INFANT Child Development Need This Done Tomorrow April 1, 2019 By 12pm PACIFIC TIME ZONE!
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Q1.Social-EmotionalandLanguageDevelopment-InfantToddlerLearningandDevelopmentFoundations.pdf
Social-Emotional Development
S ocial-emotional development includes the child’s experience, expression, and management of
emotions and the ability to establish positive and rewarding relationships with others (Cohen and others 2005). It encompasses both intra- and inter personal processes.
The core features of emotional devel opment include the ability to identify and understand one’s own feelings, to accurately read and comprehend emotional states in others, to manage strong emotions and their expression in a constructive manner, to regu late one’s own behavior, to develop empathy for others, and to establish and maintain relationships. (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child 2004, 2)
Infants experience, express, and per ceive emotions before they fully under stand them. In learning to recognize, label, manage, and communicate their emotions and to perceive and attempt to understand the emotions of others, children build skills that connect them with family, peers, teachers, and the community. These growing capacities help young children to become compe tent in negotiating increasingly com
plex social interactions, to participate effectively in relationships and group activities, and to reap the benefits of social support crucial to healthy human development and functioning.
Healthy social-emotional develop ment for infants and toddlers unfolds in an interpersonal context, namely that of positive ongoing relationships with familiar, nurturing adults. Young children are particularly attuned to social and emotional stimulation. Even newborns appear to attend more to stimuli that resemble faces (John son and others 1991). They also pre fer their mothers’ voices to the voices of other women (DeCasper and Fifer 1980). Through nurturance, adults support the infants’ earliest experi ences of emotion regulation (Bronson 2000a; Thompson and Goodvin 2005).
Responsive caregiving supports infants in beginning to regulate their emotions and to develop a sense of predictability, safety, and responsive ness in their social environments. Early relationships are so important to developing infants that research experts have broadly concluded that, in the early years, “nurturing, stable and consistent relationships are the
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key to healthy growth, development and learning” (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine 2000, 412). In other words, high- quality relationships increase the likelihood of positive outcomes for young children (Shonkoff 2004). Experiences with family members and teachers provide an opportunity for young children to learn about social relationships and emotions through exploration and predictable interac tions. Professionals working in child care settings can support the social- emotional development of infants and toddlers in various ways, including interacting directly with young chil dren, communicating with families, arranging the physical space in the care environment, and planning and implementing curriculum.
Brain research indicates that emo tion and cognition are profoundly interrelated processes. Specifically, “recent cognitive neuroscience findings suggest that the neural mechanisms underlying emotion regulation may be the same as those underlying cogni tive processes” (Bell and Wolfe 2004, 366). Emotion and cognition work together, jointly informing the child’s impressions of situations and influ encing behavior. Most learning in the early years occurs in the context of emotional supports (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine 2000). “The rich interpenetrations of emotions and cognitions establish the major psychic scripts for each child’s life” (Panksepp 2001). Together, emo tion and cognition contribute to atten tional processes, decision making, and learning (Cacioppo and Berntson 1999). Furthermore, cognitive pro cesses, such as decision making, are affected by emotion (Barrett and oth
ers 2007). Brain structures involved in the neural circuitry of cognition influ ence emotion and vice versa (Barrett and others 2007). Emotions and social behaviors affect the young child’s abil ity to persist in goal-oriented activity, to seek help when it is needed, and to participate in and benefit from rela tionships.
Young children who exhibit healthy social, emotional, and behavioral adjustment are more likely to have good academic performance in elemen tary school (Cohen and others 2005; Zero to Three 2004). The sharp dis tinction between cognition and emo tion that has historically been made may be more of an artifact of scholar ship than it is representative of the way these processes occur in the brain (Barrett and others 2007). This recent research strengthens the view that early childhood programs support later positive learning outcomes in all domains by maintaining a focus on the promotion of healthy social emo tional development (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child 2004; Raver 2002; Shonkoff 2004).
Interactions with Adults Interactions with adults are a fre
quent and regular part of infants’ daily lives. Infants as young as three months of age have been shown to be able to discriminate between the faces of unfamiliar adults (Barrera and Maurer 1981). The foundations that describe Interactions with Adults and Relationships with Adults are inter related. They jointly give a picture of healthy social-emotional development that is based in a supportive social environment established by adults. Children develop the ability to both
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respond to adults and engage with them first through predictable interac tions in close relationships with par ents or other caring adults at home and outside the home. Children use and build upon the skills learned through close relationships to inter act with less familiar adults in their lives. In interacting with adults, chil dren engage in a wide variety of social exchanges such as establishing con tact with a relative or engaging in sto rytelling with an infant care teacher.
