Research Proposal Part 2, Research Methods

Self-Directed Learning Readiness and Life Satisfaction Among Older Adults

A Sample Quantitative Research Proposal Written in the APA 6 th

Style

[Note: This sample proposal is based on a composite of past proposals, simulated information

and references, and material I’ve included for illustration purposes – it is based roughly on a

fairly standard research proposal; I say roughly because there is no one set way of creating a

quantitative research proposal. Much of its design is based on the nature of the research, your

preferences, and your decisions regarding how to describe or portray what it is you plan to

accomplish. The material in this document was adopted from a dissertation proposal created by

Dr. Ralph Brockett. A biography is not included in this sample proposal. To examine ways of

creating references in the APA format and other suggestions for using the APA stylistic guide,

see http://www-distance.syr.edu/apa6th.html or http://www-distance.syr.edu/apa6th.pdf . Roger

Hiemstra]

Introduction

An important area of emphasis in gerontological research over the past several decades has been

the issue of life satisfaction. Questions about the physical, psychological, social, and economic

status of older adults have served, either directly or indirectly, as the predominant focus of the

aging research (e. g., Maddox and Wiley, 1996). It is these kinds of questions that have increased

understanding of the processes and problems of aging and have led to the development of

strategies designed to maximize the potential of the later years.

At the same time, self-directed learning has generated considerable interest in the adult education

literature. This has been fueled by the development of the SDLRS (Guglielmino, 1997), a scale

designed to measure a person’s readiness for self-directed learning. Unfortunately, very few have

looked at self-directed learning and older adults. Hiemstra (1975) studied older adult’s learning

projects and found a strong relationship between a preference for assuming personal control over

learning and age. This was supported by Hassan (1991) and McCoy (1992). Hassan also looked

at the self-directed learning readiness scores of older adults and found a corresponding positive

relationship between age and scores on the SDLRS. However, apparently no published reports of

subsequent research with the older adult exist.

In addition, no one has published accounts of any comparisons between SDLRS and Life

Satisfaction among older adults. If life satisfaction can be improved by learning efforts as shown

by Dowden (2008), it is important to determine if a propensity and readiness for self-directed

learning among older adults has a relationship to measures of life satisfaction. Therefore, the

intent of this proposed research will be to examine such relationships.

Problem Statement

Based on the above discussion, it is possible to identify a two-fold problem that will serve as a

point of departure for the present investigation. As has been noted above and is clarified in the

later review of literature section, one problem area is the fact that many older adults face various

2

hurdles that can impact their overall state of well-being. Some adults are able to cross these

hurdles through self-learning efforts, while others find themselves less well equipped to cope

with such concerns. The second problem area involves better understanding why some people

turn to learning for meeting personal needs, while others do not.

In essence, life satisfaction varies considerable among older adults, as does personal propensity

to undertake learning efforts. It is these variances that lie at the heart of the problem areas

proposed for this study. If a link can be established between life satisfaction and an attitude

conducive to self-directedness in learning, then it might be possible to look toward self-directed

learning as a strategy for promoting a higher quality of life among persons in their later years.

Purpose

The purpose of this study, then, is to explore ways in which older adults’ perceptions as self-

directed learners compare with the degree of satisfaction that they ascribe to their lives.

Specifically, the study will focus on two primary objectives:

1. To determine the relationship between life satisfaction and personal readiness for self-directed

learning.

2. To determine the extent to which components of life satisfaction combine with selected

demographic variables to predict a person’s level of self-directed readiness.

In addition, because so little is known about self-directed learning among older adults, a third

objective will complete the research effort:

3. To examine various methodological and substantive considerations in studying self-directed

learning.

Hypotheses

Based on a review of literature as noted later in this proposal, two major hypothesis areas will

guide the analysis of data. First, it is hypothesized that perceptions of life satisfaction will be

related to perceptions of self-directed learning readiness among a sample of older adults. Those

persons who report a high degree of life satisfaction will tend to have perceptions of higher self-

directed readiness while low satisfaction will be related to low self-directed readiness. In

essence, this means that it will be possible to predict an individual’s level of self-directed

readiness by knowing their score on overall life satisfaction plus some of the factors sometimes

identified as barriers to participation in adult education among older adults, such as age and

gender. Finally, it is hypothesized that subjects from a community sample will tend to

demonstrate higher self-directed readiness and life satisfaction than those residing in an

institutionalized setting.

