told by the illustrations in the social studies textbooks we investigated.

Scott Foresman, paying scant attention to Mexican life and culture in general, portrays a stereotypical, deficit view (Flores, Cousin, & Diaz, 1991) of Mexico in its photographs and illustrations across all three grade levels. Most of die photos and illustrations feature food at markets or festivals, Mexican musicians and/or musical instruments, and people wearing or dancing in

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traditional Mexican dress. Mexico's flag does not appear until the third grade textbook—once—and is associated with Cinco de Mayo. Even when Mexican life and artifacts appear apart from Cinco de Mayo and other celebrations, close examination reveals a lack o f regard for Mexico's importance. In a third grade lesson about El Paso, Texas, for example, Mexico's city o f Juarez is discussed in the text as a neighboring community o f El Paso. " I like to go to Juarez. There are many places to eat and shop," students read (SF3, p. 13). A photo o f a fish sculpture made in Oaxaca, Mexico accompanies the paragraph, suggesting that one would go to Mexico in order to shop. This notion of Mexico as a shopping destination begins in the first grade textbook with a display of items purchased in Mexico, Japan, and Australia for a little girl named Kay in a reading skills lesson. The second grade book does little to improve Mexico's image when it features Market Square in San Antonio, Texas as a haven for Mexican culture and includes a photograph of young boys buying food from a Latino vendor. This is the only photograph in the three Scott Foresman volumes depicting careers held by Mexican people (aside from Mexican-American scientist Elvia Niebla, who was born in Mexico), and the image is one of a blue-collar worker. Ironically, the Scott Foresman series makes an attempt to dispel stereotypical viewpoints about Mexican life and culture in the third grade teacher's edition next to a photograph of Mexican dancers at a Cinco de Mayo celebration in San Francisco: "Although the Mexican Hat Dance is sometimes considered stereotypic of Mexican culture, the jarabe tapatio is considered the national dance of Mexico" (SF3, p. 108). The story promoted by Scott Foresman here does little to dispel the stereotype o f the prevalence of Cinco de Mayo or of the Mexican hat dance.

Macmillan/McGraw-Hill also places a heavy emphasis on celebrations and dancing in traditional Mexican dress in its photographs and illustrations across all three grade levels. However, this series adds depth to its representation of Mexico by including images of historical figures and events ( M l , M2, M3) as well as photographs of contemporary Mexico City (M3). Beginning in the first grade textbook, photographs of a Mexican city, dancers, and a jointly-issued stamp between the United States and Mexico commemorating Mexican Independence Day accompany a lesson devoted to Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, whose sketched portrait also appears. In grade two, only one graphic or textual references to Mexican people or historical events accompanies a lesson about El Paso, Texas, where Spanish soldiers are shown leading tired travelers along the El Camino Real during Juan de Onate's expedition to present day New Mexico in 1598. However, the third grade textbook offers a more comprehensive portrait of Mexican life, history, and cultures in its images. Portraits of former presidents Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Francisco Madero, and Vincente Fox are included in a timeline of Texas, New Spain/Mexico, and Colonial Ajiierica/United States, 1500-2000. Additionally, Mexico City is explored via

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photographs and text in a six-page lesson called "Mexico's Capital City." Photographs o f men playing professional soccer and o f artists Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo offer a view of Mexican life apart from celebrations, although a contrasting deficit image is included in a lesson about international trade where the only photograph o f people is of Mexican workers loading goods at a port. Lacking in this portrayal is an opportunity for children to view or understand daily life in Mexico's largest city.

On the other hand, Macmillan/McGraw-HiU's treatment o f Mexico's flag is indicative of the publisher's attempts to downplay the shallow, exotic view o f Mexico we found in Scott Foresman's textbooks. Macmillan/McGraw-Hill introduces students to images of Mexico's flag alongside Canadian and United States' flags in its first grade textbook as part of a lesson about countries of North America, hi second grade, the flag is drawn as a symbol o f Mexico in a discussion o f Cinco de Mayo and in a separate page titled "Flags o f Many Countries" where photos of Mexico's and Canada's flags are presented and discussed in the text. The third grade textbook shows Mexico's flag waving in front o f Mexico City's Palacio Nacional (national palace), on a page featuring Cinco de Mayo as both a Mexican and American holiday, and on a float for a Cinco de Mayo parade. Although stereotypes remain in MacmilIan/McGraw- Hill's visual depictions o f Mexican life and people in the early grades, Macmillan/McGraw-Hill offers more comprehensive historical and modem views of Mexico when compared to the Scott Foresman series.

