INFANT Child Development Need This Done Tomorrow April 7, 2019 By 12pm PACIFIC TIME ZONE!
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Q2.InfantToddlerLearningandDevelopmentFoundations-CognitiveandPerceptual-MotorDevelopment.pdf
Cognitive Development
“The last two decades of infancy research have seen dramatic changes in the way developmental psychologists char acterize the earliest stages of cognitive development. The infant, once regarded as an organism driven mainly by sim ple sensorimotor schemes, is now seen as possessing sophisticated cognitive skills and even sophisticated concepts that guide knowledge acquisition” (Madole and Oakes 1999, 263).
“What we see in the crib is the great est mind that has ever existed, the most powerful learning machine in the universe” (Gopnik, Meltzoff, and Kuhl 1999, 1).
The term cognitive development refers to the process of growth and change in intellectual/mental abilities such as thinking, reasoning and understanding. It includes the acquisi tion and consolidation of knowledge. Infants draw on social-emotional, language, motor, and perceptual experiences and abilities for cognitive development. They are attuned to relationships between features of objects, actions, and the physical environment. But they are particularly attuned to people. Parents, family
members, friends, teachers, and care givers play a vital role in supporting the cognitive development of infants by providing the healthy interpersonal or social-emotional context in which cognitive development unfolds. Caring, responsive adults provide the base from which infants can fully engage in behaviors and interactions that pro mote learning. Such adults also serve as a prime source of imitation.
Cultural context is important to young children’s cognitive develop ment. There is substantial variation in how intelligence is defined within different cultures (Sternberg and Grigorenko 2004). As a result, dif ferent aspects of cognitive function ing or cognitive performance may be more highly valued in some cultural contexts than in others. For example, whereas processing speed is an aspect of intelligence that is highly valued within the predominant Western con ceptualizations of intelligence, “Ugan dan villagers associate intelligence with adjectives such as slow, careful, and active” (Rogoff and Chavajay 1995, 865.). Aspects of intelligence that have to do with social competence appear to be seen as more important than speed
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in some non-Western cultural contexts (Sternberg and Grigorenko 2004). Cer tainly, it is crucial for early childhood professionals to recognize the role that cultural context plays in defining and setting the stage for children’s healthy cognitive functioning.
Research has identified a broad range of cognitive competencies and described the remarkable progres sion of cognitive development during the early childhood years. Experts in the field describe infants as active, motivated, and engaged learners who possess an impressive range of cogni tive competencies (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine 2000) and learn through explora tion (Whitehurst and Lonigan 1998). Infants demonstrate natural curiosity. They have a strong drive to learn and act accordingly. In fact, they have been described as “born to learn” (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine 2000, 148).
Cause-and-Effect Everyday experiences—for example,
crying and then being picked up or waving a toy and then hearing it rat tle—provide opportunities for infants to learn about cause and effect. “Even very young infants possess expecta tions about physical events” (Baillar geon 2004, 89). This knowledge helps infants better understand the proper ties of objects, the patterns of human behavior, and the relationship between events and the consequences. Through developing an understanding of cause and effect, infants build their abilities to solve problems, to make predictions, and to understand the impact of their behavior on others.
Spatial Relationships Infants learn about spatial relation
ships in a variety of ways; for example, exploring objects with their mouths, tracking objects and people visually, squeezing into tight spaces, fitting objects into openings, and looking at things from different perspectives (Mangione, Lally, and Signer 1992). They spend much of their time explor ing the physical and spatial aspects of the environment, including the characteristics of, and interrelation ships between, the people, objects, and the physical space around them (Cle ments 2004). The development of an understanding of spatial relationships increases infants’ knowledge of how things move and fit in space and the properties of objects (their bodies and the physical environment).
Problem Solving Infants exhibit a high level of inter
est in solving problems. Even very young infants will work to solve a problem, for example, how to find their fingers in order to suck on them (National Research Council and Insti tute of Medicine 2000). Older infants may solve the problem of how to reach an interesting toy that is out of reach by trying to roll toward it or by ges turing to an adult for help. Infants and toddlers solve problems by varied means, including physically acting on objects, using learning schemes they have developed, imitating solutions found by others, using objects or other people as tools, and using trial and error.
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Imitation Imitation is broadly understood to
be a powerful way to learn. It has been identified as crucial in the acquisition of cultural knowledge (Rogoff 1990) and language. Imitation by newborns has been demonstrated for adult facial expressions (Meltzoff and Moore 1983), head movements, and tongue protru sions (Meltzoff and Moore 1989). “The findings of imitation in human new borns highlighted predispositions to imitate facial and manual actions, vocalizations and emotionally laden facial expressions” (Bard and Russell 1999, 93). Infant imitation involves perception and motor processes (Melt zoff and Moore 1999). The very early capacity to imitate makes possible imitation games in which the adult mirrors the child’s behavior, such as sticking out one’s tongue or matching the pitch of a sound the infant makes, and then the infant imitates back. This type of interaction builds over time as the infant and the adult add elements and variations in their imita tion games.
Infants engage in both immediate imitation and delayed imitation. Imme diate imitation occurs when infants observe and immediately attempt to copy or mimic behavior. For example, immediate imitation can be seen when an infant’s parent sticks out his tongue and the infant sticks out his tongue in response. As infants develop, they are able to engage in delayed imi tation, repeating the behavior of others at a later time after having observed it. An example of delayed imitation is a child reenacting part of a parent’s exercise routine, such as lifting a block several times as if it were a weight. Butterworth (1999, 63) sums up the
importance of early imitation in the following manner: “Modern research has shown imitation to be a natural mechanism of learning and communi cation which deserves to be at centre stage in developmental psychology.”
Memory The capacity to remember allows
infants and toddlers to differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar peo ple and objects, anticipate and partici pate in parts of personal care routines, learn language, and come to know the rules of social interaction. The infant’s memory system is quite remarkable and functions at a higher level than was previously believed (Howe and Courage 1993). Although age is not the only determinant of memory function ing, as infants get older they are able to retain information for longer periods of time (Bauer 2004). Infants exhibit long-term recall well before they are able to articulate their past experi ences verbally (Bauer 2002b).
The emergence of memory is related to the development of a neural net work with various components (Bauer 2002b). Commenting on the dif ferent forms and functions of early memory development, Bauer (2002a, 131) states: “It is widely believed that memory is not a unitary trait but is comprised of different systems or processes, which serve distinct func tions, and are characterized by funda mentally different rules of operation.” Bauer (2002a, 145) later adds that recent research counters earlier sug gestions that preschool-aged children demonstrate little memory capac ity and to speculations that younger children and infants demonstrate little or no memory capacity. Bauer (2002a,
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145) concludes: “It is now clear that from early in life, the human organism stores information over the long term and that the effects of prior experience are apparent in behavior. In the first months of life, infants exhibit recogni tion memory for all manner of natural and artificial stimuli.”
Number Sense Number sense refers to children’s
concepts of numbers and the rela tionships among number concepts. Research findings indicate that infants as young as five months of age are sensitive to number and are able to discriminate among small sets of up to three objects (Starkey and Cooper 1980; Starkey, Spelke, and Gelman 1990). Infants demonstrate the abil ity to quickly and accurately recognize the quantity in a small set of objects without counting. This ability is called subitizing.
According to one theoretical per spective, infants’ abilities to discrimi nate among numbers, for example, two versus three objects, does not reflect “number knowledge.” Rather, this early skill appears to be based on infants’ perceptual abilities to “see” small arrangements of number (Cle ments 2004; Carey 2001), or on their ability to notice a change in the gen eral amount of objects they are seeing (Mix, Huttenlocher, and Levine 2002). The alternative view is that the infant’s early sensitivity to number is numeri cal in nature. In other words, infants have a capacity to distinguish among numbers and to reason about these numbers in numerically meaningful ways (Wynn 1998; Gallistel and Gel- man 1992). In some sense, they know that three objects are more than one
object. Whether early number sensi tivity is solely perceptual in nature or also numerical in nature, develop mental theorists agree that it sets the foundation for the later development of children’s understanding of number and quantity.
As children’s understanding and use of language increases, they begin to assimilate language based on number knowledge to their nonverbal knowl edge of number and quantity (Baroody 2004). Between 18 and 24 months of age, children use relational words to indicate “more” or “same” as well as number words. They begin to count aloud, typically starting with “one” and continuing with a stream of num ber names (Fuson 1988; Gelman and Gallistel 1978), although they may omit some numbers and not use the conventional number list (e.g. “one, two, three, seven, nine, ten”). Around the same age, children also begin to count small collections of objects; how ever, they may point to the same item twice or say a number word without pointing to an object. And they begin to construct an understanding of cardinality (i.e., the last number word is used when counting represents the total number of objects).
Classification Classification refers to the infant’s
developing ability to group, sort, cat egorize, connect, and have expecta tions of objects and people according to their attributes. Three-month-olds demonstrate that they expect people to act differently than objects (Legerstee 1997). They also demonstrate the abil ity to discriminate between smiling and frowning expressions (Barrera and Maurer 1981). Mandler (2000)
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distinguishes between two types of categorization made by infants: per ceptual and conceptual. Perceptual categorization has to do with similari ties or differences infants sense, such as similarities in visual appearance. Conceptual categorization has to do with grouping based on what objects do or how they act. According to Mare schal and French (2000, 59), “the ability to categorize underlies much of cognition.” Classification is a funda mental skill in both problem solving and symbolic play.
