Questions

First, you will review the art of crafting good questions from the perspective of a leader in the

Brooks and John (2018) article in the Harvard Business Review How to Ask Great Questions:

The Surprising Power of Questions.

(opens in a new tab)

In planning to develop the guiding questions that will support your case study, you will look at

the process from an educational perspective.

Why do educators use questions to support the mastery of content? If questions are posed prior

to reading, the audience instinctually becomes more active in the process, as the reader goes

beyond acquiring the information at a passive level--the hunt is now on for an answer. However,

the challenge for the author is to create questions that require higher-level thinking or the

reading may be reduced to something of a seek and find with little cognitive activity once the

key word is found.

CASE STUDIES AND SELF-ASSESSMENT In the following section, three brief case studies (Cases 8.1, 8.2, and 8.3) from very different contexts are provided. Each case describes a situation in which transformational leadership is present to some degree. The first case looks at the efforts of a new CEO to transform the traditional culture of aircraft equipment manufacturing company. The second case comes from the perspective of a college professor and archaeologist who leads student groups on digs in the Middle East. The final case profiles the Friendship Bench project that trains grandmothers to help tackle depression in Zimbabwe. The questions at the end of each case point to some of the unique issues surrounding the use of transformational leadership in ongoing organizations.

Case 8.1 The Vision Failed High Tech Engineering (HTE) is a 50-year-old family-owned manufacturing company with 250 employees that produces small parts for the aircraft industry. The president of HTE is Harold Barelli, who came to the company from a smaller business with strong credentials as a leader in advanced aircraft technology. Before Barelli, the only other president of HTE was the founder and owner of the company. The organizational structure at HTE was very traditional, and it was supported by a very rich organizational culture.

As the new president, Barelli sincerely wanted to transform HTE. He wanted to prove that new technologies and advanced management techniques could make HTE one of the best manufacturing companies in the country. To that end, Barelli created a vision statement that was displayed throughout the company. The two-page statement, which had a strong democratic tone, described the overall purposes, directions, and values of the company.

During the first three years of Barelli’s tenure as president, several major reorganizations took place at the company. These were designed by Barelli and a select few of his senior managers. The intention of each reorganization was to implement advanced organizational structures to bolster the declared HTE vision.

Yet the major outcome of each of the changes was to dilute the leadership and create a feeling of instability among the employees. Most of the changes were made from the top down, with little input from lower or middle management. Some of the changes gave employees more control in circumstances where they needed less, whereas other changes limited employee input in contexts where employees should have been given more input. There were some situations in which individual workers reported to three different bosses, and other situations in which one manager had far too many workers to oversee. Rather than feeling comfortable in their various roles at HTE, employees began to feel uncertain about their responsibilities and how they contributed to stated goals of the company. The overall effect of the reorganizations was a precipitous drop in worker morale and production.

In the midst of all the changes, the vision that Barelli had for the company was lost. The instability that employees felt made it difficult for them to support the company’s vision. People at HTE complained that although mission statements were displayed throughout the company, no one understood in which direction they were going.

To the employees at HTE, Barelli was an enigma. HTE was an American company that produced U.S. products, but Barelli drove a foreign car. Barelli claimed to be democratic in his style of leadership, but he was arbitrary in how he treated people. He acted in a nondirective style toward some people, and he showed arbitrary control toward others. He wanted to be seen as a hands-on manager, but he delegated operational control of the company to others while he focused on external customer relations and matters of the board of directors.

At times Barelli appeared to be insensitive to employees’ concerns. He wanted HTE to be an environment in which everyone could feel empowered, but he often failed to listen closely to what employees were saying.

He seldom engaged in open, two-way communication. HTE had a long, rich history with many unique stories, but the employees felt that Barelli either misunderstood or did not care about that history.

Four years after arriving at HTE, Barelli stepped down as president after his operations officer ran the company into a large debt and cash-flow crisis. His dream of building HTE into a world-class manufacturing company was never realized.

Questions If you were consulting with the HTE board of directors soon after Barelli started making changes, what would you advise them regarding Barelli’s leadership from a transformational perspective? Did Barelli have a clear vision for HTE? Was he able to implement it? How effective was Barelli as a change agent and social architect for HTE? What would you advise Barelli to do differently if he had the chance to return as president of HTE?