Definition of Key Terms

Life Satisfaction – a self reported assessment of one’s overall psychosocial well-being. It is a

combination of (a) personality factors such as mood and self-concept, (b) more socially-related

3

factors such as the nature of one’s social interactions, (c) perceived health, and (d) financial

security.

Older Adult – for the proposed study, older adult is defined as any person who is at least 65 years

of age.

Self-Directed Learning – a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the

help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human

and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies,

and evaluating learning outcomes.

Self-Directed Learning Readiness – the degree to which one perceives oneself to possess the

attitudes and skills needed to be an effective self-directed learner. It is measured in the proposed

study through the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS), developed by Guglielmino

(1997).

Review of Literature

Before considering this body of literature, it is important to point out that research on qualify of

life has not fallen within the exclusive domain of gerontologists. Quality of life is an issue that is

relevant to persons of all ages and has been widely studied as such. Cantrill (1965), for instance,

studied quality of life among persons in more than a dozen nations at different stages of

development. In the U.S., researchers affiliated with the Institute for Social Research at the

University of Michigan have undertaken extensive efforts in studying quality of life (e.g.,

Andrews & Withey, 1996; Campbell, Converse, & Rodgers, 1996; Campbell, 2001, Davis, 2010,

Thomkins, 1996). The reader is alerted to the existence of broader studies such as these. The

present discussion, however, will concentrate primarily on findings and issues associated with

persons in their later years.

Defining Life Satisfaction and Related Concepts

To fully understand the meaning of life satisfaction as it is used in the proposed study, it is

necessary to be familiar with a number of related concepts. The term that probably serves as the

umbrella under which other terms are covered is quality of life. In general, quality of life is a

nebulous term that evades precise definition (Campbell, 1991). Andrews and Withey (1996) have

stated the following about quality of life:

. . . sometimes refers to an 'outsider's' judgments of quality covered in such measures as

crowding, decibels of noise pollution, reported crimes, income levels, etc., but it may also

refer to the privately known and privately evaluated aspects of life (p. 4).

Another broad term, one that is specifically associated with the gerontological literature, is

successful aging. Kalish (1995) discusses the following four related though distinct definitions of

successful aging:

4

 A way of life that is socially desirable for this age group

 Maintenance of middle-age activities

 A feeling of satisfaction with one's present status and activities

 A feeling of happiness and satisfaction with one's life (p. 60).

Clearly, successful aging bears some relationship to life satisfaction, especially as considered in

the third and fourth definitions presented above. Leonard (1981-82) has addressed the

relationship between life satisfaction and successful aging by viewing the former as "a major

component" of the latter (p. 223).

Another term frequently associated with life satisfaction is well-being. This is sometimes

referred to more specifically as "subjective well-being" (Larson, 1998) or "social-psychological

well-being" (George, 2004). According to Larson, well-being is an assessment of "the general

affective experience of older persons in terms of a positive negative continuum" (1998, p. 109).

Essentially, then, life satisfaction can be viewed as an "assessment of one's overall psychosocial

well-being." Throughout the present discussion, well-being will be used more or less

interchangeably with life satisfaction.