Symbolic Play Symbolic play is a common early
childhood behavior also called “pre tend play, make-believe play, fantasy play . . . or imaginative play” (Gowen 1995, 75). Representational thinking is a core component of symbolic play. At around eight months of age, infants have learned the functions of common objects (for example, holding a play telephone to “hear” Grandma’s voice). By the time children are around 18 months of age, they use one object to stand for, or represent, another. For example, an 18-month-old may pre tend a banana is a telephone. At around 36 months, children engage in make-believe play in which they repre sent an object without having that object, or a concrete substitute, avail able. For example, they may make a “phone call” by holding their hand up to their ear.
As children approach 36 months of age, they increasingly engage in pre tend play in which they reenact famil iar events. Make-believe play allows older infants to try to better under stand social roles, engage in com munication with others, and revisit
and make sense of past experiences. Research suggests that engaging in pretend play appears to be related to young children’s developing under standing of other people’s feelings and beliefs (Youngblade and Dunn 1995). Outdoor environments, such as sand boxes (Moser 1995) or play structures, offer rich opportunities for symbolic play or pretending. Although outdoor play areas are often considered most in terms of motor behavior or physical activity, they also offer special oppor tunities for symbolic play (Perry 2003). For example, children playing outside may pretend to garden or may use a large wheeled toy to reenact going on a shopping trip.
Attention Maintenance Attention maintenance has been
described as a form of cognitive self- regulation. It refers to the infant’s growing ability to exercise control over his attention or concentration (Bron son 2000). Attention maintenance permits infants to gather information, to sustain learning experiences, to observe, and to problem-solve. Infants demonstrate attention maintenance when they attend to people, actions, and things they find interesting even in the presence of distractions. The ability to maintain attention/concen tration is an important self-regula tory skill related to learning. There is significant variability in attentiveness even among typically developing chil dren (Ruff and Rothbart 1996).
Understanding of Personal Care Routines
Personal care activities are a rou tine part of the young child’s daily life. They also present significant opportu-
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nities for learning in both child care settings and at home. Infants’ growing abilities to anticipate, understand, and participate in these routines represent a significant aspect of their cognitive functioning, one related to their abili ties to understand their relationships with others, their abilities to take care of themselves, and their skills in group participation. At first, young infants respond to the adult’s actions during these routines. Then they begin to par ticipate more actively (O’Brien 1997). Understanding the steps involved in
personal care routines and anticipat ing next steps are skills related to the cognitive foundations of atten tion maintenance, imitation, memory, cause-and-effect, and problem solv ing. The cultural perspectives of the adults who care for infants are related to their expectations for the degree of independence or self-initiation children demonstrate during personal care routines. Depending on their cultural experiences, children may vary greatly in their understanding of personal care routines.
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Foundation: Cause-and-Effect The developing understanding that one event brings about another
8 months
At around eight months of age, children perform simple actions to make things happen, notice the relationships between events, and notice the effects of others on the immediate environment.
For example, the child may:
• Shake a toy, hear the sound it makes, and then shake it again. (5.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 58)
• Loudly bang a spoon on the table, notice the loud sound, and do it again. (By 7 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 210; 8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 21)
• Watch the infant care teacher wind up a music box and, when the music stops, touch her hand to get her to make it start again. (5–9 mos.; Parks 2004, 58)
• Splash hands in water and notice how his face gets wet. (4–10 mos.; Ginsburg and Opper 1988, 43)
• Push a button on the push- button toy and watch the figure pop up. (6–9 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
• Put objects into a clear con tainer, turn it over and watch the objects fall out, and then fill it up again. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 21)
• Clap hands and then look at a parent to get her to play pat a-cake. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 21)
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18 months
At around 18 months of age, chil dren combine simple actions to cause things to happen or change the way they interact with objects and people in order to see how it changes the outcome.
For example, the child may:
• Try to wind the handle of a pop up toy after not being able to open the top. (15 mos.; Brazel ton 1992, 161)
• Drop different objects from vari ous heights to see how they fall and to hear the noise they make when they land. (12–18 mos.; Ginsburg and Opper 1988, 56)
• Build a tower with the big card board blocks and kick it over to make it fall, then build it again and knock it down with a hand. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 37)
• Use a wooden spoon to bang on different pots and pans, and notice how the infant care teacher responds when the child hits the pans harder and makes a louder noise. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 37)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children demonstrate an under standing of cause and effect by making predictions about what could happen and reflect upon what caused something to hap pen. (California Department of Education [CDE] 2005)
For example, the child may:
• Communicate, “She misses her mommy” when a child cries after her mother leaves in the morning.
• Make a prediction about what will happen next in the story when the infant care teacher asks, “What do you think will happen next?”
• Answer the infant care teacher when she asks, “What do you think your mom’s going to say when you give her your picture?”
• See a bandage on a peer’s knee and ask, “What hap pened?”
• Push the big green button to make the tape recorder play. (By 36 mos.; American Acad emy of Pediatrics 2004, 308)
• Walk quietly when the baby is sleeping.
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Cause-and-Effect
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months) foundation (� to �� months) foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Hear a loud noise and turn head • Hold a block in each hand • Roll cars of different sizes down in the direction of the noise. and bang the blocks together. the slide. (18–24 mos.; Lerner (3.5–5 mos.; Parks 2004, 37) (8.5–12 mos.; Parks 2004) and Ciervo 2003)
• Explore toys with hands and • Keep turning an object around mouth. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, to find the side that makes it 10) work, such as the reflective
side of a mirror, or the open • Move body in a rocking motion side of a nesting cup. (9–12 to get the infant care teacher mos.; Parks 2004, 65) to continue rocking. (4–5 mos.;
Parks 2004, 57; Birth–8 mos.; • Cry and anticipate that the Lerner and Dombro 2000) infant care teacher will come
to help. (9–12 mos.; Lerner and • Kick legs in the crib and notice Ciervo 2003) that the mobile up above jiggles
with the kicking movements. • Drop an object repeatedly from (4–5 mos.; American Academy the chair to hear it clang on the of Pediatrics 2004, 209) floor or to get the infant care
teacher to come pick it up. • Attend to a toy while exploring (9–12 mos.; Parks 2004, 65) it with the hands. (Scaled score
of 9 for 5:16–6:15 mos.; Bayley • Watch the infant care teacher 2006, 55) squeeze the toy in the water
table to make water squirt out, then try the same action. (Scaled score of 10 for 13:16– 14:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 61)
• Hand a toy car to a family member after it stops moving and the child cannot figure out how to make it move again. (12–15 mos.; Parks 2004, 59)
• Close eyes and turn face away from the water table before splashing with hands. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 28)
• Continue to push the button on a toy that is broken and appear confused or frustrated when nothing happens. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 29)
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Foundation: Spatial Relationships The developing understanding of how things move and fit in space
8 months
At around eight months of age, children move their bodies, explore the size and shape of objects, and ob serve people and objects as they move through space.
For example, the child may:
• Use vision or hearing to track the path of some one walking by. (5.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 64; birth–8 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
• Watch a ball roll away after accidentally knock ing it. (5.5–8 mos., Parks 2004, 64)
• Hold one stacking cup in each hand. (6.5–7.5 mos.; Parks 2004, 50)
• Put toys into a clear con tainer, dump them out, and then fill the container up again. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 21)
18 months
At around 18 months of age, chil dren use trial and error to discover how things move and fit in space. (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 81)
For example, the child may:
• Go around the back of a chair to get the toy car that rolled behind it instead of trying to follow the car’s path by squeezing under neath the chair. (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004 67; 8–18 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
• Use two hands to pick up a big truck, but only one hand to pick up a small one. (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 81)
• Put a smaller nesting cup inside a larger cup after trying it the other way around. (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 81)
• Choose a large cookie off the plate instead of a smaller one. (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 81)
• Put the child-sized hat on his head and the larger hat on the infant care teacher’s head. (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 81)
• Stack three nesting cups inside one another, after trying some combinations that do not work. (12–19 mos.; Parks 2004, 82)
• Put one or two pegs into the peg board. (14:16–15:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 62)
• Roll a ball back and forth with the infant care teacher. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 38)
• Fit pieces into a puzzle board. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 39)
• Try to fit a piece into the shape sorter and, when it does not fit, turn it until it fits. (12–19 mos.; Parks 2004, 82)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children can predict how things will fit and move in space without having to try out every possible solution, and show understanding of words used to de scribe size and locations in space.