Case 8.2 An Exploration in Leadership Every year, Dr. Cook, a college professor, leads a group of 25 college students to the Middle East on an archaeological dig that usually lasts about eight weeks. The participants, who come from big and small colleges throughout the country, usually have little prior knowledge or background in what takes place during an excavation. Dr. Cook enjoys leading these expeditions because he likes teaching students about archaeology and because the outcomes of the digs actually advance his own scholarly work.

While planning for his annual summer excavation, Dr. Cook told the following story:

This summer will be interesting because I have 10 people returning from last year. Last year was quite a dig. During the first couple of weeks everything was very disjointed. Team members seemed unmotivated and tired. In fact, there was one time early on when it seemed as if nearly half the students were either physically ill or mentally exhausted. Students seemed lost and uncertain about the meaning of the entire project.

For example, it is our tradition to get up every morning at 4:30 a.m. to depart for the excavation site at 5:00 a.m. However, during the first weeks of the dig, few people were ever ready on time, even after several reminders.

Every year it takes some time for people to learn where they fit with each other and with the purposes of the dig. The students all come from such different backgrounds. Some are from small, private, religious schools, and others are from large state universities. Each comes with a different agenda, different skills, and different work habits. One person may be a good photographer, another a good artist, and another a good surveyor. It is my job to complete the excavation with the resources available to us.

At the end of Week 2, I called a meeting to assess how things were going. We talked about a lot of things including personal things, how our work was progressing, and what we needed to change. The students seemed to appreciate the chance to talk at this meeting. Each of them described their special circumstances and hopes for the summer.

I told the students several stories about past digs; some were humorous, and others highlighted accomplishments. I shared my particular interests in this project and how I thought we as a group could accomplish the work that needed to be done at this important historical site. In particular, I stressed two points: (a) that they shared the responsibility for the successful outcome of the venture, and (b) that they had independent authority to design, schedule, and carry out the details of their respective assignments, with the director and other senior staff available at all times as advisers and resource persons. In regard to the departure time issue, I told the participants that the standard departure time on digs was 5:00 a.m. Well, shortly after our meeting I observed a real shift in the group attitude and atmosphere. People seemed to become more involved in the work, there was less sickness, and there was more camaraderie. All assignments were completed without constant prodding and in a spirit of mutual support. Each morning at 5:00 a.m. everyone was ready to go.

I find that each year my groups are different. It’s almost as if each of them has a unique personality. Perhaps that is why I find it so challenging. I try to listen to the students and use their particular strengths. It really is quite amazing how these students can develop in eight weeks. They really become good at archaeology, and they accomplish a great deal.

This coming year will again be different because of the 10 returning “veterans.”

Questions How is this an example of transformational leadership? Where are Dr. Cook’s strengths on the Full Range of Leadership model (Figure 8.2)? What is the vision Dr. Cook has for the archaeology excavations

Case 8.3 Grandmothers and Benches The invitation of a park bench and the compassion of a grandmother are saving lives in Zimbabwe.

Zimbabwe, an African nation of more than 16 million people, had only 12 psychiatrists available to meet the mental health needs of the entire country. Dr. Dixon Chibanda is one of them (Chibanda, 2017c; Nuwer, 2018).

After losing a young patient he had treated for depression to suicide because she and her mother could not afford the $15 bus fare to come to his office for treatment, Dr. Chibanda realized that the traditional delivery of mental health care—offering services in a facility and waiting for patients to come to him—would not work in his country. After much soul searching and consideration of the effectiveness of his role as a psychiatrist in Zimbabwe, Dr. Chibanda had an epiphany.

Suicide is not unusual when it comes to mental health concerns. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), suicide is the leading cause of death of those ages 15 to 29 worldwide. Globally, more than 300 million people suffer from depression, according to the WHO. Depression is the world’s leading cause of disability and contributes to 800,000 suicides per year, the majority of which occur in developing countries (Nuwer, 2018).

Depression, often the result of loneliness, abuse, conflict, and violence, is a treatable mental illness. But treatment needs to be available and affordable, which are large concerns for a country like Zimbabwe with extremely limited resources.