Quality in early childhood programs is, in large part, a function of the interactions that take place between the adults and children in those programs. These interactions form the basis for the relationships that are established between teachers and children in the classroom or home and are related to children’s develop mental status. How teachers interact with children is at the very heart of early childhood education (Kontos and Wilcox-Herzog 1997, 11).
Relationships with Adults Close relationships with adults
who provide consistent nurturance strengthen children’s capacity to learn and develop. Moreover, relation ships with parents, other family mem bers, caregivers, and teachers provide the key context for infants’ social- emotional development. These special relationships influence the infant’s emerging sense of self and under standing of others. Infants use rela tionships with adults in many ways: for reassurance that they are safe, for assistance in alleviating distress, for help with emotion regulation, and for social approval or encouragement. Establishing close relationships with
adults is related to children’s emo tional security, sense of self, and evolv ing understanding of the world around them. Concepts from the literature on attachment may be applied to early childhood settings, in considering the infant care teacher’s role in separa tions and reunions during the day in care, facilitating the child’s explora tion, providing comfort, meeting physi cal needs, modeling positive relation ships, and providing support during stressful times (Raikes 1996).
Interactions with Peers In early infancy children interact
with each other using simple behav iors such as looking at or touching another child. Infants’ social interac tions with peers increase in complexity from engaging in repetitive or routine back-and-forth interactions with peers (for example, rolling a ball back and forth) to engaging in cooperative activi ties such as building a tower of blocks together or acting out different roles during pretend play. Through inter actions with peers, infants explore their interest in others and learn about social behavior/social interac tion. Interactions with peers provide the context for social learning and problem solving, including the experi ence of social exchanges, cooperation, turn-taking, and the demonstration of the beginning of empathy. Social interactions with peers also allow older infants to experiment with different roles in small groups and in different situations such as relating to familiar versus unfamiliar children. As noted, the foundations called Interactions with Adults, Relationships with Adults, Interactions with Peers, and Rela tionships with Peers are interrelated.
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Interactions are stepping-stones to relationships. Burk (1996, 285) writes:
We, as teachers, need to facilitate the development of a psychologically safe environment that promotes posi tive social interaction. As children interact openly with their peers, they learn more about each other as indi viduals, and they begin building a history of interactions.
Relationships with Peers Infants develop close relationships
with children they know over a period of time, such as other children in the family child care setting or neighbor hood. Relationships with peers provide young children with the opportunity to develop strong social connections. Infants often show a preference for playing and being with friends, as compared with peers with whom they do not have a relationship. Howes’ (1983) research suggests that there are distinctive patterns of friendship for the infant, toddler, and preschooler age groups. The three groups vary in the number of friendships, the stability of friendships, and the nature of inter action between friends (for example, the extent to which they involve object exchange or verbal communication).
Identity of Self in Relation to Others
Infants’ social-emotional develop ment includes an emerging awareness of self and others. Infants demon strate this foundation in a number of ways. For example, they can respond to their names, point to their body parts when asked, or name members of their families. Through an emerg ing understanding of other people in their social environment, children gain
an understanding of their roles within their families and communities. They also become aware of their own prefer ences and characteristics and those of others.
Recognition of Ability Infants’ developing sense of self-
efficacy includes an emerging under standing that they can make things happen and that they have particular abilities. Self-efficacy is related to a sense of competency, which has been identified as a basic human need (Connell 1990). The development of children’s sense of self-efficacy may be seen in play or exploratory behaviors when they act on an object to pro duce a result. For example, they pat a musical toy to make sounds come out. Older infants may demonstrate recog nition of ability through “I” statements, such as “I did it” or “I’m good at draw ing.”
Expression of Emotion Even early in infancy, children
express their emotions through facial expressions, vocalizations, and body language. The later ability to use words to express emotions gives young children a valuable tool in gaining the assistance or social support of oth ers (Saarni and others 2006). Tem perament may play a role in children’s expression of emotion. Tronick (1989, 112) described how expression of emotion is related to emotion regula tion and communication between the mother and infant: “the emotional expressions of the infant and the care taker function to allow them to mutu ally regulate their interactions . . . the infant and the adult are participants in an affective communication system.”