Similarly, the Harcourt series presents Mexican images more frequently and with more breadth than Scott Foresman. Aztec and Maya civilizations are depicted in the second grade textbook, and Mexican artwork is shown at both the second and third grade levels. Regretfully, the only historical figure identified by photograph or illustration in Harcourt's textbooks is a statue of the Spanish governor of Mexico in 1598, Juan de Onate (H2). A short paragraph offers a rationale for Onate's inclusion in the lesson about El Paso, Texas.

Harcourt is unique in its effort to portray homes around the world as a means o f exploring how environmental factors contribute to differences among places at the first grade level. However, children observing the adobe structure of Mexico in contrast to Canada's wooden house or Brazil's tall apartment buildings would hardly come away with anything but a fixed image o f Mexican people as strictly adobe-dwellers. Despite several limitations and instances of deficit visual images, the Harcourt series as a whole offers a fairly substantive representation o f Mexico. Harcourt is the only series to portray contemporary Mexican people by showing adults and children in street clothes or school uniforms at all three grade levels. These images, although few in number, provide a striking contrast to the multitude of men, women, and children who also appear throughout Harcourt's textbooks in traditional Mexican dress participating in parades or Cinco de Mayo celebrations ( H I , H2, H3).

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Our concern is not that any of the three textbook series depict Mexican cuhures using images of food and celebrations. Celebrations are cultural universals with which young children can identify. Furthermore, the state standards for Texas specify attention to holidays, customs, and traditions in the early grades, therefore affording teachers lathude to include study o f Mexican life and cultures in their classrooms. Our apprehension stems from overabundant visual images that portray Mexican people as little more than musicians and dancers who enjoy parties, potentially perpetuating a decidedly superficial view o f Mexicans and their country.

Holidays Across all three series, most of the photographs and illustrations pertaining

to Mexican celebrations and holidays are associated with textual information about Cinco de Mayo and are situated whhin units about culture, families, and people ( H I , H2, H3, M l , M3, SF3), history ( M l , M2, SF2), or in non-unh resource sections such as additional holiday unhs (H2, M l , M2, M3). Emphasis on Cinco de Mayo in these textbooks is likely influenced by the Texas state standards in the early grades. First and second grade history, citizenship, and culture standards in the Texas cuiTiculum include attention to holidays, customs, and celebrations. In third grade, Cinco de Mayo, Kwanzaa, and St. Patrick's Day are specifically identified examples o f ethnic/cultural celebrations of Texas, the United States, and other nations to be studied (TEKS, 2010). These three holidays, as a resuh, recur throughout each series.

A l l three textbook series—either in the student text or the teachers' notes— explain that Cinco de Mayo is celebrated in both Mexico and in the United States (H2, M3, SF3), although celebrations among the Mexican American community are emphasized. The holiday's origin and different ways people celebrate are presented in most of the textbooks (H2, H3, M l , M2, M3, SF2, SF3). However, each publisher presents students with historical information about the holiday at varying levels of depth. Excerpts from the second grade textbooks illustrate this point:

Cinco de Mayo is a fiesta, or holiday, celebrated by Mexican Americans. There are many street parties, at which people in beautiful costumes play music and dance with great energy. Parades of riders on horses remind everyone of the freedom Mexicans fought for many years ago. Favorite Mexican foods are served. Some are very hot and spicy. Children play games and break open colorful pinatas stuffed with fruits, candies, and toys. (H2, p. 188, Unit 4)

Cinco de Mayo means " F i f t h of May" in Spanish. This holiday celebrates the day in 1862 when Mexico won the Battle of Puebla

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against France. It celebrates the courage of the Mexican Army. This holiday is celebrated with parades, parties, and speeches. (M2, p. 293, Post-Unit "Celebrate Holidays" section)

Cinco de Mayo, or May 5, is an important holiday for Mexican Americans. It celebrates the courage o f the Mexican people. On this day, in 1862, there was a battle in Mexico. A small Mexican Army won a battle against a much larger French Army. Today, people celebrate this holiday in many ways. It is a custom to have fiestas, or feasts. Foods like warm tortillas, tamales, and rice are served. Children break pinatas filled with toys and candies. (SF2, p. 258, Unh 6)

Here, the Harcourt textbook leaves students whhout knowledge of when or against whom the Mexicans fought for "freedom"—students may easily mistake Cinco de Mayo for Mexico's Independence Day as a resuh. Macmillan/McGraw-Hill and Scott Foresman add these important details and suggest questions teachers might ask. In addhion to providing a similarly descriptive account of Cinco de Mayo for students, Scott Foresman (SF3) is the only textbook to clarify a possible misconception for teachers by adding a note in the margin differentiating Cinco de Mayo from Mexico's Independence Day. Although Scott Foresman's attention to Mexico is tenuous in general, the publishers include important facts and background information for the teacher when Mexican holidays and celebrations are featured.