For example, the child may:
• Hand the big truck to a peer who asks for the big one. (Scaled score of 10 for 28:16–30:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 95)
• Use words such as big and little. (25–30 mos.; Parks 2004, 82; 36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 73)
• Put together a puzzle with three to four separate pieces. (By 36 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 308; 30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 68)
• Get the serving spoon off the tray when the infant care teacher asks for the big spoon, even though there are small spoons on the tray. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 83)
• Stack rings onto a post with the biggest ring on the bottom and the smallest ring on the top, without much trial and error. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 83; 24–36 mos.; En gaging Young Children 2004, 44)
• Point to a peer’s stick when the infant care teacher asks which stick is longer. (33–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 83; 24–36 mos.; Engaging Young Children 2004, 53)
• Understand requests that include simple prepositions; for example, “Please put your cup on the table” or “Please get your blanket out of your back pack.” (By 36 mos.; Co plan 1993, 2; by 36 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004; 24–36 mos.; Engaging Young Children 2004)
• Move around an obstacle when going from one place to another. (24–36 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 303)
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Spatial Relationships
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Look at her own hand. (Scaled score of 9 for 4:06–4:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 53)
• Reach for a nearby toy and try to grasp it. (4.5–5.5 mos.; Parks 2004; scaled score of 10 for 4:16–4:25 mos.; Bayley 2006, 54)
• Explore toys with hands and mouth. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 10)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Roll a car back and forth on the floor. (6–11 mos.; Parks 2004, 26)
• Dump toys out of a container. (9–11 mos.; Parks 2004, 64)
• Turn a toy to explore all sides to figure out how it works. (9–12 mos.; Parks 2004, 65)
• Throw or drop a spoon or cup from the table and watch as it falls. (9–12 mos.; Parks 2004, 65)
• Take rings off a stacking ring toy. (10–11 mos.; Parks 2004, 65)
• Move over and between cush ions and pillows on the floor. (8–12 mos.; American Acad emy of Pediatrics 2004, 234)
• Crawl down a few carpeted stairs. (Around 12 mos.; Ameri can Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 234)
• See a ball roll under the couch and then reach under the couch. (12–13 mos.; Parks 2004, 66)
• Stack one block on top of an other one. (12–16 mos.; Parks 2004, 66)
• Put one or two rings back onto the post of a stacking ring toy. (13–15 mos.; Parks 2004, 66)
• Put the circle piece of a puzzle into the round opening, after trying the triangle opening and the square opening. (Scaled score of 10 for 15:16–16:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 63)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Complete a puzzle of three separate cut-out pieces, such as a circle, square, and triangle. (Scaled score of 10 for 19:16– 20:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 66)
• Fit many pegs into a pegboard. (Scaled score of 10 for 21:16– 22:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 68)
• Turn a book right-side up after realizing that it is upside down. (18–24 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Fit four nesting cups in the correct order, even if it takes a couple of tries. (19–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 82)
• Assemble a two-piece puzzle; for example, a picture of a flow er cut into two pieces. (Scaled score of 10 for 23:16–24:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 69)
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Foundation: Problem Solving The developing ability to engage in a purposeful effort
to reach a goal or figure out how something works
8 months
At around eight months of age, children use simple actions to try to solve problems involving objects, their bodies, or other people.
For example, the child may:
• Shake, bang, and squeeze toys repeatedly to make the sounds happen again and again. (5.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 58; by 12 mos.; Ameri can Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 243)
• Reach for a ball as it rolls away. (5.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 64)
• Vocalize to get the infant care teacher’s attention. (6.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Pull the string on a toy to make it come closer. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 21)
• Focus on a desired toy that is just out of reach while repeat edly reaching for it. (5–9 mos.; Parks 2004, 49)
• Turn the bottle over to get the nipple in his mouth.
• Lift up a scarf to search for a toy that is hidden underneath. (By 8 mos.; American Acad emy of Pediatrics 2004, 244)
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18 months
At around 18 months of age, children use a number of ways to solve problems: physically trying out possible solutions before finding one that works; using objects as tools; watching someone else solve the problem and then applying the same so lution; or gesturing or vocalizing to someone else for help.
For example, the child may:
• Pull the string of a pull toy to get it closer even when the toy gets momentarily stuck on something. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 38)
• Use the handle of a toy broom to dislodge a ball under the bookshelf. (8–18 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
• Bring a small stool over to reach a toy on top of a shelf, having observed the infant care teacher do it. (8–18 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
• Look at a plate of crackers that is out of reach and then at the infant care teacher, and communicate “more.” (Scaled score of 10 for 16:16–17:15 mos.; Bayley 2006; 14–20 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Hand the infant care teacher a puzzle piece that the child is having trouble with.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, chil dren solve some problems without having to physically try out every possible solution and may ask for help when needed. (By 36 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 308)
For example, the child may:
• Ignore the stick that is much too short to reach a desired object and choose a stick that looks as if it may be long enough.
• Stack only the cubes with holes in them on the stacking post, ignoring the cube-shaped blocks without holes that got mixed into the bin. (18–36 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
• Place the triangle piece into the puzzle without first needing to try it in the round or square hole. (By 36 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 306)
• Ask the infant care teacher for help with the lid of a jar of paint. (36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 75)
• Ask a peer to help move the train tracks over so that the child can build a block tower on the floor. (36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 75)
• Ask or gesture for the infant care teacher to help tie the child’s shoelace. (36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 75)
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Problem Solving
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Explore toys with hands and mouth. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 10)
• Reach for a second toy when already holding on to one toy. (5–6.5 mos.; Parks 2004, 49)
• Hold a toy up to look at it while exploring it with the hands. (Scaled score of 9 for 5:16–6:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 55)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Crawl over a pile of soft blocks to get to the big red ball. (8–11 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Figure out how toys work by repeating the same actions over and over again. (9–12 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
• Pull the blanket in order to obtain the toy that is lying out of reach on top of the blanket. (8–10 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Crawl around the legs of a chair to get to the ball that rolled behind it. (9–12 mos.; Parks 2004, 50; 18 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
• Keep turning an object around to find the side that makes it work, such as the reflective side of a mirror or the open side of a nesting cup. (9–12 mos.; Parks 2004, 65)
• Try to hold on to two toys with one hand while reaching for a third desired toy, even if not successful. (Scaled score of 9 for 10:16–11:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 58)
• Unscrew the lid of a plastic jar to get items out of it. (Scaled score of 10 for 14:16–15:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 62)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Use a stick to dig in the sandbox when unable to find a shovel. (17–24 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Use a tool to solve a problem, such as using the toy broom to get a car out from under the couch, using a wooden puzzle base as a tray to carry all the puzzle pieces to another place, or using the toy shopping cart to pick up the wooden blocks and move them to the shelf to be put away. (17–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 52)
• Move to the door and try to turn the knob after a parent leaves for work in the morning. (21–23 mos.; Parks 2004, 53)
• Imitate a problem-solving method that the child has observed someone else do before. (Scaled score of 10 for 20:16–21:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 66)
• Tug on shoelaces in order to untie them.
• Complete a puzzle with three separate cut-out pieces, such as a circle, square, and triangle, even though the child may try to put the triangle into the square hole before fitting it in the triangle opening. (Scaled score of 10 for 19:16–20:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 66)
Foundation: Imitation The developing ability to mirror, repeat, and practice
the actions of others, either immediately or later
8 months
At around 8 months of age, children imitate simple actions and expressions of others during interactions.
For example, the child may:
• Copy the infant care teacher’s movements when playing pat-a cake and peek-a-boo. (Coplan 1993, 3)
• Imitate a familiar gesture, such as clapping hands together or patting a doll’s back, after see ing the infant care teacher do it. (7–8 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Notice how the infant care teacher makes a toy work and then push the same button to make it happen again. (6–9 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
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18 months
At around 18 months of age, children imitate others’ actions that have more than one step and imitate simple actions that they have observed others doing at an earlier time. (Parks 2004; 28)
For example, the child may:
• Imitate simple actions that she has observed adults doing; for example, take a toy phone out of a purse and say hello as a parent does. (12–18 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
• Pretend to sweep with a child- sized broom, just as a family member does at home. (15–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 27)
• Rock the baby doll to sleep, just as a parent does with the new baby. (15–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 27)
• Imitate using the toy ham mer as a parent did. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 38)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children reenact multiple steps of others’ actions that they have ob served at an earlier time. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 29)
For example, the child may:
• Reenact the steps of a fam ily celebration that the child attended last weekend. (29–36 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 118–19)
• Pretend to get ready for work or school by making break fast, packing lunch, grabbing a purse, and communicating good-bye before heading out the door. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 29)
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Imitation
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Listen to the infant care teacher talk during a diaper change and then babble back when she pauses. (5.5–6.5 mos.; Parks 2004, 125)
• Copy the intonation of the infant care teacher’s speech when babbling. (7 mos.; Parks 2004)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Shrug shoulders after the infant care teacher does it. (9–11 mos.; Parks 2004; by 12 mos.; American Academy of Pediat rics 2004, 243)
• Imitate sounds or words im mediately after the infant care teacher makes them. (9 mos.; Apfel and Provence 2001; 12–18 mos.; Hulit and Howard 2006, 122; 17 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 84)
• Copy the infant care teacher in waving “bye-bye” to a parent as he leaves the room. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 26)
• Copy an adult’s action that is unfamiliar but that the child can see herself do, such as wiggling toes, even though it may take some practice before doing it exactly as the adult does. (9–14 mos.; Parks 2004, 32)
• Watch the infant care teacher squeeze the toy in the water table to make water squirt out, then try the same action. (Scaled score of 10 for 13:16– 14:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 61)
• Imitate the hand motion of the infant care teacher. (Scaled score of 10 for 14:16–15:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 135)
• Point to or indicate an object, pay attention as the infant care teacher labels the object, and then try to repeat the label. (11–16 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 82)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Repeat the most important word of a sentence the infant care teacher has just communicated. (17–19 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Imitate the last word or last few words of what an adult just said; for example say, cup or a cup after the infant care teacher says, “That’s a cup” or say, “Daddy bye-bye” after the mother says, “Daddy went bye-bye.” (22 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 99; 17–19 mos.; Parks 2004, 128)
• Copy several actions that the child cannot see himself do ing, such as wrinkling the nose. (17–20 mos.; Parks 2004, 32)
• Say, “beep, beep, beep, beep” after hearing the garbage truck back up outside. (18-21 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Act out a few steps of a familiar routine, such as pretend to fill the tub, bathe a baby doll, and dry the doll. (18–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 28)
• Imitate words that the adult has expressed to the child at an earlier time, not immediately after hearing them. (24–27 mos.; Parks 2004; 19–28 mos.; Hart and Ris ley 1999, 61)
• Imitate two new actions of the infant care teacher; for example, put one hand on head and point with the other hand. (26:16–27:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 71)
• Imitate the way a family member communicates by using the same gestures, unique words, and intonation.