In 2006, Dr. Chibanda began leading a team of Zimbabwean researchers in testing new ways of addressing anxiety and depression disorders and making treatment accessible to those who need it (Chibanda, 2017a). With no money or facilities available, he accessed the most abundant and reliable resource he could think of: grandmothers. Thus, the Friendship Bench approach was conceived.

The Friendship Bench involves the engagement and training of laypeople—grandmothers, to be precise—from local communities, as well as the integration of digital technologies.

Why grandmothers? Grandmothers are often a trusted, cultural cornerstone in Zimbabwean communities. “It suddenly dawned on me that actually, one of the most reliable resources we have in Africa are grandmothers. Yes, grandmothers. And I thought, grandmothers are in every community. There are hundreds of them” (Chibanda, 2017c).

In addition, Dr. Chibanda realized that grandmothers, unlike many younger workers, were more likely to stay in place and not leave the communities to seek other opportunities. Furthermore, many grandmothers were already doing community work, and association with this program would reinforce their role in the community.

“When we started, we didn’t know what the core competencies were . . . Later we discovered that our lay therapists needed strong listening skills, an ability to convey empathy and an ability to reflect—all skills the grandmothers had and could develop further” (WHO, 2018, p. 377).

Training these community counselors involved the application of basic cognitive therapy (often referred to as “talk therapy”) concepts. The grandmothers were taught to adopt a nonjudgmental and practical approach, allowing the clients to discuss their challenges and talk through possible solutions. Dr. Chibanda’s strategy was to “empower them [the grandmothers] with the skills to provide behavior activation, [and] activity scheduling; and support them using digital technology. You know, mobile phone technology. Pretty much everyone in Africa has a mobile phone today” (Chibanda, 2017c).

The program launched in 2007, and Dr. Chibanda spent the first four years of the program working with 14 grandmothers and his colleague, Petra Mesu, to develop a “culturally appropriate and evidence-based intervention they could deliver” (WHO, 2018, p. 377). Together,

they developed a therapy focused on problem solving that incorporated the native Shona language and familiar, local cultural concepts.

The first step of the program is screening, which is done at a health facility. Using a locally developed diagnosis tool called the Shona Symptom Questionnaire, clients are evaluated as to whether they are suffering from mental illness and what form of mental illness. If it is found that they are, then they are referred to the Friendship Bench where they meet with one of the trained community counselors (the grandmothers). The Friendship Bench is a literal wooden park bench, initially located in discreet areas around the health facility, where patient and grandmother (counselor) can openly discuss a patient’s concerns in a comfortable setting. Due to the growing acceptance of the program, these benches are now more publicly visible.

As part of their training, counselors are taught to use language and terms familiar to their clients such as kuvhura pfungwa (“opening the mind”), kusimudzira (“uplifting”), and kusimbisa (“to strengthen”). Many of the clients suffer with depression, which is commonly referred to as kufungisisa (“thinking too much”) in the Shona language.

“They provide six sessions of individual problem-solving therapy to each patient and refer those at risk of suicide to their immediate supervisors. The first session takes an hour or more, during which the grandmother listens, establishes a rapport with the client, and takes notes. Their notes are reviewed regularly by the team, together with the grandmothers, particularly during debrief sessions. The sessions are recorded for their supervisors to monitor,” said Dr. Chibanda. “Afterwards, the grandmother reflects on what the client said and decides what needs to be done with the other grandmothers. Subsequent sessions with the client can be quite short, 20–30 minutes, because the client has an understanding of what to focus on” (WHO, 2018, p. 377).

Technology plays an important role in the program. To store patient data, the team uses a secure platform combined with cloud computing. “Each patient receives text messages between sessions to encourage their problem-solving efforts. When a client does not turn up for a session on the bench, we call them and if there is no response, the grandmother and a health professional visit the client’s home,” Dr. Chibanda said (WHO, 2018, p. 377).

Dedicated to the success of the program, Dr. Chibanda ran the initial pilot in Mbare, using his own salary to pay for supplies and space rental for the training. The program would eventually receive funding from the National Healthcare Trust, Zimbabwe and other organizations.

Some of the grandmothers are paid, receiving an allowance from their city’s health department. During the clinical trials, funding was available, but once those trials concluded, that funding dried up and Dr. Chibanda was concerned the grandmothers might cease working. To his surprise, they did not. When he and his colleagues looked into why, they found the grandmothers exhibited negative mental health conditions of their own, and the team hypothesized that perhaps the work the grandmothers were doing helped them as well, enabling them to expand their own well-being and resilience to adversity.