So, then, just what is life satisfaction? As has been pointed out, life satisfaction is an integral

component of successful aging. George has described life satisfaction as "essentially a cognitive

assessment of one's progress toward desired goals" (1999, p. 210). Lemon, Bengston, and

Peterson (1992) define the concept as "the degree to which one is presently content or pleased

with his general life situation" (p. 513). An important consideration that needs to be taken into

account when conceptualizing life satisfaction is the point of reference from which the concept is

measured. Neugarten, Havighurst, and Tobin (1961), among others, have discussed two

approaches to measuring well-being. The first of these is an examination of the person's external

conditions. Here, well-being is determined on the basis of factors such as income, participation

in social activities, employment and marital status, and health as assessed through a physical

examination. This approach has been criticized by various authors. For example, Neugarten, et

al. (1961) have noted that this approach is subject to the biases of those who define the

parameters of what constitutes high and low life satisfaction. Campbell (1991) has stressed that it

is not possible to "understand the psychological quality of a person's life simply from a

knowledge of the circumstances in which that person lives." Therefore, by attempting to "explain

the population's sense of well-being on the basis of objective circumstances, we will leave

unaccounted for most of what we are trying to explain" (pp. 1-2).

Measuring Life Satisfaction: Different Approaches

Since 1949, a variety of measures have been developed to assess life satisfaction and related

constructs among older people. Four such scales are discussed in the present section. The earliest

of these efforts to measure the well-being of older adults was reported by Cavan, Burgess,

Havighurst, and Goldhammer (1949). The focus of this study was on "personal adjustment,"

which was measured through an instrument referred to as Your Activities and Attitudes. This is a

rather extensive survey of the kinds of activities and concerns individuals devote their energies

and attitudes toward health, family and friends, happiness, and related issues.

5

Another early measure of well-being was the Kutner Morale Scale (Kutner, Fanshel, Togo, and

Langner, 1956). This is a seven-item Guttman scale that was administered to 500 persons at least

60 years of age. Here, morale was defined as "a continuum of responses to life and living

problems that reflect the presence or absence of satisfaction, optimism, and expanding life

perspectives" (p. 48). In this scale, subjects were asked to give their responses to each of seven

morale-related questions, with points scored for appropriate responses. A criticism that has been

leveled against this measure is that it views well-being as a unidimensional concept rather than a

combination of interacting factors (Neugarten, et al., 1961).

By far, the measure that has been predominant in life satisfaction research is the Life Satisfaction

Index A (LSIA), which was developed by Neugarten, et al. (1961). This is a 20-item scale where

subjects are asked to respond either "agree," "disagree," or "?" to each statement. The LSIA grew

out of a larger study where life satisfaction ratings were assigned to individuals based on a series

of interviews. Through these interviews, the authors recognized five factors that comprised the

variable life satisfaction. These factors include:

 zest vs. apathy

 resolution and fortitude

 congruence between desired and achieved goals

 self-concept

 mood tone

The LSIA is regarded as a major contribution because it defined life satisfaction as a

multidimensional construct and specified the various factors comprising the construct. As

Salamon and Conte (1991) note, however, reliability figures for the Indexes were at best low to

moderate, with a range of r = -.07 to r = .59. This would indicate an important limitation to the

use of the LSIA.

In response to the limitations of unidimensional life satisfaction scales and the relatively low

reliability scores of the LSIA, Salamon and Conte (1991) developed a new life satisfaction

measure. The Salamon-Conte Life Satisfaction in the Elderly Scale (SCLSES) is a 40-item Likert

scale that asks subjects to respond to statements designed to produce an understanding of their

"feelings about life in general." The SCLSES contains eight subscales, five of which are closely

related to those identified by Neugarten, et al. (1961). These are "taking pleasure in daily

activities," "regarding life as meaningful," "goodness of fit between desired and achieved goals,"

"positive mood tone," and "positive self-concept" (pp. 5-6). In addition, Salamon and Conte

included subscales for three additional factors that have been found to be closely related to life

satisfaction. These are "perceived health," "financial security," and "social contacts" (p. 6). This

instrument was selected for use in the present investigation for two reasons. First, the reliability

coefficient of .93 reported by the SCLSES developers is considerably higher than reliability

figures for other life satisfaction measures. Second, several of the factors in the scale can be

linked, directly or indirectly, to adult education participation and/or perceptions of self-

directedness. The SCLSES, proposed for use in this study, is discussed in greater detail in a later

section.