Significant attention to Cinco de Mayo in all three series leaves Mexico's Independence Day (September 16) largely overlooked as a celebratory day. We found student references to this national holiday exclusively in the Macmillan/McGraw-Hill series ( M l , M3). The first grade textbook introduces students to Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in a two-page biography:

Miguel Hidalgo is a hero from Mexico. Long ago, Mexico was a part of Spain. Hidalgo helped Mexico become free. He said, "Viva Mexico!" That means, "Long live Mexico!" Every year, Mexico remembers Hidalgo. They ring a bell. They celebrate their freedom with a party, ( M l , p. 266).

Accompanying the lesson are three suggested activities in the teacher notes to extend classroom attention to Mexico's Independence Day: creating celebratory cards, designing a celebration poster including facts about Hidalgo's life, and planning a gala as a tribute to Hidalgo. Macmillan/McGraw-Hill's third grade textbook includes one sentence about Mexico winning its fi-eedom from Spain in 1821 on a page about Mexico's government but does not name the holiday itself

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There are no further details about Mexico's Independence Day offered in the teachers' notes although a suggested activity recommends having students "prepare a visual presentation" about the holiday including the date, the reason for its celebration, and the way it is celebrated. Because neither the student text nor the teachers' notes offer answers to any o f these questions, teachers and students would need to consuh supplemental resources in order to complete the activity accurately. The dearth of details about Mexico's Independence Day across all three textbook series juxtaposed among the extensive references to Cinco de Mayo is unfortunate given that Cinco de Mayo is often mistaken for Mexico's Independence Day and is more widely celebrated in the United States than in Mexico.

Christmas is mentioned in all three series, although only Harcourt acknowledges the Mexican Christmas tradhion of Las Posadas— t̂wice in the teacher's edhion ( H I , H2) and once in the student text ( H I ) . In Harcourt's "Holiday Activities" section of the second grade teacher's edition. Las Posadas is described in a discussion o f Christmas tradhions in three countries (with France and Italy):

For nine days before Christmas, people in Mexico celebrate las posadas [sic]. They j o i n in a search for a safe place for the infant Jesus. According to the custom, they are turned down every night except the last night, Christmas, (H2, p. H6).

A similar description in the first grade edition also places the holiday on a December calendar alongside Kwanzaa, Christmas, and Hanukkah in a skills lesson called "Use a Calendar." However, no textual reference to Las Posadas is made in the lesson.

Given the Texas curriculum standards, inclusion of Mexican holidays and celebrations in textbooks adopted for use in Texas public schools is certainly legitimate. However, we are concemed that Mexican life and cultures—of all the topics we discuss in this article—are most frequently presented in text, photos and illustrations, and activities related to Cinco de Mayo. Overemphasis on Cinco de Mayo combined with thin, sporadic attention in these textbooks to Las Posadas ( H I , H2) and Mexico's Independence Day ( M l , M3), as well as the lack of information about other Mexican celebrations (e.g.. Day of the Dead) contributes to a one-dimensional view o f Mexican people who enjoy parades and parties. Across the three series, we found few attempts to portray Mexican people as patriotic citizens whose holiday celebrations are deeply rooted in cultural values and historical events.

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Mexican People and Heroes Topics related to the people of Mexico are featured in each of the textbook

series at all three grade levels. However, the scope of the textual attention and images varies. These portrayals o f Mexicans include: indigenous people (Aztecs), presidents (Santa Anna, Juarez, Madero, and Fox), artists and literary figures (Paz, Rivera, Kahlo, Orozco, Siqueiros), and historical heroes (Hidalgo). Further analysis of the textbooks' representations of Mexican people suggests there are even fewer contemporary depictions than historical. This section elaborates on each category.