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Both the understanding and expres sion of emotion are influenced by cul ture. Cultural factors affect children’s growing understanding of the meaning of emotions, the developing knowl edge of which situations lead to which emotional outcomes, and their learn ing about which emotions are appro priate to display in which situations (Thompson and Goodvin 2005). Some cultural groups appear to express cer tain emotions more often than other cultural groups (Tsai, Levenson, and McCoy 2006). In addition, cultural groups vary by which particular emo tions or emotional states they value (Tsai, Knutson, and Fung 2006). One study suggests that cultural differ ences in exposure to particular emo tions through storybooks may contrib ute to young children’s preferences for particular emotional states (for exam ple, excited or calm) (Tsai and others 2007).
Young children’s expression of posi tive and negative emotions may play a significant role in their development of social relationships. Positive emotions appeal to social partners and seem to enable relationships to form, while problematic management or expression of negative emotions leads to difficulty in social relationships (Denham and Weissberg 2004). The use of emotion- related words appears to be associ ated with how likable preschoolers are considered by their peers. Children who use emotion-related words were found to be better-liked by their class mates (Fabes and others 2001). Infants respond more positively to adult vocal izations that have a positive affective tone (Fernald 1993). Social smiling is a developmental process in which neu rophysiology and cognitive, social, and
emotional factors play a part, seen as a “reflection and constituent of an inter active relationship” (Messinger and Fogel 2007, 329). It appears likely that the experience of positive emotions is a particularly important contributor to emotional well-being and psychologi cal health (Fredrickson 2000, 2003; Panksepp 2001).
Empathy During the first three years of life,
children begin to develop the capacity to experience the emotional or psycho logical state of another person (Zahn- Waxler and Radke-Yarrow 1990). The following definitions of empathy are found in the research literature: “knowing what another person is feel ing,” “feeling what another person is feeling,” and “responding compassion ately to another’s distress” (Levenson and Ruef 1992, 234). The concept of empathy reflects the social nature of emotion, as it links the feelings of two or more people (Levenson and Ruef 1992). Since human life is relation ship-based, one vitally important func tion of empathy over the life span is to strengthen social bonds (Anderson and Keltner 2002). Research has shown a correlation between empathy and pro- social behavior (Eisenberg 2000). In particular, prosocial behaviors, such as helping, sharing, and comforting or showing concern for others, illustrate the development of empathy (Zahn- Waxler and others 1992) and how the experience of empathy is thought to be related to the development of moral behavior (Eisenberg 2000). Adults model prosocial/empathic behav iors for infants in various ways. For example, those behaviors are modeled through caring interactions with oth-
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ers or through providing nurturance to the infant. Quann and Wien (2006, 28) suggest that one way to support the development of empathy in young children is to create a culture of caring in the early childhood environment: “Helping children understand the feel ings of others is an integral aspect of the curriculum of living together. The relationships among teachers, between children and teachers, and among children are fostered with warm and caring interactions.”
Emotion Regulation The developing ability to regulate
emotions has received increasing attention in the research literature (Eisenberg, Champion, and Ma 2004). Researchers have generated various definitions of emotion regulation, and debate continues as to the most useful and appropriate way to define this con cept (Eisenberg and Spinrad 2004). As a construct, emotion regulation reflects the interrelationship of emotions, cognitions, and behaviors (Bell and Wolfe 2004). Young children’s increas ing understanding and skill in the use of language is of vital importance in their emotional development, opening new avenues for communicating about and regulating emotions (Campos, Frankel, and Camras 2004) and help ing children to negotiate acceptable outcomes to emotionally charged situa tions in more effective ways. Emotion regulation is influenced by culture and the historical era in which a person lives: cultural variability in regula tion processes is significant (Mesquita and Frijda 1992). “Cultures vary in terms of what one is expected to feel, and when, where, and with whom one may express different feelings” (Cheah
and Rubin 2003, 3). Adults can pro vide positive role models of emotion regulation through their behavior and through the verbal and emotional support they offer children in manag ing their emotions. Responsiveness to infants’ signals contributes to the development of emotion regulation. Adults support infants’ development of emotion regulation by minimizing exposure to excessive stress, chaotic environments, or over- or understimu lation.