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Foundation: Memory The developing ability to store and later retrieve
information about past experiences
8 months
At around 8 months of age, chil dren recognize familiar people, objects, and routines in the en vironment and show awareness that familiar people still exist even when they are no longer physically present.
For example, the child may:
• Turn toward the front door when hearing the doorbell ring or toward the phone when hearing the phone ring. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 20)
• Look for the father after he briefly steps out of the child care room during drop-off in the morning. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 20)
Chart continues on next page.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children remember typical actions of people, the location of objects, and steps of routines.
For example, the child may:
• Get a blanket from the doll cra dle because that is where baby blankets are usually stored, af ter the infant care teacher says, “The baby is tired. Where’s her blanket?” (15–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 67)
• Anticipate and participate in the steps of a nap routine. (18 mos.; Fogel 2001, 368)
• Watch the infant care teacher placing a toy inside one of three pots with lids and reach for the correct lid when the teacher asks where the toy went. (8–18 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
• Continue to search for an object even though it is hidden under something distracting, such as a soft blanket or a crinkly piece of paper.
• See a photo of a close family member and say his name or hug the photo.
• Go to the cubby to get his blanket that is inside the diaper bag.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, chil dren anticipate the series of steps in familiar activities, events, or routines; remember characteristics of the environment or people in it; and may briefly describe recent past events or act them out. (24–36 mos.; Seigel 1999, 33)
For example, the child may:
• Communicate, “Big slide” after a trip to neighborhood park. (24–36 mos.; Seigel 1999, 33)
• Tell a parent, “Today we jumped in the puddles” when picked up from school. (Siegel 1999, 34)
• Recall an event in the past, such as the time a family member came to school and made a snack. (18–36 mos.; Siegel 1999, 46)
• Identify which child is absent from school that day by looking around the snack table and fig uring out who is missing. (18–36 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
• Act out a trip to the grocery store by getting a cart, putting food in it, and paying for the food. (24 mos.; Bauer and Mandler 1989)
• Get her pillow out of the cubby, in anticipation of naptime as soon as lunch is finished.
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Memory
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Explore toys with hands and mouth. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 10)
• Find a rattle hidden under a blanket when only the handle is showing. (4–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 42)
• Look toward the floor when the bottle falls off table. (Scaled score of 10 for 5:06–5:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 55; 8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 20; birth–8 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 72)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Ask for a parent after morning drop-off. (9–12 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
• Reach in the infant care teacher’s pocket after watch ing him hide a toy there. (11–13 mos.; Parks 2004, 43)
• Look or reach inside a con tainer of small toys after seeing the infant care teacher take the toys off the table and put them in the container. (Scaled score of 10 for 8:16–9:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 57; birth–8 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
• Lift a scarf to search for a toy after seeing the infant care teacher hide it under the scarf. (By 8 mos.; American Acad emy of Pediatrics 2004, 244; 8 mos.; Kail 1990, 112)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Say “meow” when the infant care teacher points to the picture of the cat and asks what the cat says. (12–24 mos.; Siegel 1999, 32)
• Give another child an object that belongs to her. (12–24 mos.; Siegel 1999, 32)
• Remember where toys should be put away in the classroom. (21–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 318)
• Find a hidden toy, even when it is hidden under two or three blankets. (By 24 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 273)
• Express “mama” when the infant care teacher asks who packed the child’s snack.
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Foundation: Number Sense The developing understanding of number and quantity
8 months
At around eight months of age, children usually focus on one object or person at a time, yet they may at times hold two objects, one in each hand.
For example, the child may:
• Hold one block in each hand, then drop one of them when the infant care teacher holds out a third block for the child to hold. (6.5–7.5 mos.; Parks 2004, 50)
• Watch a ball as it rolls away after hitting it with her hand. (5.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 64)
• Explore one toy at a time by shaking, banging, or squeez ing it. (5.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 58; 8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 21; birth–8 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
• Notice when someone walks in the room.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children demonstrate under standing that there are different amounts of things.
For example, the child may:
• Communicate “more” and point to a bowl of apple slices. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 37)
• Shake head “no” when offered more pasta. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 37)
• Make a big pile of trucks and a little pile of trucks.
• Use hand motions or words to indicate “All gone” when finished eating. (12–19 mos.; Parks 2004, 122)
• Put three cars in a row.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children show some understanding that numbers represent how many and demonstrate understanding of words that identify how much. (By 36 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 308)
For example, the child may:
• Pick out one object from a box or point to the picture with only one of something. (Scaled score of 10 for 35:16–36:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 97; 24–30 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Reach into bowl and take out two pieces of pear when the infant care teacher says, “Just take two.” (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Start counting with one, some times pointing to the same item twice when counting, or using numbers out of order; for example, “one, two, three, five, eight.” (36 mos.; Engaging Young Children 2004, 178)
• Use fingers to count a small number of items. (around 36 mos.; Coplan 1993, 3)
• Look at a plate and quickly respond “two,” without having to count, when the infant care teacher asks how many pieces of cheese there are. (36 mos.; Engag ing Young Children 2004, 178)
• Hold up two fingers when asked, “Show me two” or “How old are you?” (36 mos.; Engaging Young Children 2004, 178; by 36 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 308)
• Identify “more” with collections of up to four items, without needing to count them. (36 mos.; Engaging Young Children 2004, 31 and 180)
• Use more specific words to com municate how many, such as a little or a lot. (Hulit and Howard 2006, 186)
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Number Sense
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Explore toys with hands and mouth. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 10)
• Reach for second toy but may not grasp it when already hold ing one toy in the other hand. (5–6.5 mos.; Parks 2004, 49; scaled score of 10 for 5:16– 6:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 55)
• Transfer a toy from one hand to the other. (5.5–7 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Reach for, grasp, and hold onto a toy with one hand when already holding a different toy in the other hand. (Scaled score of 10 for 6:16–7:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 56)
• Track visually the path of a moving object. (6–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 64)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Try to hold onto two toys with one hand while reaching for a third desired toy, even if not successful. (Scaled score of 9 for 10:16–11:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 58; 8–10 mos.; Parks 2004, 50)
• Hold a block in each hand and bang them together. (8.5–12 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Put several pegs into a plastic container and then dump them into a pile. (12–13 mos.; Parks 2004, 65)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Get two cups from the cupboard when playing in the housekeep ing area with a friend. (21 mos.; Mix, Huttenlocher, and Levine 2002)
• Look at or point to the child with one piece of apple left on his napkin when the infant care teacher asks, “Who has just one piece of apple?” (24–30 mos.; Parks 2004, 74)
• Give the infant care teacher one cracker from a pile of many when she asks for “one.” (25–30 mos.; Parks 2004; scaled score of 10 for 28:16–30:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 73)
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Foundation: Classification The developing ability to group, sort, categorize, connect, and have
expectations of objects and people according to their attributes
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around eight months of age, At around 18 months of age, At around 36 months of age, chil children distinguish between children show awareness when dren group objects into multiple familiar and unfamiliar people, objects are in some way con piles based on one attribute at a places, and objects, and explore nected to each other, match two time, put things that are similar but the differences between them. objects that are the same, and not identical into one group, and (Barrera and Mauer 1981) separate a pile of objects into may label each grouping, even
two groups based on one attri though sometimes these labels are bute. (Mandler and McDonough overgeneralized. (36 mos.; Mandler 1998) and McDonough 1993)
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Explore how one toy feels and • Look at the crayons before • Identify a few colors when they then explore how another toy choosing a color. (12–18 mos.; are named; for example, get a red feels. Parks 2004, 77) ball from the bin of multicolored
balls when the infant care teacher • Stare at an unfamiliar person • Choose usually to play with asks for the red one. (Scaled and move toward a familiar the blue ball even though there score of 10 for 34:16–36:15 mos.; person. is a red one just like it. (12–18 Bayley 2006, 97; 33 mos.+; Parks mos.; Parks 2004, 77) 2004, 79)
• Pick the toy car from the bin • Make three piles of tangrams in filled with toy dishes. (15–18
various shapes, such as a circle, mos.; Parks 2004; 77) square, and triangle. (30–36 mos.;
• Pack the baby doll’s blanket, Parks 2004, 79) brush, bottle, and clothes into
• Pick two big bears from a bowl a backpack. (15–19 mos.; containing two big bears and two Parks 2004, 77) small bears, even if the big bears
• Match two identical toys; for are different colors. (Scaled score example, find another fire of 10 for 30:16–33:15 mos.; Bay- truck when the infant care ley 2006, 74) teacher asks, “Can you find
• Sort primary-colored blocks into a truck just like that one?” three piles: a red pile, a yellow (15–19 mos.; Parks 2004; 77) pile, and a blue one. (33 mos.+;
• Place all toy cars on one side Parks 2004, 79; 32 mos.; Bayley of the rug and all blocks on the 2006) other side. (15–18 mos.; Parks
• Point to different pictures of 2004, 77) houses in a book even though all of the houses look different. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 79)
• Put all the soft stuffed animals in one pile and all the hard plastic toy animals in another pile and label the piles “soft animals” and “hard animals.” (18–36 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
• Call all four-legged animals at the farm “cows,” even though some are actually sheep and others horses. (18–36 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 78–79)