6

Self-Directed Learning [note: this section has been shorted for purposes of illustration in this

sample proposal – in reality, it would most likely be 1-3 pages longer to make the case for its use

in the proposed research]

Self-directed learning is by no means a new concept to adult education; yet it only began to

emerge as a major research focus in the field since the early 1970's. The foundation upon which

self-directed learning has been supported is generally associated with the principles of

humanistic philosophy and psychology. A variety of approaches have been used to study the

self-directed learning phenomenon. These studies can be categorized as either learning projects

(Tough, 1971), qualitative (Passmore, 1986), or self-directed readiness (1997). Findings indicate

that self-directed learning is far more widespread than had been imagined prior to Tough's initial

learning projects study. In addition, there is growing evidence of a broad range of psychosocial

factors that correlate with self-direction. As these studies are reported, it becomes increasingly

possible to define the parameters of self directed learning.

Residence [note: this section has been shorted for purposes of illustration in this sample – in

reality, it would most likely be 1-3 pages longer to make the case for its use in the proposed

research]

Especially relevant to the present investigation is a consideration of the relationship between

residential setting and life satisfaction. Wolk and Telleen (1999) studied life satisfaction

differences between samples from long-term care and retirement community settings. Life

satisfaction was found to be higher among the community sample, where subjects were in a

lower constraint environment. Further, they noted different emphases in life satisfaction

correlates between the two groups, suggesting that the strength of the correlation between life

satisfaction and related factors may differ on the basis of the setting in which an individual

resides.

Summary

Life satisfaction has been an important area of study for psychologists and sociologists in recent

decades. Because of its link with quality of life, gerontologists have found it especially fruitful to

explore life satisfaction among older adults. Like self-directed learning, life satisfaction is hard

to define and this has contributed to certain difficulties in studying the concept. Research has

examined life satisfaction variously as a unidimensional and a multi dimensional phenomenon,

an objective and subjective measure, an indicator of present and lifetime well-being, and a social

and psychosocial phenomenon. Learning efforts have been shown to be have a relationship to

life satisfaction, but the exact association is not clear. This proposed research will add to the

literature base by building a rationale for recognizing the importance of both self-directed

learning and life satisfaction in research and theory building in gerontology and adult education.

Methodology

In the previous section, an introduction to the proposed area of research was presented. This

included a description of the study’s research problem, several research purposes, three

hypotheses that will serve to direct the data analysis, and an identification of several terms key to

7

the study. In addition, a review of relevant literature related to the two major study variables –

adult self-directed learning readiness and life satisfaction during the aging process – established

a background of support for the study. Both of these variables have been studied extensively, but

not together and with older adults. The proposed research is an effort to examine the relationship

between these variables in a manner that has not been done to date.

The intent of this section is to describe the methodology that is proposed for such a research

effort. Included in the section will be a description of the study setting, proposed research design,

study sample, and proposed data collection methods, procedures, and analysis efforts.

Study Setting

In its broadest conceptualization, this study is intended to address the population of older adults

in the United States. However, the vast diversity of this population in terms of socioeconomic

status and other related variables would make for a monumental undertaking. Therefore, it is

necessary to delimit the setting from which a sample for the study will be drawn.

The setting for the proposed study, thus, consists of all individuals residing within two settings.

One setting will be an adult residential home in Syracuse, New York. The adult home is a long-

term care facility for persons who need minimal support. The other setting is a senior citizen’s

housing project located adjacent to downtown Syracuse. Residents living in this facility are all

retired, living on their own, and do not need outside support. Choosing these two settings will

provide for a sample of older adults within a confined geographic area thereby facilitating the

collection of data, while at the same time meeting the requirements of grouping differences as

noted in the literature review.

Research Design

The proposed study employs an ex post facto research design as described by Kerlinger (1973):

Ex post facto research is systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have

direct control of variables. Inferences about relationships among variables are made from

any determined variations between the studied variables. (p. 344)

Therefore, the study plan will involve the gathering of information about life satisfaction and

self-directed learning readiness among older adults living in two different residential settings. No

manipulation of the variables by the researcher will be possible; instead any determined

differences will be ex post facto in nature in that they will stem from differences in results in the

measurement efforts according to age, gender, residential setting, life satisfaction scores, and

self-directed learning readiness scores.