Emotion regulation skills are impor tant in part because they play a role in how well children are liked by peers and teachers and how socially compe tent they are perceived to be (National Scientific Council on the Develop ing Child 2004). Children’s ability to regulate their emotions appropriately can contribute to perceptions of their overall social skills as well as to the extent to which they are liked by peers (Eisenberg and others 1993). Poor emotion regulation can impair chil dren’s thinking, thereby compromising their judgment and decision making (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child 2004). At kindergar ten entry, children demonstrate broad variability in their ability to self-regu late (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine 2000).
Impulse Control Children’s developing capacity to
control impulses helps them adapt to social situations and follow rules. As infants grow, they become increasingly able to exercise voluntary control over behavior such as waiting for needs to be met, inhibiting potentially hurtful behavior, and acting according to social expectations, including safety
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rules. Group care settings provide many opportunities for children to practice their impulse-control skills. Peer interactions often offer natural opportunities for young children to practice impulse control, as they make progress in learning about cooperative play and sharing. Young children’s understanding or lack of understand ing of requests made of them may be one factor contributing to their responses (Kaler and Kopp 1990).
Social Understanding During the infant/toddler years,
children begin to develop an under standing of the responses, commu nication, emotional expression, and actions of other people. This develop ment includes infants’ understanding of what to expect from others, how to
engage in back-and-forth social inter actions, and which social scripts are to be used for which social situations. “At each age, social cognitive under standing contributes to social compe tence, interpersonal sensitivity, and an awareness of how the self relates to other individuals and groups in a com plex social world” (Thompson 2006, 26). Social understanding is particu larly important because of the social nature of humans and human life, even in early infancy (Wellman and Lagattuta 2000). Recent research sug gests that infants’ and toddlers’ social understanding is related to how often they experience adult communica tion about the thoughts and emotions of others (Taumoepeau and Ruffman 2008).
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Foundation: Interactions with Adults The developing ability to respond to and engage with adults
8 months 18 months 36 months
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At around eight months of age, children purposefully engage in reciprocal interac tions and try to influence the behavior of others. Children may be both interested in and cautious of unfamiliar adults. (7 mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 340) (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 16)
For example, the child may:
• Attend to an unfamiliar adult with interest but show wariness or become anxious when that adult comes too close. (5–8 mos.; Parks 2004; Johnstone and Scherer 2000, 222)
• Take the infant care teacher’s hands and rock forward and backwards as a way of asking her to sing a favorite song. (8 mos.; Gustafson, Green, and West 1979; Kaye and Fogel 1980)
• Engage in games such as pat a-cake and peek-a-boo. (7–9 mos.; Coplan 1993, 3)
• Make eye contact with a family member.
• Vocalize to get an infant care teacher’s attention.
At around 18 months of age, children may participate in rou tines and games that involve complex back-and-forth inter action and may follow the gaze of the infant care teacher to an object or person. Children may also check with a familiar infant care teacher when uncertain about something or someone. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 33)
For example, the child may:
• Move close to the infant care teacher and hold his hand when a visitor enters the classroom but watch the visitor with inter est. (18 mos.; Meisels and oth ers 2003)
• Bring a familiar object to an adult when asked. (15–18 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Allow an unfamiliar adult to get close only after the adult uses an object to bridge the interac tion, such as showing interest in a toy that is also interesting to the child. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Watch, and then help the infant care teacher as she prepares snack.
• Seek reassurance from the infant care teacher when unsure if something is safe. (10–12 mos.; Fogel 2001, 305; Dickstein and Parke 1988; Hirshberg and Svejda 1990)
At around 36 months of age, children interact with adults to solve problems or commu nicate about experiences or ideas. (California Department of Education 2005, 6; Marvin and Britner 1999, 60).
For example, the child may:
• Participate in storytelling with the infant care teacher. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Tell a teacher from the class room next door about an upcoming birthday party. (36 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Help the infant care teacher bring in the wheeled toys from the play yard at the end of the day.
• Ask a classroom visitor her name.