Indigenous People Indigenous people of Mexico are given modest attention in primary grade

social studies textbooks. For example, the Aztecs are included in a third grade lesson (M3) on Mexico's caphal city, meant to compare and contrast the histories and local and national governments o f Mexico and the United States. One o f the six pages in the lesson is devoted to the historic, Aztec roots of Mexico City (M3, p. 241). On the same page, students read that the pyramids of Teotihuacan "became an Aztec city" and that a skeleton more than 1,800 years old has been recently discovered in them. Earlier in the textbook, the Aztecs are mentioned on a timeline lesson with the following caption, "1500s—Moctezuma II leads the Aztec Indians," (M3, p. A8). Here, the teacher is not asked to call attention to Aztecs or their rich history but rather to point out "this timeline...shows that Native Americans were the first to live in this land. In both Texas and the rest o f America, European settlers joined Native Americans" (M3, p. A9). Unfortunately, an opportunity to foreshadow content to come later or to introduce the biography of Moctezuma is not taken, nor is an opportunity to dispel young children's notions o f egocentrism related to historical figures and events.

A Harcourt section on "Ancient Americans" (H2) devotes two pages to the Aztecs and Incas. The text about the Aztecs is accompanied by graphics o f a Diego Rivera mural and a stylized map of the Aztec city o f Tenochtitlan. Children learn that the Aztecs "buih a huge city...[with] straight wide streets...a giant pyramid used as a temple...[and a] marketplace [where] sixty thousand people could gather to buy and sell goods" (p. 254). As well, the legend about how the city came to be developed on an island in Lake Texcoco is explained (H2, p. 254). However, this textbook does not mention that the ancient city eventually became Mexico City. Children would not necessarily understand the importance of the contributions of the Aztecs and Incas, nor would they make the connection between those cultures and present day Mexico.

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Presidents Four Mexican presidents—Santa Anna, Benito Juarez, Francisco Madero,

and Vincente Fox—are featured, although each does not appear in every textbook series. Santa Anna appears in a lesson about timelines in the Macmillan/McGraw-Hill third grade textbook and again in the first grade textbooks for Macmillan/McGraw-Hill and Scott Foresman. Benito Juarez, mentioned not because he was president o f Mexico or because of his contributions, but because the city o f Juarez, Mexico is named for him, appears in a second grade Harcourt unit of study, "Tracing a Community's History." The lesson documents the history o f El Paso, Texas and its sister city; Juarez, across the Rio Grande River in Mexico (H2). Former President Francisco Madero is shown in the Macmillan/McGraw-Hill timeline lesson, with the following caption, "1911-Mexican Revolution begins; people vote to make Francisco Madero president," (M3, p. A9). Finally, Vincente Fox appears twice in the third grade Macmillan/McGraw-Hill textbook—in a timeline lesson and in the 6-page comparison of Mexico's and the United States' histories and local and national governments. His image, a photograph at the bottom of the page, is captioned, "Vincente Fox was elected president o f Mexico in 2000" (M3, p. 243). While mention of this president is notable, children would not understand what his contributions were, nor would they be encouraged to find out who the current president o f Mexico is.

Artists/Literary Figures Portrayals of artist Diego Rivera are ubiquitous in units o f study and lessons

about Mexico, although in our study, Rivera does not appear in student textbooks until the third grade level (M3, H3). We are not surprised by this finding, as our study of children's literature about Mexico published in the past ten years supports the prominence of Rivera as the most popular historical figure about whom children's biographies were written (Bauml & Field, 2012). Indeed, the muralist is featured muhiple times in the M3 text: in the teacher's edition 274F, teachers are to remind students that Diego Rivera was a Mexican muralist who painted scenes of American and Mexican culture and students are to review his work and brainstorm ideas for a classroom or community mural and paint one; in a lesson about how art and literature are ways that we learn about culture, a black and white photo of Rivera in front o f a mural appears on page 283 with information about how he often painted scenes from Mexican history; on page 306, an entire page about Rivera and his work, "Painting History," with the underlying theme about how his murals benefit the common good through citizenship and pride in heritage; later in the text on page 333, in a lesson about children from Ohio who painted a mural for their community, teachers are encouraged to have students recall Diego Rivera and his contributions; and Diego Rivera also appears as an assessment question, TE 344A, Unit5, question

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#2 (M3), "Diego Rivera was famous for painting...murals." It should be noted that in this text, Diego Rivera also appears in the reference section's biographical dictionary, while Vincente Fox and Frida Kahlo do not. Rivera is mentioned, along with other Mexican muralists, in the third grade Harcourt TE. On a page featuring a contemporary mural painted on a building in Boston, a section called "Background Information" accompanies the large photograph. "Three Mexican painters-Diego Rivera, Jose demente Orozco, and David Alfonso Siqueiros—are largely responsible for reviving the form [of murals]" (H3p. 240).

In a second grade Harcourt lesson titled "Contributions in World History," two pages about "Native Americans" feature the Aztecs and Incas, and a mural of ancient Aztecs by Diego Rivera is shown (H2, p. 254). The teacher's edition exhorts teachers to "explain that the mural offers a 'slice of l i f e ' view of the Aztec culture" and ask the children to draw their own murals about one of the two cultures (H2, p. 256).