Dr. Chibanda’s own mother came up with the income-generating model for the grandmothers. “After finishing sessions on the bench, the grandmothers sit in a circle and share the challenges they face with their colleagues, while crocheting bags with recycled plastic to sell. Now, after completing therapy, the grandmothers give their patients further support and show them how to make the bags. So, this is a forum for problem solving and income generation” (WHO, 2018, p. 377).

The success of the program speaks for itself. In 2017, the program had been scaled into more than 70 communities, with “hundreds of grandmothers” providing mental health services in those communities. More than 30,000 people have received treatment on the Friendship Bench. “Our results—this was a clinical trial—in fact, this clinical trial showed that grandmothers were more effective at treating depression than doctors” (Chibanda, 2017c).

“When we compared the Friendship Bench approach to standard care, plus information, education, and support on common mental disorders, we found that after nine months the Friendship Bench patients had a significantly lower risk of symptoms than the standard of care group,” Dr. Chibanda said (WHO, 2018, p. 377).

Not surprisingly, Chibanda sees the potential in expanding the program globally. Even in developed countries, the availability of mental health professionals is rapidly declining, with waiting times to receive care increasing to dangerous levels. “In the United Kingdom, thousands of people attempt suicide while waiting, sometimes for months, on the National Health Service list to see a psychologist. Similarly, long waiting lists have been reported in the United States” (Chibanda, 2017b).

Dr. Chibanda notes that today there are more than 600 million people worldwide who are above 65, with this number expected to expand to 1.5 billion people by the year 2050. He envisions “a global network of grandmothers in every city in the world who are trained in evidence-based talk therapy, supported through digital platforms, networked. And they will make a difference in communities. They will reduce the treatment gap for mental, neurological and substance-use disorders” (Chibanda, 2017c).

The realization of this vision has already begun. The program has expanded to rural areas in Zimbabwe and is developing a component for adolescents. The Friendship Bench approach is being implemented in Malawi with plans for it to be used in Zanzibar, United Republic of Tanzania. Its use is even being explored in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand (WHO, 2018, p. 377).

Questions

Based on the definition of transformational leadership in this chapter: What aspects of the implementation of the Friendship Bench and the effectiveness of the grandmothers do you see as related to the transformational leadership processes? Explain why.

Are there aspects of this process outlined in this case study that you would classify as transactional leadership? Why? Charisma and its relationship to transformational leadership was discussed at length and outlined in Table 8.1. View Dr. Dixon Chibanda’s 2017 TED Talk at www.ted.com/talks/dixon_chibanda_why_i_train_grandmothers_to_treat_depression and respond to the following: Do you perceive Dr. Chibanda to be a charismatic leader? Why or why not? What about the grandmothers? What characteristics of charismatic leadership, if any, would you ascribe to them? Explain your answer. Bass suggested that “charisma is a necessary but not sufficient condition for transformational leadership.” Based on the elements of this case study, would you agree or disagree? Why? How do each of the leadership factors of idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration relate to this case? Bennis and Nanus expanded on the transformational perspective by identifying four common strategies for transformational leaders. Discuss how each of these relates to Dr. Chibanda and the grandmothers: Clear vision Social architect Creation of trust Creative deployment of self Kouzes and Posner identified five fundamental practices of transformational leaders. Discuss how these apply to this case: Model the way Inspire a shared vision Challenge the process Enable others to act Encourage the heart The chapter lists seven criticisms of the transformational leadership model. Select three of these and address them with respect to this case.

Leadership Instrument The Transformational Leadership Inventory developed by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter (1990) provides a measure of transactional and transformational leadership. The purpose of this questionnaire is to determine which style of leadership you tend to use, transformational or transactional. If you have held leadership positions in the past, you might have some idea which style you tend to use. Even if you have no leadership experience, this self-assessment can provide a starting point for you to determine which style you are more likely to use.

Transformational Leadership Inventory

Purpose: The purpose of this questionnaire is to determine which style of leadership you intend to use, transformational or transactional.