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Interactions with Adults
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Engage in playful, face-to-face interactions with an adult, such as taking turns vocalizing and then smiling or laughing. (2–7 mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 375)
• Begin to protest separations from significant adults.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Engage in back-and-forth inter action by handing a parent an object, then reaching to receive the object when it is handed back. (9–12 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
• Show—but not give—a toy to the infant care teacher. (9–12 mos.; Parks 2004)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Practice being a grown-up dur ing pretend play by dressing up or using a play stove. (18–36 mos.; Lerner and Dombro 2000)
• Help the infant care teacher clean up after snack by putting snack dishes in the dish bin.
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Foundation: Relationships with Adults The development of close relationships with certain adults
who provide consistent nurturance
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8 months
At around eight months of age, children seek a special relationship with one (or a few) familiar adult(s) by initiating interactions and seek ing proximity, especially when distressed. (6–9 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 52)
For example, the child may:
• Seek comfort from the infant care teacher by crying and looking for him. (7 mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 372)
• Cry out or follow after a parent when dropped off at the child care program. (6–9 mos.; Ainsworth1967, 4)
• Lift her arms to be picked up by the special infant care teacher. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 17; Ainsworth 1967, 5)
• Crawl toward a parent when startled by a loud noise. (8.5 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 52)
• Turn excitedly and raise his arms to greet a family member at pick-up time. (8 mos.; Ainsworth 1967, 5)
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children feel secure exploring the environ ment in the presence of important adults with whom they have devel oped a relationship over an extended period of time. When distressed, children seek to be physically close to these adults. (6–18 mos.; Mar vin and Britner 1999, 52; Bowlby 1983)
For example, the child may:
• Run in wide circles around the outdoor play area, circling back each time and hug the legs of the infant care teacher before running off again.
• Snuggle with the special infant care teacher when feeling tired or grumpy.
• Wave at the special infant care teacher from the top of the slide to make sure he is watch ing.
• Follow a parent physi cally around the room.
• Play away from the infant care teacher and then move close to him from time to time to check in. (12 mos.; Davies 2004, 10)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, when explor ing the environment, from time to time children reconnect, in a variety of ways, with the adult(s) with whom they have de veloped a special relationship: through eye contact; facial expressions; shared feelings; or conversations about feelings, shared activities, or plans. When distressed, chil dren may still seek to be physically close to these adults. (By 36 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 57)
For example, the child may:
• Feel comfortable playing on the other side of the play yard away from the infant care teacher, but cry to be picked up after falling down. (24–36 mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 376)
• Call “Mama!” from across the room while playing with dolls to make sure that the moth er is paying attention. (24–36 mos.; Schaffer and Emerson 1964)
• Call for a family member and look out the window for him after being dropped off at school. (24–36 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 56)
• Communicate, “This is our favorite part” when reading a funny story with the infant care teacher.
• Bring the grandmother’s favorite book to her and express, “One more?” to see if she will read one more book, even though she has just said, “We’re all done reading. Now it’s time for nap.” (Teti 1999; 18–36 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 59)
• Cry and look for the special infant care teacher after falling.
• Seek the attention of the special infant care teacher and communicate, “Watch me!” be fore proudly displaying a new skill.