Notably, Frida Kahlo appears in only one textbook, in the section featuring Diego Rivera and his murals about Mexican history and contemporary everyday life. Her image, in a photograph with Diego Rivera is captioned, "Paintings by Rivera and his wife, the artist Frida Kahlo hang in museums around the world" (M3, p. 306).

Finally, the only cultural figure who appears in the primary grade textbooks and who is not an artist is Octavio Paz. Paz, the 1990 Nobel Prize laureate for literature, appears only once, in the Macmillan/McGraw-Hill third grade timeline lesson. While we would not expect there to be a broad spectrum of Mexican artists and literary figures in U.S. social studies textbooks, we would expect to find a more balanced portrayal o f women.

Historical Heroes Although historical heroes play a significant role in the history of Mexico,

and especially its fight for independence, only one such person appears in primary grade social studies textbooks. Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, credited with igniting the fight for Mexican independence, is featured in only one textbook series. In a third grade timeline lesson, his image is captioned, "1810-Miguel Hidalgo begins fight against Spain for Mexican independence" (M3, p. A9). In the first grade Macmillan/McGraw-Hill textbook, children may learn about Hidalgo in a two page biographical feature. The teacher's edition suggests two objectives for this lesson: identify why Miguel Hidalgo is a hero in Mexico and explain how people remember Miguel Hidalgo with a holiday ( M l ) . Also, the teacher's edition mentions Mexican Independence Day on September 16. The student text is cited previously in this article.

The indigenous people, presidents, artist and literary figures, and historical heroes selected by textbook publishers to represent Mexico only whisper at their

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importance in Mexican history. Consistent portrayals across textbook series would be a welcome addition to the currently published editions.

Contested History The textbooks' focus on individual heroes continues with their treatment o f

the rebellion of Mexican citizens in the state of Coahuila-Texas against the dictatorship of General Lopez de Santa Anna in the mid 1800's. The conflict is known to Texas history students as the Texas War o f Independence. In terms o f the historical relationship between the U . S. and Mexico, the battle of the Alamo arguably frames most U . S. students' understanding of the relationship between the two countries. Yet, the three publishers provide little information about the historical context for the conflict and focus instead on a few o f the more popularly known figures such as Sam Houston, David Crockett, and Santa Anna. Often the background information found in sidebars in the teacher editions contains a particularly troubling ideological frame: Texans against the Mexican Army. Such a frame fails to help the teacher or students understand that Coahui la-Texas was a state of Mexico rather than an independent nation or a part of the U. S. For example, in the third grade Harcourt text, students read about Davy Crockett, labeled "one of America's most famous symbols of the Western frontier" (H3, p. 219). Then young readers are treated to inaccurate information, "In early February o f 1836, Davy Crockett went to San Antonio, Texas, to help American [emphasis ours] soldiers. He died there just a month later, at the Battle of die Alamo, on March 6, 1836" (H3, p. 219). There were no American soldiers stationed at the Alamo in 1836. Ironically, the academic skill addressed in the same chapter is how to discern between facts and fiction (H3).

The SF first grade textbook focuses on Sam Houston in a way that helps students understand the origins of the rebellion:

He was also one of the leaders of Texas before it became a state. During that time Texas was part of Mexico. The people of Texas wanted to control their land by themselves. Texas went to war with Mexico. Sam Houston led his army against Mexico and won. Texas became independent. In later years, Sam Houston helped Texas become a state in the United States of America, (p. 79)

The Scott Foresman second grade text emphasizes character traits o f good citizens. Sam Houston provides the example for a discussion o f the trait o f responsibility: "When Sam Houston moved to Texas it belonged to Mexico. He helped when the Americans [emphasis ours] living there fought to be ft*ee ft*oiii Mexico. He also worked to make Texas part of the United States" (p. 69). Here the text perpetuates a decidedly U . S.-centric and historically inaccurate interpretation of the Coahuila-Texas rebellion. In the reading comprehension

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activities, the teacher is guided to ask the following questions: "'What contribution did Sam Houston make to the nation?' Answer, 'Children may say that Texas is very large and added a lot of territory to the United States.' 'How do you think Sam Houston showed responsibility?' Answer: 'He led the citizens of Texas during a difficuh war'" (p. 69). Then the text guides the teacher to a rather bizarre definition of individualism, again with Houston as one of the examples.