Instructions: To respond to the following questions, consider a time when you have been a leader of a group. Read each of the following statements and select the response that best describes your leadership behavior as a member of this group.

Key: 1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly agree

1.

I have a clear understanding of where my group is going.

1

2

3

4

5

2.

I always give others positive feedback when they perform well.

1

2

3

4

5

3.

I paint an interesting picture of the future for our group.

1

2

3

4

5

4.

I give special recognition to group members when their work is very good.

1

2

3

4

5

5.

I am always seeking new opportunities for the group.

1

2

3

4

5

6.

I commend others when they do a better than average job.

1

2

3

4

5

7.

I inspire others with my plans for the future.

1

2

3

4

5

8.

I frequently acknowledge others’ good performance.

1

2

3

4

5

Scoring and Interpretation Write the number you selected for each question in the blanks in the following box.

Transformational Leadership

Transactional Leadership

1. ______

2. ______

3. ______

4. ______

5. ______

6. ______

7. ______

8. ______

Total: ______

Total: ______

Transformational Leadership (Identifying and Articulating a Vision): Identifying new opportunities for a leader’s unit/division/company, and developing, articulating, and inspiring others with a vision of the future. Transactional Leadership (Contingent Reward): Promising or delivering rewards to followers, contingent on their performance. Your scores for each dimension (transformational or transactional) can range from 4 to 20. In general, scores from 4 to 12 represent lower levels of your preference for the leadership style, and scores above 12 indicate higher levels of your preference for the leadership style.

Source: Adapted from Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 1(2), 107–142.

Summary One of the most encompassing approaches to leadership—transformational leadership—is concerned with the process of how certain leaders are able to inspire followers to accomplish great things. This approach stresses that leaders need to understand and adapt to the needs and motives of followers. Transformational leaders are recognized as change agents who are good role models, who can create and articulate a clear vision for an organization, who empower followers to meet higher standards, who act in ways that make others want to trust them, and who give meaning to organizational life.

Transformational leadership emerged from and is rooted in the writings of Burns (1978) and Bass (1985). The works of Bennis and Nanus (1985, 2007) and Kouzes and Posner (2002, 2017a) are also representative of transformational leadership. Qualitative studies provided additional perspectives on transformational leadership and served as guides for practicing managers.

There are several positive features of the transformational approach, including that it is a popular model that has received a lot of attention by researchers, it has strong intuitive appeal, it emphasizes the importance of followers in the leadership process, it goes beyond traditional transactional models and broadens leadership to include the growth of followers, and it places strong emphasis on morals and values. Transformational leadership has also proven to be an effective form of leadership that is positively related to follower satisfaction, motivation, and performance.

Balancing against the positive features of transformational leadership are several weaknesses. These include that the approach lacks conceptual clarity and a well-defined causal model; it is based on the MLQ, which has been challenged by some research; it creates a framework that implies that transformational leadership has a trait-like quality; it is sometimes seen as elitist and undemocratic; it suffers from a “heroic leadership” bias; and it has the potential to be used counterproductively in negative ways by leaders. Finally, transformational leadership may not be viewed as an effective leadership approach in all national cultures and among millennials. Despite the weaknesses, transformational leadership appears to be a valuable and widely used approach.

Descriptions of Images and Figures Back to Figure LEGEND

Nonleadership

LF Laissez-Faire Transactional

MBE-P Management by Exception, Passive MBE-A Management by Exception, Active CR Contingent Reward Transformational Four I’s

Idealized Influence Inspirational Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Individualized Consideration Back to Figure Transformational leadership equals idealized influence plus inspirational motivation plus intellectual stimulation plus individualized consideration. Transactional leadership equals contingent reward plus management by exception. Transformational leadership and expected outcomes from transactional leadership lead to performance beyond expectations.

●Assignment All of the case studies in the text provide guiding questions to help the reader engage with the aspect of the leadership approach or style. After identifying the strengths and criticisms associated with the leadership approach you are exemplifying in your case study, you should focus on questions that help your reader focus on specific areas described. How can you craft the questions to ensure the reader is analyzing the areas you hope to highlight?

In a diagram, chart, or document list the leadership approach, the strength or criticism exemplified, and then the guiding question you developed for the reader. Repeat this for each guiding question, and then provide one or more answers that would meet mastery.