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Classification
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months) foundation (� to �� months) foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child During this period, the child During this period, the child may: may: may: • Point to or indicate the realistic- • Explore toys with hands and • Roll a car back and forth on looking plastic cow when the
mouth. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, the floor, then roll a ball. (6–11 infant care teacher holds up a few 10) mos.; Parks 2004, 26) toy animals and says, “Who says,
‘moo’?” (18–22 mos.; Parks 2004; • Bang a toy on the table. (5.5–7 • Use two items that go togeth 85) mos.; Parks 2004, 25) er; for example, brush a doll’s
hair with a brush, put a spoon • Sort three different kinds of toys; • Touch different objects (e.g., in a bowl, or use a hammer to for example, put the puzzle pieces hard or soft) differently. pound an object. (9–15 mos.; in the puzzle box, the blocks in the Parks 2004, 26–27; by 12 block bin, and the toy animals in mos.; American Academy of the basket during clean-up time. Pediatrics 2004, 243) (19–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 77)
• Put the red blocks together • Show understanding of what when the infant care teacher familiar objects are supposed to asks, “Which blocks go to be used for, such as knowing that gether?” a hat is for wearing or a tricycle is
for riding. (Scaled score of 10 for 23:16–25:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 93)
• Pick a matching card from a pile of cards. (Scaled score of 10 for 24:16–25:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 70)
• Point to or indicate all the green cups at the lunch table. (26 mos.; Bayley 2006)
• Call the big animals “mama” and the small animals “baby.” (27 mos.; Bayley 2006)
• Help the infant care teacher sort laundry into two piles: whites and colors. (28 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 95)
• Put the red marker back in the red can, the blue marker back in the blue can, and the yellow marker back in the yellow can when fin ished coloring. (Scaled score of 10 for 26:16–28:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 71)
• Match one shape to another shape. (26–29 mos.; Parks 2004, 78; 26–30 mos.; Parks 2004)
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Foundation: Symbolic Play The developing ability to use actions, objects, or ideas
to represent other actions, objects, or ideas
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around 8 months of age, At around 18 months of age, At around 36 months of age, children en children become familiar children use one object to gage in make-believe play involving several with objects and actions represent another object and sequenced steps, assigned roles, and an through active exploration. engage in one or two simple overall plan and sometimes pretend by Children also build knowl actions of pretend play. imagining an object without needing the edge of people, action, concrete object present. (30–36 mos.; Parks objects, and ideas through 2004, 29) observation. (Fenson and others 1976; Rogoff and others 2003)
For example, the child For example, the child For example, the child may: may: may:
• Cause toys to make noise • Pretend to drink from an • Assign roles to self and others when play
by shaking, banging, and empty cup by making ing in the dramatic play area (for example,
squeezing them. (5.5–8 slurping noises and saying “I’ll be the daddy, you be the baby”), even
mos.; Parks 2004, 58; by “ah” when finished. (Segal though the child may not stay in her role
12 mos.; American Acad 2004, 39) throughout the play sequence. (30–36
emy of Pediatrics 2004, mos.; Parks 2004, 29; 24 mos.; Segal • Begin to engage in pretend 243) 2004, 43) play by using a play spoon
• Roll car back and forth on to stir in the kitchen area. • Line up a row of chairs and communicate,
floor. (6–11 mos.; Parks (12–18 mos.; Lerner and “All aboard! The train is leaving.” (36 mos.;
2004, 26) Ciervo 2003) Vygotsky 1978, 111)
• Pretend that the banana • Use two markers to represent people in is a telephone by picking the dollhouse by moving them around as it up, holding it to the ear, if they were walking. (36 mos.; Vygotsky and saying, “Hi!” (12–18 1978, 111) mos.; Lerner and Ciervo • Stir “cake batter” while holding an imagi 2003) nary spoon or serve an invisible burrito
• Laugh at an older brother on a plate. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 29; when he puts a bowl on scaled score of 10 for 27:16–29:15 mos.; his head like a hat. (12–18 Bayley 2006, 69) mos.; Parks 2004, 317) • Communicate with self during pretend
• Imitate a few steps of adult play to describe actions to self; for ex behavior during play; for ample, “Now I stir the soup.” (Hart and example, pretend to feed Risley 1999, 125) the baby doll with the toy • Plan with other children what they are spoon and bowl. (15–18 going to pretend before starting to play; mos.; Parks 2004, 27) for example, “Let’s play doggies!” (Segal
• Use a rectangular wooden 2004, 39; 36 mos.; Meisels and others block as a phone. (18–24 2003, 74) mos.; Parks 2004, 28) • Pretend to be a baby during dramatic play
because there is a new baby at home. (36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 73)
• Build a small town with blocks and then use the toy fire truck to pretend to put out a fire in the town. (By 36 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 309)
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Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months) foundation (� to �� months) foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: may: • Use two items that go togeth • Use the stuffed animals to play • Explore toys with hands and er; for example, brush a doll’s “veterinarian” one day and then to
mouth. (3–6 mos.; Parks hair with brush, put a spoon play “farmer” the next day. (18–24 2004, 10) in a bowl, or use a hammer mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
to pound an object through a • Communicate “Time for night- hole. (9–15 mos.; Parks 2004, night” to a doll while playing 26–27) house. (22–24 mos.; Parks 2004,
• Use objects in pretend play 133) the way they were intended to • Complete three or more actions in be used; for example, pretend a sequence of pretend play so the to drink coffee or tea from actions have a beginning, middle, play coffee cup. (Scaled score and end, such as giving the baby of 10 for 15:16–16:15 mos.; doll a bath, putting his pajamas Bayley 2006, 62) on, and putting him to sleep.
(24–30 mos.; Parks 2004, 28; by 36 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 309; scaled score of 10 for 29:16–30:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 73)
• Pretend that the doll or stuffed animal has feelings, such as mak ing a whining noise to indicate that the stuffed puppy is sad. (24–30 mos.; Parks 2004, 28)
• Make the stuffed animals move, as if they were alive, during pretend play. (24–30 mos.; Parks 2004, 28)
• Engage in extended pretend play that has a theme, such as birth day party or doctor. (24–30 mos.; Parks 2004, 29)
• Use abstract things to represent other things in pretend play; for example, use dough or sand to represent a birthday cake and sticks or straws to represent candles. (24–30 mos.; Parks 2004, 29; scaled score of 10 for 24:16–25:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 70; Segal 2004, 39)
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Foundation: Attention Maintenance The developing ability to attend to people and things while interacting with
others and exploring the environment and play materials
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around eight months of age, At around 18 months of age, At around 36 months of age, chil children pay attention to different children rely on order and pre dren sometimes demonstrate the things and people in the environ dictability in the environment to ability to pay attention to more than ment in specific, distinct ways. help organize their thoughts and one thing at a time. (Bronson 2000, 64) focus attention. (Bronson 2000,
191)
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Play with one toy for a few • Expect favorite songs to be • Realize, during clean-up time, minutes before focusing on a sung the same way each time that he has put a car in the block different toy. (6–9 mos.; Parks and protest if the infant care bin and return to put it in the 2004, 12 and 26; 8 mos.; teacher changes the words. proper place. American Academy of Pediat • Insist on following the same • Search for and find a favorite rics 2004, 241) bedtime routine every night. book and ask the infant care
• Focus on a desired toy that is teacher to read it. • Nod and take the infant care just out of reach while repeat teacher’s hand when the • Pound the play dough with a edly reaching for it. (5–9 mos.; teacher says, “I know you are hammer while talking with a peer. Parks 2004, 49) sad because Shanti is using
• Show momentary attention to the book right now, and you board books with bright colors would like a turn. Shall we go and simple shapes. to the book basket and find
another one to read together?” • Attend to the play of other children.
• Put toy animals into a clear container, dump them out, and then fill the container up again. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 21)
• Stop moving, to focus on the infant care teacher when she starts to interact with the child.
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months) foundation (� to �� months) foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Remain calm and focused on • Pay attention to the infant care • Play alone with toys for several people, interesting toys, or teacher’s voice without being minutes at a time before moving interesting sounds for a minute distracted by other noises in on to different activity. (18–24 or so. (1–6 mos.; Parks 2004, the room. (9–11 mos.; Parks mos.; Parks 2004, 15) 9) 2004; 12) • Sit in a parent’s lap to read a
• Explore a toy by banging, • Focus on one toy or activity book together. (Scaled score of mouthing, or looking at it. for a while when really inter 10 for 21:16–22:15 mos.; Bayley (Scaled score of 9 for 3:26– ested. (By 12 mos.; American 2006) 4:05 mos.; Bayley 2006, 52) Academy of Pediatrics 2004,
241)
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Foundation: Understanding of Personal Care Routines The developing ability to understand
and participate in personal care routines
8 months 18 months 36 months
At around eight months of age, At around 18 months of age, chil At around 36 months of age, children are responsive dur dren show awareness of familiar children initiate and follow through ing the steps of personal care personal care routines and partici with some personal care routines. routines. (CDE 2005) pate in the steps of these routines. (CDE 2005)
(CDE 2005)
For example, the child may: For example, the child may: For example, the child may:
• Turn head away as the infant • Go to the sink when the infant • Go to the sink and wash hands care teacher reaches with care teacher says that it is time after seeing snacks being set a tissue to wipe the child’s to wash hands. (Scaled score of out on the table. (CDE 2005) nose. (8 mos.; Meisels and 10 for 17:16–18:15 mos.; Bayley • Get a tissue to wipe own nose others 2003, 20) 2006, 90; 12–18 mos.; Lerner or bring the tissue to the infant
and Ciervo 2003; 12 mos.; • Kick legs in anticipation of a care teacher for help when the Coplan 1993, 2; by 24 mos.; diaper change and then quiet child feels that his nose needs American Academy of Pediatrics down as the parent wipes the to be wiped. (CDE 2005) 2004; 24 mos.; Meisels and child’s bottom. (CDE 2005) others 2003, 46) • Take a wet shirt off when need
• Pay attention to her hands as ing to put on a dry one. (36 • Get a tissue when the infant care the infant care teacher holds mos.; Meisels and others 2003,
teacher says, “Please go get a them under running water and 76) tissue. We need to wipe your helps rub them together with nose.” (18 mos.; Meisels and • Help set the table for lunchtime. soap. (CDE 2005) others 2003, 36) (36 mos.; Meisels and others
2003, 77) • Move toward the door to the
playground after seeing the infant care teacher put his coat on. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 38)
• Put snack dishes in the sink and the bib in the hamper after eat ing.