Explain to children that Nathan Hale, Sam Houston, and Clara Barton also showed a love of individualism [original emphasis], being willing to take risks for something in which they believed. . . . Houston and his outnumbered army defeated a larger Mexican army, which led to the independence of Texas, (p. 69)

This unique definition o f individualism is absolutely contrary to commonly held understandings of the term as presented in a typical dictionary definition:

Individualism: 1 a ( 1 ) : a doctrine that the interests o f the individual are or ought to be ethically paramount; also : conduct guided by such a doctrine (2) : the conception that all values, rights, and duties originate in individuals 1 b : a theory maintaining the political and economic independence o f the individual and stressing individual initiative, action, and interests; also : conduct or practice guided by such a theory (Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, 2009).

The contrived definition o f individualism in the Scott Foresman text may be interpreted to represent an ideological emphasis on the character attributes necessary for success in a ft*ee enterprise economic system.

The Macmillan/McGraw-Hill third grade text offers an accurate biographical description of David Crockett:

Frontier Hero: David Crockett was another real-life American hero. He is known as a leader, a scout, a hunter, and a storyteller. Crockett was born in 1786. He grew up with his family on the Tennessee frontier. He had little money or education. Still, he became a success. He served in the army. He was elected to state office. He even served in the United States Congress. Later he helped Texans [our emphasis] fight for their freedom from Mexico. Crockett died at the Battle of the Alamo in 1836 (p. 295).

The Scott Foresman third grade text, in a section thled "Remembering Their Past," repeats the problematic ft*aming of Texans against Mexicans without providing a richer explanation of the context:

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Some communities gather to remember events that happened a long time ago. In San Antonio, Texas, a celebration takes place every year to remember the Battle o f the Alamo. It was fought by Texas [emphasis ours] settlers against the Mexican army. Many tales have been told about David "Davy" Crockett who led a group from Tennessee at the Battle of the Alamo (p. 117).

The Scott Foresman second grade book, in describing the Alamo as a landmark, clarifies that Texas was under Mexican rule at the time of the battle; yet there is still the implication that Texans were different from Mexicans. The reality that people living in Texas, including Anglos recently immigrated from the U.S., were considered Mexican citizens by the Mexican government gets lost in the simply worded description of the battle: " I n 1836, Texas was fighting to be free from Mexico's rule. For 13 days, a small group of Texans defended the Alamo against thousands of Mexican soldiers. The Alamo is a famous landmark to Texans" (p. 265). The Harcourt, first grade, teacher's edition, "The Alamo is the site o f a historic battle fought in Texas in 1836. Although the battle was lost, h inspired Texans [our emphasis] to win their independence from Mexico" (p. 61) follows a similar pattern. These examples promote the understanding o f Texas as separate from, rather than a state of Mexico and they imply that Anglos in Texas were not citizens of Mexico. When children today read about the events surrounding the battle of the Alamo, they may apply their present understanding of Texas as a state of the United States to the events and personalities of 1836.

Portrayals of Mexican-U.S. Relations Our analysis concerning the relationship between Mexico and the U.S. is

presented here in two sections: economics and geography.

Economics: Currency and Trade The Texas state standards address economic concepts in social studies K-

12. In grades one and two, students are expected to learn about wants and needs, the value of work, and production and consumption of goods. In third grade, standards for economics add spending and saving, community interdependence, distribution of goods, and business operation in a free enterprise system.

The three textbook series we analyzed tend to include attention to economic concepts in units devoted to work or jobs across all three grade levels in terms o f currency ( H I , H2), production of goods ( H I , H2, M2, M3), and international trade (H2, M3, SF3). Mexico's peso is identified among other international currency in discussions o f trade, but only in Harcourt's first and second grade textbooks. Although Scott Foresman discusses international currency in a first

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grade lesson, Mexican pesos are not among the six types of currency identified in the text. Macmillan/McGraw-Hiirs third grade textbook includes illustrations o f unidentified international bills but only mentions currency in the teacher's notes as background information. One fact in the teacher's margin explains that "Mexicans used cacao beans" as an early form of money ( M 3, p. 207), but there are no suggestions about how teachers might use this information during instruction.

Goods of Mexico included in lessons about production and trade include sandals ( H I ) , rugs, pottery, and fruhs/vegetables (H2), car seats and coffee (M3), and oil as a natural resource (SF3). Harcourt's second grade volume focuses on Mexican agricultural products (beans, com, cotton, fish, goats, sugar cane, wheat) and natural resources (oil, silver) in a map skills lesson to teach students how to read a product map following a lesson about goods from different countries including Mexico. However, Harcourt's third grade textbook overlooks Mexico in its discussion o f international trade. Macmillan/McGraw- Hill's third grade book offers the most thorough international perspective o f the third grade volumes, dedicating five pages to a lesson titled "Working in Communities" in which Mexico is mentioned on every page of the student text among other countries engaging in intemational trade with the United States.