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Relationships with Adults
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Hold on to a parent’s sweater when being held. (5 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 51; Ainsworth 1967, 1)
• Babble back and forth with the infant care teacher. (3–6 mos.; Caufield 1995)
• Be more likely to smile when approached by the infant care teacher than a stranger. (3–6 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 50)
• Cry when an unfamiliar adult gets too close. (7 mos.; Bronson 1972)
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the foundation ( to months)� �� foundation ( to months)�� ��
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Cry and ask for a parent after • Say, “I go to school. Mama goes being dropped off in the morn- to work,” after being dropped off ing. (9–12 mos.; Lerner and in the morning. Ciervo 2003) • Gesture for one more hug as a
• Look for a smile from the parent is leaving for work. infant care teacher when unsure if something is safe. (10–12 mos.; Fogel 2001, 305; Dickstein and Parke 1988; Hirshberg and Svejda 1990)
• Cling to a parent when feeling ill. (10–11 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 52)
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Foundation: Interactions with Peers The developing ability to respond to and engage with other children
8 months 18 months 36 months
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At around eight months of age, children show interest in familiar and unfamiliar peers. Children may stare at another child, explore another child’s face and body, and respond to siblings and older peers. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
For example, the child may:
• Watch other children with inter est. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Touch the eyes or hair of a peer. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Attend to a crying peer with a serious expression. (7 mos.; American Academy of Pediat rics 2004, 212)
• Laugh when an older sibling or peer makes a funny face. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
At around 18 months of age, children engage in simple back-and-forth interactions with peers for short periods of time. (Meisels and others 2003, 35)
For example, the child may:
• Hit another child who takes a toy. (18 mos.; Meisels and oth ers 2003, 35)
• Offer a book to another child, perhaps with encouragement from the infant care teacher. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 35)
• Tickle another child, get tickled back, and tickle him again. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 35)
• Engage in reciprocal play, such as run-and-chase or offer-and receive. (12–13 mos.; Howes 1988, v; 10–12 mos.; Ross and Goldman 1977)
• Play ball with a peer by rolling the ball back and forth to each other. (12–15 mos.; Parks 2004; 9–16 mos.; Frankenburg and others 1990)
At around 36 months of age, children engage in simple cooperative play with peers. (36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003 70)
For example, the child may:
• Communicate with peers while digging in the sandbox together. (29–36 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 124)
• Act out different roles with peers, sometimes switching in and out of her role. (By 36 mos.; Segal 2004, 44)
• Build a tall tower with one or two other children. (36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 70)
• Hand a peer a block or piece of railroad track when building.
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Interactions with Peers
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Notice other infants and chil dren while sitting on a parent’s or infant care teacher’s lap.
• Cry when hearing another baby cry. (4 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 10)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Engage in solitary play. (toddler; Segal 2004, 38)
• Play a reciprocal game, such as pat-a-cake, with the infant care teacher and a peer. (7–11 mos.; Frankenburg and othres 1990)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Use gestures to communicate a desire to play with a peer. (18–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 123)
• Refuse to let a peer have a turn on the swing. (24 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 45)
• Push or bite when another child takes a toy. (24–30 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Engage in complementary interactions, such as feeding a stuffed animal that another child is holding or pulling a friend in the wagon. (24–30 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 57; Howes and Matheson 1992, 967)
• Join a group of children who are together in one play space and follow them as they move outside. (30 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 57)
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Foundation: Relationships with Peers The development of relationships with certain peers
through interactions over time
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8 months
At around eight months of age, children show interest in familiar and unfamiliar children. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 17)
For example, the child may:
• Watch other children with inter est. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Touch the eyes or hair of a peer. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Attend to a crying peer with a serious expression. (7 mos.; American Academy of Pediat rics 2004, 212)
• Laugh when an older sibling or peer makes a funny face. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Try to get the attention of an other child by smiling at him or babbling to him (6–9 mos.; Hay, Pederson, and Nash 1982)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Look at another child who is lying on the blanket nearby. (4 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 10)
• Turn toward the voice of a par ent or older sibling. (4 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 10)
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children prefer to interact with one or two familiar children in the group and usually engage in the same kind of back-and forth play when interacting with those children. (12–18 mos.; Mueller and Lucas 1975)
For example, the child may:
• Play the same kind of game, such as run-and-chase, with the same peer almost every day. (Howes 1987, 259)
• Choose to play in the same area as a friend. (Howes 1987, 259)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Watch an older sibling play nearby. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 26)
• Bang blocks together next to a child who is doing the same thing. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 26)
• Imitate the simple actions of a peer. (9–12 mos.; Ryalls, Gul, and Ryalls 2000)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children have developed friendships with a small num ber of children in the group and engage in more complex play with those friends than with other peers.
For example, the child may:
• Choose to play with a sibling instead of a less familiar child. (24–36 mos.; Dunn 1983, 795)
• Exhibit sadness when the favor ite friend is not at school one day. (24–36 mos.; Melson and Cohen 1981)
• Seek one friend for running games and another for building with blocks. (Howes 1987)
• Play “train” with one or two friends for an extended period of time by pretending that one is driving the train and the rest are riding.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Engage in social pretend play with one or two friends; for example, pretend to be a dog while a friend pretends to be the owner. (24–30 mos.; Howes 1987, 261)
• Express an interest in playing with a particular child. (13–24 mos.; Howes 1988, 3)
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Foundation: Identity of Self in Relation to Others The developing concept that the child is an individual
operating within social relationships
8 months
At around eight months of age, children show clear awareness of being a separate person and of being connected with other people. Children identify others as both distinct from and con nected to themselves. (Fogel 2001, 347)
For example, the child may:
• Respond to someone who calls her name. (5–7 mos.; Parks 2004, 94; 9 mo.; Coplan 1993, 2)
• Turn toward a familiar person upon hearing his name. (6–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 94; 8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 18)
• Look at an unfamiliar adult with interest but show wariness or become anxious when that adult comes too close. (5–8 mos.; Parks 2004; Johnstone and Scherer 2000, 222)
• Wave arms and kick legs when a parent enters the room.