• Have trouble settling down for a nap until the infant care teacher reads a story, because that is the naptime routine. (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 317)
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months) foundation (� to �� months) foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may: may: • Cooperate during a diaper • Drink from a cup without spilling • Anticipate being fed upon change by lifting her bottom. much. (24 mos.; Meisels and
seeing the infant care teacher (10.5–12 mos.; Parks 2004) others 2003, 52) approach with a bottle. • Grab the spoon as the infant • Try to put on own socks. (24
• Hold onto the bottle while care teacher tries to feed the mos.; Meisels and others 2003, being fed by the infant care child. (12 mos.; Meisels and oth 52) teacher. (4 mos.; Meisels and ers 2003, 31) • Pull her shoes off at naptime. others 2003, 14) • Raise arms when the infant care (24 mos.; Meisels and others
teacher tries to put a dry shirt on 2003, 52) the child. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
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Perceptual and Motor Development
Perception refers to the process late objects. Motor behaviors such as of taking in, organizing, and reaching, touching, and grasping are interpreting sensory information. forms of exploratory activity (Adolph Perception is multimodal, with mul 1997). tiple sensory inputs contributing to As infants develop increasing motor motor responses (Bertenthal 1996). An competence, they use perceptual infor infant’s turning his head in response mation to inform their choices about to the visual and auditory cues of the which motor actions to take (Adolph sight of a face and the sound of a voice and Joh 2007). For example, they may exemplifies this type of perception. adjust their crawling or walking in Intersensory redundancy, “the fact response to the rigidity, slipperiness, that the senses provide overlapping or slant of surfaces (Adolph 1997). information . . . is a cornerstone of Motor movements, including move perceptual development” (Bahrick, ments of the eyes, arms, legs, and Lickliter, and Flom 2004). hands, provide most of the perceptual
“Motor development refers to information infants receive (Adolph changes in children’s ability to control and Berger 2006). Young children’s their body’s movements, from infants’ bodies undergo remarkable changes in first spontaneous waving and kick the early childhood years. In describ ing movements to the adaptive control ing this development, Adolph and of reaching, locomotion, and complex Avolio (2000, 1148) state, “Newborns sport skills” (Adolph, Weise, and Marin are extremely top-heavy with large 2003, 134). The term motor behavior heads and torsos and short, weak describes all movements of the body, legs. As infants grow, their body fat including movements of the eyes (as and muscle mass are redistributed. In in the gaze), and the infant’s develop contrast to newborns, toddlers’ bod ing control of the head. Gross motor ies have a more cylindrical shape, and actions include the movement of large they have a larger ratio of muscle mass limbs or the whole body, as in walk to body fat, especially in the legs.” ing. Fine motor behaviors include the These changes in weight, size, percent use of fingers to grasp and manipu age of body fat, and muscle strength
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provide perceptual/motor challenges to infants as they practice a variety of actions (Adolph and Berger 2006). This dramatic physical development occurs within the broad context of overall development. As infants master each challenge, their perceptual and motor behavior reflects their ever-present interpersonal orientation and social environment.
The extent and variety of infant perceptual and motor behavior are remarkable. Infants and toddlers spend a significant part of their days engaged in motor behavior of one type or another. By three and a half months of age, infants have made between three and six million eye movements during their waking hours (Haith, Hazen, and Goodman 1988). Infants who crawl and walk have been found to spend roughly half of their wak ing hours involved in motor behavior, approximately five to six hours per day (Adolph and Joh 2007, 11). On a daily basis infants who are walking “. . . take more than 9,000 steps and travel the distance of more than 29 football fields. They travel over nearly a dozen different indoor and outdoor surfaces varying in friction, rigidity and tex ture. They visit nearly every room in their homes and they engage in bal ance and locomotion in the context of varied activities” (Adolph and Berger 2006, 181).
Early research in motor development involved detailed observational stud ies that documented the progression of infant motor skills and presented an understanding of infant motor behav ior as a sequence of universal, biologi cally programmed steps (Adolph and Berger 2006; Bertenthal and Boker 1997; Bushnell and Boudreau 1993;
Pick 1989). In comparison, current research in motor development often emphasizes action in the context of behavior and development in the per ceptual, cognitive, and social domains (Pick 1989). In particular, contempo rary accounts of infant motor develop ment address (1) the strong relation ship between perception and action (Bertenthal 1996; Gibson 1988; Thelen 1995), (2) the relationship between actions and the environment (Gibson 1988; Thelen 1995), and (3) the impor tance of motives in motor behavior, notably social and explorative motives (von Hofsten 2007). Although histori cal approaches may encourage profes sionals to focus on the relationship between growing perceptual/motor skills and the child’s increasingly sophisticated manipulation and under standing of objects, contemporary understanding suggests the value of observation of this progression. How these developing behaviors and abili ties play a role in the social/emotional aspects of the child’s life and function ing, such as forming early relation ships and building an understanding of others, may be noteworthy.
The contemporary view suggests that thinking about perceptual/motor development can be inclusive of infants and toddlers with disabilities or other special needs. Children whose disabili ties affect their perceptual or motor development still want to explore and interact with the people and environ ment around them. Although the perceptual and motor development of children with disabilities or other special needs may follow a pathway that differs from typical developmental trajectories, sensitive and responsive caregivers can provide alternative ways
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in which to engage children’s drive to explore, building on their interests and strengths and supporting their overall physical and psychological health.
Pioneering researchers in infant motor development used novel and painstaking methods to study the progression of infant skill acquisition (Adolph and Berger 2005; Adolph 2008). Their findings were presented for both professionals and the public in the form of milestone charts that depicted motor skill acquisition as a clear progression through a series of predictable stages related to chrono logical age (Adolph 2008; Adolph, Weise, and Marin 2003). More recent research in the area of perceptual and motor development has indicated substantial variability between chil dren in the pathways to acquiring major motor milestones such as sitting and walking (Adolph 1997; Adolph 2008). Each child may take a unique developmental pathway toward attain ment of major motor milestones (Adolph and Joh 2007). Crawling, for example, is not a universal stage. Research clearly shows that not all children crawl before they walk (Adolph 2008). Although most children walk independently around age one, the normal range for acquisition of this behavior in western cultures is very broad, between 9 and 17 months of age (Adolph 2008). Age has traditionally been treated as the primary predictor of when landmark motor behaviors occur, but studies now indicate that experience may be a stronger predictor than age is in the emergence of both crawling (Adolph and Joh 2007) and walking (Adolph, Vereijken, and Shrout 2003).
It is important to recognize that, though developmental charts may show motor development unfolding in the form of a smooth upward progres sion toward mastery, the development of individual children often does not follow a smooth upward trajectory. In fact, “detours” and steps backward are common as development unfolds (Adolph and Berger 2006, 173). Infant motor development can be understood as a process in which change occurs as the infant actively adapts to varying circumstances and new tasks (Thelen 1995). Thelen (1994) demonstrated this experimentally in her well-known study in which three-month-old babies, still too young to coordinate their movements to be able to sit, reach, or crawl, learned to coordinate their kicks in order to engage in the novel task of making a mobile move. Cultural and historical factors, includ ing caregivers’ behavior, also affect the ways in which infants engage in motor behaviors. For example, Adolph and Berger (2005) observed that mothers in Jamaica and Mali “train” infants to sit by propping up three- to four month-old infants with pillows in a special hole in the ground designed to provide back support.
For years, researchers, educators, and early childhood professionals have emphasized the interrelatedness of the developmental domains. The cur rent research supports an even greater appreciation of the profound role of interrelatedness and interdependence of factors, domains, and processes in development (Diamond 2007). The developmental domains are linked not only with one another, but also with factors such as culture, social rela tionships, experience, physical health,
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mental health, and brain functioning (Diamond 2007). In the case of per ceptual and motor behavior, Diamond (2007) has observed that perception, motor behavior, and cognition occur in the context of culture, emotion, social relationships, and experience, which in turn influence physical and mental health as well as overall brain functioning. Bertenthal (1996) has proposed that perception and motor action are interrelated rather than autonomous processes. They may be best viewed as different components of an action system. Common behav iors such as reaching and turning the head for visual tracking illustrate the interrelatedness of the motor, perceptual, cognitive, and social-emo tional domains in infant development. Even as very young infants, children are highly motivated to explore, gain information, attend, and engage their physical and social environments (Gibson 1987). As Gibson (1988, 5) explains: “We don’t simply see, we look.” Research by Berthier (1996, 811) indicates that “infant reaching is not simply a neural program that is trig gered by the presence of a goal object, but that infants match the kinematics of their reaches to the task and their goals.”