Once again, the Scott Foresman series is thin in terms of attention given to Mexico—it does not bring Mexico into hs discussion of economic concepts until third grade. Compared to Scott Foresman, Macmillan/McGraw-Hill and Harcourt present a broader view of Mexico in economic terms. Mexico is thus raised to a higher and more positive image in the Macmillan/McGraw-Hill and Harcourt series, and the inclusion of Mexico in textual conversations about production and trade help allay the "food, festivals, and folklore" perspective so heavily carried out in other portions o f all three series.

Use of Maps Geography is another connecting theme among all three textbook series.

Mexico's geography is presented via maps in increasing detail fr*om grade one to grade three throughout each series. We found a strong trend across textbook series and grade levels where maps of Mexico were used to introduce concepts of national and state borders. Mexico's proximity to the United States is also highlighted on maps in lessons about Sam Houston in Texas ( M l , SFl), historical events in U.S. history (M3, SF2), immigration (H3), and Mexico as a producer and exporter of goods and resources (H2, M2, M3, SF3).

We also found maps throughout all three series in which Mexico is featured discretely either in the student text or in notes to the teacher. In Harcourt's first grade textbook atlas ( H I ) , for example, a teacher's note suggests explaining to students that North America—as with most continents—is divided into smaller parts. Teachers are then prompted to ask, referring to the map o f North America

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provided in the student text, "What lands are part o f the North American continent?" ( H I , p. A6). Two additional lower-grade books present Mexico as a part of North America in a similar way (M2, SFl), but in all three instances, it is up to the teacher to prompt students to identify Mexico specifically as part o f North America. We located a few other places where maps of Mexico are included in the textbooks (typically in the reference or atlas sections) but are not supported with text in the student edition, relying upon teacher to make use o f the maps during instruction ( H I , H2, M l , M3).

On the other hand, several o f the student textbooks present maps o f Mexico within the text in lessons about intemational trade (H2, M2, M3, SF3), Mexico's population (H3), and Mexico's capital city (M3). Regarding international trade, maps o f Mexico are used to supplement text about the modes of transportation used to move goods between Mexico and the United States (H2, M2), about its production o f car seats and coffee (M3), and about its global importance as a major oil-exporting country (SF3). Harcourt's second grade textbook (H2) uses a "Products of Mexico" map exclusively in a map skills lesson called "Read a Product Map." The entire lesson is devoted to a map exploration of Mexican products such as oil, fish, and sugar cane. Harcourt (H3) continues its attention to Mexico's geography independent of its location relative to the United States in a third grade skills lesson, "Using a Population Map." In this lesson, a map of Mexico's population density is the central focus. Whereas Harcourt highlights maps o f Mexico in geography skills lessons found at the end o f regular unh lessons, Macmillan/McGraw-HiU's third grade textbook (M3) features Mexico City in a unit lesson exclusively about the capital and includes a map of the city's downtown area with accompanying skills questions. We did not find any comparable lessons involving Mexico's geography other than its proximity to the United States in any of the Scott Foresman textbooks.

Across the three textbook series we investigated, we found particular attention given to Standard 1 of the National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE): "How to use maps and other geographic representations, tools, and technologies to acquire, process, and report information" (Geography Education Standards Project, 1994). At the diird grade level, we also found a correlation between the textbooks and NCGE Standards 3, 9, and 11, which include skills for analyzing spatial arrangements o f places, human migration, and economic interdependence, respectively. Scott Foresman uses maps of Mexico in its textbooks infrequently and in much less sophisticated ways than Harcourt or Macmillan/McGraw-Hill. For example, all four of Scott Foresman's maps o f Mexico in the second grade textbook (SF2) are used to illustrate the concept of national borders, whereas Harcourt (H2) and Macmillan/McGraw-Hill (M2) use maps at this grade level to introduce Mexico's role in international trade and production of goods. Scott Foresman adds these concepts in one lesson of the third grade book (SF3), but this is the only instance o f overt cartographic

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attention given to Mexico in the volume. Harcourt's third grade textbook (H3), on the other hand, includes two lessons that use maps o f Mexico to teach about the nation and the Macmillan/McGraw-Hill (M3) third grade book includes four lessons.