Population and Sampling Plan

The adult home is not a health care facility, but rather a residential setting for independent older

adults who require only minimal services, such as assistance with house keeping, one or two

daily meals, and transportation to meet medical, grocery shopping, and other needs. It has been

8

determined that 271 people, 65 years of age or older, live in this setting. In addition, 346 people

live in the 220 apartments contained within the senior citizen complex. Some tenants may

receive special services based on income and all are eligible for various social and community

activities, but all are independent in terms of transportation, meeting medical needs, and

involvement with others throughout the community.

A random sample will be drawn from the list of residents obtained for both settings. Using a

table of random numbers, the names of individuals will be selected from each setting until a

minimum of 110 people in each setting is obtained. It is anticipated that if fewer than 95 people

per setting initially respond to the instruments described below, names will continue to be drawn

from the remaining individuals until at least 95 people from each setting have completed the two

forms. It is hoped that at least 100 people from each site will complete the forms.

It is expected that obtaining a minimum of 190 people as described in the previous paragraph

will result in a good cross section of subjects in terms of gender, age, and residential setting. In

addition, the normal variations in life satisfaction SDLRS scores among at least 190 people will

enable statistical comparisons for the study’s hypotheses that provide new information about

older adults.

Data Collection Procedures

In the proposed study, two instruments will be employed to measure one independent variable,

one dependent variable, and three moderator (demographic) variables. These are outlined below.

Independent Variable – Life satisfaction, the independent variable in this study, will be measured

by the Salamon-Conte Life Satisfaction in the Elderly Scale (SCLSES). Developed by Salamon

and Conte (1991), the SCLSES is a self-report inventory that focuses on three aspects of daily

living. These include (a) taking pleasure in daily activities, (b) regarding life as meaningful, and

(c) self-concept. It is a 44-item instrument; 40 of the items comprise a Likert scale measure of

life satisfaction, while the other items are measures of possible moderating variables. The

authors report a reliability coefficient of .93 for the entire scale. They did not talk about the

instrument’s validity. Even given this latter limitation, the SCLSES, it would appear, offers

much potential as an approach to measuring the variable of life satisfaction.

Dependent Variable – The dependent variable in this study is self-directed readiness. It is

measured through the use of the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS). This is a 58-

item Likert scale, developed by Guglielmino (1997) to determine the extent to which subjects

perceive themselves to possess the skills frequently associated with self-directed learning.

Guglielmino reported a reliability coefficient of .87 for the scale. In addition, both internal and

predictive validity of the instrument have been demonstrated to be high. Hassan (1991) used the

SDLRS with a sample of 102 individuals that included 39 people at least 60 years of age. She did

not find a significant relationship between age and self-directed learning readiness. Thus, it

would appear the SDLRS is appropriate for use with older adults as a means of identifying

variance across the population.

9

Moderator Variables – In addition to the above independent and dependent variables, three

secondary independent or moderator variables will be considered. According to Tuckman

(1978), a moderator variable is as follows:

. . . that factor which is measured, manipulated, or selected by the researcher to discover

whether it modifies the relationship of the independent variable to an observed

phenomenon (p. 63).

Thus, the moderator variables can determine the extent to which the relationship between the two

major variables is influenced by secondary factors. In this study the moderator variables of age,

gender, and residential status will be included.

Data Gathering Plans – The two instruments and a simple instruction sheet that also asks subjects

their age and gender, will be delivered to an administrator in each setting who has agreed to

distribute and collect the completed instruments. Prior to their distribution an introductory letter

from both the researcher and the respective administrators will be placed in each selected

subject’s mailbox or mail slot asking for their cooperation. The letters will describe the research

and its importance and the support of the administrator. They also will note that a $5 coupon

toward any groceries at the local Wegman’s Grocery (donated by the store’s public relations

office) will be available to each person completing the two instruments and signing a letter of

informed consent related to the research. Finally, they will provide a telephone number for

anyone with questions or who may need assistance in completing the instruments. This

procedure will be pilot-tested with at least 10 volunteers from the Fayetteville Senior center to

refine the data gathering plans.