Perception and motor action play a key role in children’s experiences and psychological processes (Thelen 1995). They also contribute to human psycho logical development in general, since ultimately “behavior is movement” (Adolph and Berger 2005, 223), and psychology can be defined as the study of human behavior. It has been pro posed that infants’ use of social infor mation to guide their motor behavior in physically challenging or unfamiliar
situations provides an excellent means to study infant social cognition (Tamis- LeMonda and Adolph 2005).
Perceptual Development Infants’ perceptual skills are at work
during every waking moment. For example, those skills can be observed when an infant gazes into a caregiver’s eyes or distinguishes between familiar and unfamiliar people. Infants use perception to distinguish features of the environment, such as height, depth, and color. “The human infant is recognized today as ‘perceptually competent’; determining just how the senses function in infancy helps to specify the perceptual world of babies” (Bornstein 2005, 284). The ability to perceive commonalities and differences between objects is related to the cogni tive domain foundation of classifica tion. Infants explore objects differently depending upon object features such as weight, texture, sound, or rigidity (Palmer 1989). Parents and profession als may have observed young children exploring a slope, such as a slide, by touching it with their hands or feet before they decide whether to slide down it or not. Research by Adolph, Eppler, and Gibson (1993) suggests that learning plays a part in young children’s decision making in physi cally risky situations, such as navigat ing slopes, and that exploratory behav ior may be a means to this learning. Perception is also strongly related to the social-emotional domain, such as when young children perceive the differences between various facial expressions and come to understand what they may mean.
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Gross Motor Development Gross motor development includes
the attainment of skills such as rolling over, sitting up, crawling, walking, and running. Gross motor behavior enables infants to move and thereby attain different and varied perspectives on the environment. Behaviors such as pulling to stand and climbing present children with new learning opportuni ties. When infants push a toy stroller or shopping cart, they are also engag ing in processes related to cognitive development, such as imitation. The gross motor behaviors involved in active outdoor play with other children are related to children’s development of social skills and an understanding of social rules.
Fine Motor Development Through touching, grasping, and
manual manipulation, infants experi ence a sense of agency and learn about the features of people, objects, and the environment. Fine motor development is related to the ability to draw, write, and participate in routines such as eating and dressing. Common early childhood learning materials, such as pegboards, stacking rings, stringing beads, and puzzles, offer opportunities for infants to practice their fine motor skills. Fine motor movements of the hands are coordinated with perceptual information provided through move ments of the eyes, as when seven- to nine-month-old infants use visual information to orient their hands as they reach for an object (McCarty and others 2001).
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Foundation: Perceptual Development The developing ability to become aware of the social
and physical environment through the senses
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8 months
At around eight months of age, children use the senses to ex plore objects and people in the environment. (6–9 mos.; Ruff and Kohler 1978)
For example, the child may:
• Look at an object in her hand, mouth it, and then take it out to look at it again. (6–9 mos.; Ruff and Kohler 1978)
• Hear the infant care teacher’s footsteps in the darkened nap room and turn his head to try to look for her. (6–9 mos.; Ruff and Kohler 1978)
• Show excitement upon recog nizing the color of a favorite food that is offered on a spoon. (6–9 mos.; Reardon and Bush nell 1988)
18 months
At around 18 months of age, chil dren use the information received from the senses to change the way they interact with the environ ment.
For example, the child may:
• Adjust the way he is walking de pending on the type of surface; for example, walking slowly on rocks and faster on pavement. (12–18 mos.; Fogel 2001, 333)
• Choose to sit on her bottom and slide down a steep hill rather than walk down it. (12–18 mos.; Adolph, Eppler, and Gib son 1993)
• Sway back and forth to the beat of a song while standing up.
• Pull hands away from the sen sory table, which is filled with an unfamiliar slimy substance.
• Spend a lot of time in the sand box, burying a hand underneath a pile of sand.
• Stop pouring sand into a bucket that is already full.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children can quickly and easily combine the information received from the senses to inform the way they interact with the environment.
For example, the child may:
• Identify a blanket or other familiar objects just by touching them. (30–36 mo.; Parks 2004)
• Identify a truck when she feels it buried underneath the sand. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 17)
• Watch the lines that she makes with a marker on the paper. (Freeman 1980)
• Climb more slowly as he reaches the top of the ladder.
• Press harder on a clump of clay than on play dough.
• Watch a family member draw a circle and then try to do it. (24–36 mos.; Stiles 1995)
• Walk more slowly and carefully when carrying an open cup of milk than when carrying a cup with a lid.
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Perceptual Development
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Have a range of vision that is sev eral feet. (By 4 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 207)
• Experience the sensation of be ing touched, and then search for the object or person. (4–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 11)
• Listen to the sounds that family members use while talking in the home language, and use these same sounds while babbling. (4–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 11)
• Startle when hearing a loud noise. (By 4 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 209)
• Kick feet while lying in the crib, feel the crib shake, and then kick feet again. (By 4 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 209)
• Recognize an object as some thing she has seen before, even while looking at it from a different perspective. (By 4 mos.; Fogel 2001, 252)
• Notice the difference between dif ferent songs that the infant care teacher sings. (By 6 mos.; Fogel 2001, 252)
• Look confused upon hearing sounds that do not fit with the motions observed (for example, hearing a squeaking noise while seeing a rattle move). (By 6 mos.; Fogel 2001, 252)
• Explore objects with the mouth. (By 7 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 208)
• See different colors. (By 7 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 208)
• See things from a distance. (By 7 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 208)
• Track moving objects with both eyes together. (By 7 mos.; Ameri can Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 208)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Nuzzle his face into a freshly washed blanket to smell it. (6–12 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Show recognition of sounds, such as the mother’s foot steps, water running in the bathtub, or the refrigerator door being opened. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 38)
• Pat, push, mound, and squeeze play dough, experi encing all the ways it can be used. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 37)
• Explore pegboard holes with a finger, then look around for something to fit in the holes. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 37)
• Enjoy messy activities or show a dislike for messy activities. (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 14)
• React to various sensations, such as extremes in tempera ture and taste. (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 14–15)
• Crumple and tear paper. (7–9 mos.; Parks, 2004, 26)
• Stop crawling when he reach es the edge of the couch. (By the time most infants are crawling; Walk and Gibson 1961)
• Be able to remember where toys are stored in the class room because she has crawled by them before. (By the time most infants are crawling; Bai and Bertenthal 1992; Campos and Berten thal, 1989)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Enjoy rough-and-tumble play. (18–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 16)
• Handle fragile items carefully. (24–26 mos.; Parks 2004, 16)
• Enjoy tactile books, such as books with faux fuzzy animal fur. (24–29 mos.; Parks 2004, 17)
• Play with sand and water by filling up buckets, digging, and pouring water. (24–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 17)
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�6
Foundation: Gross Motor The developing ability to move the large muscles
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8 months
At around eight months of age, children demonstrate the ability to maintain their posture in a sitting position and to shift between sit ting and other positions.
For example, the child may:
• Sit on the floor, legs bent, with one leg closer to the body than the other. (8 mos.; Alexander, Boehme, and Cupps 1993, 134)
• Use forearms to pull forward on the floor while on her tummy. (Scaled score of 9 for 7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 155)
• Move from a sitting position onto hands and knees. (Scaled score of 10 for 7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 156)
18 months
Around 18 months of age, chil dren move from one place to an other by walking and running with basic control and coordination.
For example, the child may:
• Stand on one foot, alone or with support. (Scaled score of 10 for 18:16–19:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 163)
• Walk sideways. (Scaled score of 10 for 18:16–19:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 163)
• Push a doll stroller or play shopping cart. (17–18.5 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Climb onto an adult-sized couch. (By 18 mos.; Apfel and Provence 2001, 33)
• Run. (Scaled score of 10 for 16:16–17:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 162)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, chil dren move with ease, coordinat ing movements and performing a variety of movements.
For example, the child may:
• Walk and run with skill, changing speed and direction. (36 mos.; Parks 2004; by 36 mos.; Davies 2004, 194).
• Kick and throw a ball, but with little control of direction or speed. (36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 76)
• Bend over to pick up a toy and stand up without trouble. (By 36 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004)
• Pedal a tricycle. (32–36 mos.; Parks 2004; 36 mos.; Davies 2004, 194)
• Climb up climbers and ladders. (34–36 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Walk backward a few feet. (28– 29.5 mos.; Parks 2004; scaled score of 10 for 34:16–35:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, #63, 167)
• Jump up with both feet at the same time. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004; by 30 mos.; Apfel and Provence 2001, 33)
• Catch a medium-size ball. (35–36+ mos.; Parks 2004)
• Walk up stairs, without holding on, placing one foot on each step. (30 mos.; Squires, Pot ter, and Bricker 1999; by end of 24–36 mos., 34–36+ mos.; Parks 2004, 304; scaled score of 10 for 35:16–36:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 64)
��
Gross Motor
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Hold onto a foot while lying on her back. (Scaled score of 10 for 5:16–6:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 153)
• Roll from back to stomach (4–6 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
• Roll from stomach to back. (4–6 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003; Bayley 2006, 25; 5.38–7.5 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Bring both hands to the mid line while lying on his back. (16 weeks; Squires, Potter, and Bricker 1999)
• Sit without support and turn to the left or right to reach an object. (Scaled score of 7 for 7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 154; 7 mos.; Mercer 1998, 243)
• Balance on one side, bearing weight on the lower hip, arm, and leg, leaving the upper arm and leg free to move and to manipulate objects. (7 mos.; Alexander, Boehme, and Cupps 1993, 131–132).