Conclusion and Implications The casual observer leafmg through primary grade social studies textbooks

would notice that many diverse people and places are featured within their pages. We found that to be true as well, but we also found in our careful analysis of these textbooks that there are both promising trends and significant gaps in content. This study investigated how Mexico is portrayed in elementary social studies textbooks. We identified and analyzed visual images of Mexico, text content related to holidays, Mexican people and heroes, contested history, and Mexican-U.S. relations found in contemporary primary grade social studies textbooks.

Close scrutiny of our findings prompts several questions: Why is there still so much of an emphasis on folk dress, fiestas, and festivals in social studies that, at best, signifies a contributions or additive approach (Banks, 2004) to multicultural social studies content? Wliat intended and unintended messages are presented to children and their teachers about which curricular content is valued and which is suppressed? First, we believe there is a disconnect between our notions about how to teach children to be world-minded and active citizens and the tools we give them to accomplish this task. Surely we underestimate children's intellectual capacities and creative curioshies for tackling sophisticated topics when we continue to promulgate a curriculum that denies them a more comprehensive understanding of the people and places with whom and which they share the planet (Barton & Levstik, 1996; Brophy & Alleman, 2006). Second, there is a lack of recognition or perhaps a refusal to recognize the substantial percentage of our school-aged population who are transnational, who migrate from Mexico to the United States and back. High-level curriculum content would allow all children to learn from one another and to draw upon their funds of knowledge (Moll et al., 1992) in powerful ways. Third, there is a growing understanding that elementary social studies is disappearing in many communities across the nation as a consequence of high stakes testing emphasis on reading, wrhing and mathematics (Burroughs, Groce, and Webeck, 2005; Heafner, Lipscomb, & Rock, 2006; VanFossen & McGrew, 2008). Our rebuttal as social studies researchers and teacher educators to these dilemmas must be to continue to work toward the development and use of curriculum that w i l l help foster active world citizenship in our young students.

What would a curriculum meant to foster active world citizenship and cross-cuhural understandings of people and places look like? In the case of content about Mexico in primary grade textbooks, for example, we would like to see elements of Mexican history and cuhures in a historically balanced and

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complementary manner, such as a historical presentation of the major indigenous groups (e.g. Aztecs, Olmecs, Toltecs) balanced with contemporary information of indigenous cultures as well as more consistent attention to historical figures, along with a presentation o f contemporary events, and contemporary Mexican artistic and political figures, who are considered important by Mexicans and the Mexican school curriculum. We recognize that a robust social studies curriculum goes beyond the textbook and includes attention to big ideas, quality children's literature, technology, and the arts and humanities. In a post-NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) world, attention to these salient elements o f Mexican curriculum can provide an important resource to teach U . S. school children about our neighbor.

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Appendix A Grade 1 Title: Harcourt Horizons: About My World, Publisher: Harcourt School

Publishers & Hold, Rinehart and Winston, Year: 2003 Title: People and Places, Publisher: Macmillan/McGraw-Hill, Year: 2003 Title: All Together, Publisher: Scott Foresman, Year: 2003

Grade 2 Title: Harcourt Horizons: About My Community, Publisher: Harcourt School

Publishers & Hold, Rinehart and Winston, Year: 2003 Title: We Live Together, Publisher: Macmillan/McGraw-Hill, Year: 2003 Title: People and Places, Publisher: Scott Foresman, Year: 2003

Grade 3 Thle: Harcourt Horizons: People and Communities, Publisher: Harcourt School

Publishers & Hold, Rinehart and Winston, Year: 2003 Thle: Our Communities, Publisher: Macmillan/McGraw-Hill, Year: 2003 Title: Communities, Publisher: Scott Foresman, Year: 2003

About the Authors Sherry L Field is Associate Dean for Teacher Education, Student Affairs, and Administration and the Catherine Mae Parker Centennial Professor of Education at The University of Texas at Austin.

Michelle Bauml is an assistant professor of early childhood/social studies education in the College o f Education at Texas Christian University.

Ron W. Wilhelm is a professor in the department o f teacher education and administration at the University of North Texas.

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Joelle Jenkins received her Ph.D. In Curriculum and Instruction from The University of Texas at Austin and is currently principal of John J. Duggan Middle School in Springfield, M A .

' Throughout our discussion o f findings, we rely on abbreviated references to series titles as follows: Scott Foresman (SF); Macmillan/McGraw-Hill ( M ) ; Harcourt-Brace (H). Grade levels for each series are also marked with 1, 2, or 3 for grades one, two, and three; therefore a reference to Scott Foresman's grade one book is shown as (SFl).

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