Once the pilot-testing procedures have been completed, any required changes in the

administration plans will be carried out. Then the administrators will be authorized to distribute

the forms. Any person who has phoned needing clarification will be provided further

explanation. Anyone who phones in a need for assistance in completing the forms will receive

support in the form of one the location’s administrative assistants reading the forms and

recording the answers. Each assistant so involved will be provided training by the researcher on

how to read and record the answers in an unbiased manner.

One week after this initial delivery, a follow-up phone call will be made to either thank those

who completed the forms or to remind those who have not yet completed their forms. The

grocery coupons will be mailed to all who have completed the forms with a letter of thanks. If

fewer than 95 people from each of the two settings complete the forms, then the random

sampling and distribution will continue until at least that number of completed forms from each

setting has been received. It is anticipated that all data collection efforts will be completed within

one month.

Data Analysis

Four types of analysis are proposed for this study. First, in order to provide a description of the

sample from which data will be collected, descriptive information on age, gender, and residential

setting will be described, as well as the means, modes, range, and standard deviations for the

10

SDLRS and SCLSES scores. Second, to determine the relationship between SDLRS and

SCLSES, Pearson product moment correlation coefficients will be determined. Third, to

determine any differences in SDLRS and SCLSES scores according to the moderating effects of

age, gender, and residential setting, chi-square, t-tests, and analysis of variance will be used to

examine for any significant differences among the scores and moderator variables.

The specific hypotheses to be tested are shown below in null form:

1. There is no significant relationship between life satisfaction and self-directed learning

readiness. This will be tested with the Pearson correlation coefficient.

2. There is no significant difference in life satisfaction and in self-directed learning readiness

between adult home and residential setting subjects. Each will be tested by chi-square.

3. There is no significant difference in life satisfaction and in self-directed learning readiness

according to gender. Each will be tested by chi-square.

4. There is no significant difference in life satisfaction and in self-directed learning readiness

according to age. Each will be tested by t-test and, collectively, by analysis of variance.

All hypotheses will be tested at a minimum of the .05 level of significance.

Concluding Remarks

Significance

It is expected that the study will make at least three contributions to the areas of adult education

and gerontology. First, the study will contribute to the expanding knowledge base of self-

directed learning. As more is known about the relationship of self-directed learning to such areas

as a person’s satisfaction regarding life, it will be possible to more clearly understand the

meaning of self-directed learning. The proposed research study is viewed as a piece of this

puzzle.

Second, this study is the first attempt to utilize the SDLRS with a sample of older persons

residing in institutional and residential housing settings. So often, these segments of the aging

population are overlooked as potential learners. The study should contribute toward a better

understanding of this group.

Finally, the ultimate issue underlying the study is quality of life. It is anticipated that the study

may identify ways through which education can contribute to the meaning of life for many

persons in their later years. While this is an enormous undertaking, the study could prove to be a

small step in this direction.

Limitations

There are three limitations to the study. First, the study will be limited in terms of its

generalizability to the total older adult population. Like any other age group, older adults are a

very heterogeneous population. While the proposed study sample should be quite diverse, the

fact remains that certain segments of the older population will not be included.

11

A second potential limitation of the study is that the independent and dependent variables are

measured as subjects’ perceptions, not actual behaviors. In essence, the study does not address

actual participation in self-directed learning activities nor does it address actual aspects that

make up a person’s life satisfaction, rather it describes the values that subjects ascribe to these

areas.

Finally, anytime you use an instrument the results are subject to the known reliability and

validity of that instrument. Although some information about the instruments in regard to

reliability and validity (in the case of the SDLRS) is known, the instruments may have

limitations in measuring what they purport to measure. Only subsequent research with other

audiences and with other instruments will help further our understanding of the concepts being

measured in the study.

Supplemental Materials

Although they are not included in this sample proposal, this section would include such areas as

a bibliography of cited references in the APA 6 th

style, any necessary appendix material, and a

copy of any instruments if appropriate.