• Move from hands and knees into a sitting position. (7 mos.; Alexander, Boehme, and Cupps 1993, 135)
• Rock on hands and knees, sometimes losing balance. (7 mos.; Alexander, Boehme, and Cupps 1993, 138)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Creep on hands and knees or hands and feet. (By 9 mos.; Apfel and Provence 2001, 31)
• Pull to a stand, using furniture for support. (Scaled score of 10 for 8:16–9:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 157)
• Cruise while holding onto furniture. (9.61–13 mos.; Parks 2004; scaled score of 10 for 9:16–10:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 158)
• Sit down from a standing position. (Scaled score of 9 for 10:16–11:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 158)
• Walk without support. (Scaled score of 9 for 12:16–13:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 160; by 15 mos.; Apfel and Provence 2001, 33)
• Throw a ball, underhand or overhand, to the infant care teacher. (Scaled score of 10 for 12:16–13:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 160)
• Squat to explore a toy on the ground and then stand up. (Scaled score of 10 for 13:16– 14:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 160)
• Walk up or down stairs by step ping with both feet on each step while holding a parent’s hand or the handrail. (Scaled score of 10 for up for 14:16–15:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 161; for down for 15:16–16:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 162)
• Get into a standing position without support. (Around 11:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 159)
• Crawl or creep up or down a few steps.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Jump off the bottom step. (24– 26.5 mos.; Parks 2004; scaled score of 10 for 19:16–20:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 164)
• Kick a ball. (Scaled score of 10 for 20:16–21:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 164; by 21 mos.; Apfel and Provence 2001, 33)
• Ride a ride-on toy without pedals, pushing her feet on the ground to move. (18–24 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Walk up or down stairs by stepping with both feet on each step, without holding on. (Scaled score of 10 for up for 24:16–25:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 165)
• Catch a big ball using two arms. (24–26+ mos.; Parks 2004)
• Jump forward a few inches. (Scaled score of 10 for 27:16– 28:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 166)
• Walk on tiptoes. (Scaled score of 10 for 32:16–33:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 167; 36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 75)
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Foundation: Fine Motor The developing ability to move the small muscles
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8 months
At around eight months of age, children easily reach for and grasp things and use eyes and hands to explore objects active ly. (6 mos.; Alexander, Boehme, and Cupps 1993, 112)
For example, the child may:
• Reach for and grasp an object, using one hand. (5–8 mos.; Introduction to Infant Develop ment, 2002, 62; by end of 7 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 205; 7–8 1/2 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Use hand in a raking or sweeping motion to bring a toy closer. (7–8 mos.; Parks 2004; by end of 7 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 205; 7–8 mos.; Frankenburg and Dodds 1990)
• Hold a small block using the thumb and fingertips. (item right before scaled score of 10 for 7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 127)
• Hold a small block in each hand and bang the blocks together. (Scaled score of 10 7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 127)
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children are able to hold small objects in one hand and some times use both hands together to manipulate objects. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 40)
For example, the child may:
• Hold a crayon between fingers and thumb. (13–18 mos.; Slat er and Lewis 2002, 62; scaled score of 10 for 17:16–18:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 131)
• Scribble with big arm move ments. (13–18 mos.; Introduc tion to Infant Development, 2002, 62)
• Place pegs into a pegboard. (16–19 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Hold a toy with one hand and use the fingers of the other hand to explore it. (By 18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 40)
• Point to the pictures of a book. (By 18 mos.; Meisels and oth ers 2003, 40)
• Place a stacking ring on the post. (By 18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 40)
• Use two hands to pick up a big truck, but only one hand to pick up a small one. (12–18 mos.; Parks 2004, 81)
• Use the wrists to rotate objects in order to explore all sides. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 40)
• Use one hand in opposition to the other. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 40)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, chil dren coordinate the fine movements of the fingers, wrists, and hands to skillfully manipulate a wide range of objects and materials in intricate ways. Children often use one hand to stabilize an object while manipu lating it.
For example, the child may:
• Use child-safe scissors in one hand to make snips in a piece of paper. (Scaled score of 10 for 34:16–35:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 136; 28–35 mos.; Parks 2004)
• String large wooden beads onto a shoelace. (33–36 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Build a tall tower with six or more blocks. (28–31 mos.; Parks 2004; by the end of 24–36 mos.; Ameri can Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 305)
• Turn the pages of a paper book, one at a time. (By end of 24–36 mos.; American Academy of Pedi atrics 2004, 305)
• Twist toy nuts and bolts on and off. (By end of 24–36 mos.; Ameri can Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 305)
• Open a door by turning the round handle. (By end of 24–36 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 305)
• Use one hand to hold and drink from a cup. (By 36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 77)
• Place a wooden puzzle piece in the correct place in the puzzle.
• Use thumb, index, and middle fingers to draw or write with a crayon, marker, or pencil. (Scaled score of 10 for 21:15–22:15 and 35:16–36:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 136; by 36 mos.; Apfel and Provence 2001, 33)
��
Fine Motor
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Transfer a cloth from one hand to another. (6 mos.; Alexander, Boehme, and Cupps 1993, 110; scaled score of 10 for 5:16–6:15 mos.; Bayley 2006)
• Pull the spoon out of her mouth. (6 mos.; Alexander, Boehme, and Cupps 1993, 111)
• Reach toward a toy and make grasping motions with the hand. (4–6 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
• Reach for a second toy when already holding one in the other hand. (5–6.5 mos.; Parks 2004, 49)
• Hold one block in each hand, then drop one of them when the infant care teacher holds out a third block. (6.5–7.5 mos.; Parks 2004, 50)
• Have the hands in an open po sition when relaxed. (4 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 14)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Hold on to two blocks while reaching for another block. (8–10 mos.; Parks 2004, 50)
• Use thumb and index finger to pick up a piece of cereal. (Scaled score of 10 for 9:16–10:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 128)
• Drop a block into the wide open ing of a large container. (9 mos.; Alexander, Boehme, and Cupps 1993, 157)
• Turn the pages of a board book. (Scaled score of 10 for 9:16– 10:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 128)
• Use hands to follow along with some motions of a song, chant, or finger play. (Scaled score of 10 for 9:16–10:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 87)
• Grasp onto and pull the string of a pull toy. (9–12 mos.; Parks 2004, 51)
• Point with the index finger. (12 mos.; Coplan 1993, 3; scaled score of 10 for 11:16–12:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 129)
• Stack two to three small blocks into a tower. (Scaled score of 10 for 13:16–15:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 130)
• Unscrew the lid of a plastic jar. (Scaled score of 10 for 14:16– 15:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 62)
• Put pieces of cereal inside a container with a small opening. (Scaled score of 10 for 16:16– 17:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 130)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Fold a piece of paper. (21–24 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Dump a container by turning it over. (By 24 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004)
• Use a crayon to draw lines and circles on a piece of paper. (Scaled score of 10 for 27:16– 28:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 134; 30 mos.; Squires, Potter, and Bricker 1999; by 30 mos.; Apfel and Provence 2001, 33)
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�00
References
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Adolph, K. E., and A. M. Avolio. 2000. “Walking Infants Adapt Locomotion to Changing Body Dimensions,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, Vol. 26, No. 3, 1148–66.
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Appendix Summary of Infant/Toddler Foundations
Social-Emotional Development Interactions with Adults: The developing
ability to respond to and engage with adults
Relationships with Adults: The develop ment of close relationships with certain adults who provide consistent nurtur ance
Interactions with Peers: The developing ability to respond to and engage with other children
Relationships with Peers: The development of relationships with certain peers through interactions over time
Identity of Self in Relation to Others: The developing concept that the child is an individual operating within social rela tionships
Recognition of Ability: The developing understanding that the child can take action to influence the environment
Expression of Emotion: The developing ability to express a variety of feelings through facial expressions, movements, gestures, sounds, or words
Empathy: The developing ability to share in the emotional experiences of others
Emotion Regulation: The developing ability to manage emotional responses with assistance from others and indepen dently
Impulse Control: The developing capacity to wait for needs to be met, to inhibit potentially hurtful behavior, and to act according to social expectations, including safety rules
Social Understanding: The developing understanding of the responses, com munication, emotional expressions, and actions of other people
Language Development Receptive Language: The developing ability
to understand words and increasingly complex utterances
Expressive Language: The developing abil ity to produce the sounds of language and use vocabulary and increasingly complex utterances
Communication Skills and Knowledge: The developing ability to communicate nonverbally and verbally
Interest in Print: The developing interest in engaging with print in books and in the environment
Cognitive Development Cause-and-Effect: The developing under
standing that one event brings about another
Spatial Relationships: The developing understanding of how things move and fit in space
Problem Solving: The developing ability to engage in a purposeful effort to reach a goal or figure out how something works
Imitation: The developing ability to mirror, repeat, and practice the actions of oth ers, either immediately or later
Memory: The developing ability to store and later retrieve information about past experiences
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Number Sense: The developing under standing of number and quantity
Classification: The developing ability to group, sort, categorize, connect, and have expectations of objects and people according to their attributes
Symbolic Play: The developing ability to use actions, objects, or ideas to repre sent other actions, objects, or ideas
Attention Maintenance: The developing ability to attend to people and things while interacting with others and exploring the environment and play materials
Understanding of Personal Care Routines: The developing ability to understand and participate in personal care rou tines
Perceptual and Motor Development Perceptual Development: The developing
ability to become aware of the social and physical environment through the senses
Gross Motor: The developing ability to move the large muscles
Fine Motor: The developing ability to move the small muscles