• Cry when the favorite infant care teacher leaves the room. (6–10 mos.; Parks 2004)
Chart continues on next page.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children demonstrate aware ness of their characteristics and express themselves as distinct persons with thoughts and feelings. Children also demonstrate expectations of others’ behaviors, responses, and characteristics on the basis of previous experiences with them.
For example, the child may:
• Point to or indicate parts of the body when asked. (15–19 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Express thoughts and feel ings by saying “no!” (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Move excitedly when ap proached by an infant care teacher who usually engages in active play.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children identify their feel ings, needs, and interests, and identify themselves and others as members of one or more groups by referring to catego ries. (24–36 mos.; Fogel 2001, 415; 18–30 mos.)
For example, the child may:
• Use pronouns such as I, me, you, we, he, and she. (By 36 mo.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, p. 307)
• Say own name. (30–33 mos.; Parks 2004, 115)
• Begin to make comparisons between self and others; for example, communicate, “_____ is a boy/girl like me.”
• Name people in the family.
• Point to pictures of friends and say their names.
• Communicate, “Do it myself!” when the infant care teacher tries to help.
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Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Use hands to explore differ ent parts of the body. (4 mos.; Kravitz, Goldenberg, and Ney hus 1978)
• Examine her own hands and a parent’s hands. (Scaled score of 9 for 4:06–4:15 mos.;* Bayley 2006, 53)
• Watch or listen for the infant care teacher to come to meet the child’s needs. (Birth–8 mos.; Lerner and Dombro 2000, 42)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Play games such as peek-a-boo or run-and-chase with the infant care teacher. (Stern 1985, 102; 7–11 mos.; Frankenburg and others 1990)
• Recognize familiar people, such as a neighbor or infant care teacher from another room, in addition to immediate family members. (12–18 mo.; Parks 2004)
• Use names to refer to significant people; for example, “Mama” to refer to the mother and “Papa” to refer to the father. (11–14 mos.; Parks 2004, 109)
*Four months, six days, to four months, 15 days.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Recognize his own image in the mirror and understand that it is himself. (Siegel 1999, 35; Lewis and Brooks-Gunn 1979, 56)
• Know the names of familiar people, such as a neighbor. (by end of second year; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 270)
• Show understanding of or use words such as you, me, mine, he, she, it, and I. (20–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 96; 20 mos.; Bay- ley 2006; 18–24 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003; 19 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 61; 24–20 mos.; Parks 2004, 113)
• Use name or other family label (e.g., nickname, birth order, “little sister”) when referring to self. (18–24 mo.; Parks 2004; 24 mo.; Lewis and Brooks- Gunn 1979)
• Claim everything as “mine.” (24 mos.; Levine 1983)
• Point to or indicate self in a photograph. (24 mos.; Lewis and Brooks-Gunn 1979)
• Proudly show the infant care teacher a new possession. (24–30 mos.; Parks 2004)
��
Foundation: Recognition of Ability The developing understanding that the child can take action
to influence the environment
8 months
At around eight months of age, children understand that they are able to make things happen.
For example, the child may:
• Pat a musical toy to try to make the music come on again. (5–9 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Raise arms to be picked up by the infant care teacher. (6–9 mos.; Fogel 2001, 274)
• Initiate a favorite game; for example, hold out a foot to a parent to start a game of “This Little Piggy.” (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003; 6–9 mos.; Fogel 2001, 274)
• Gesture at a book and smile with satisfaction after the infant care teacher gets it down from the shelf. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children experiment with dif ferent ways of making things happen, persist in trying to do things even when faced with difficulty, and show a sense of satisfaction with what they can do. (McCarty, Clifton, and Collard 1999)
For example, the child may:
• Roll a toy car back and forth on the ground and then push it really hard and let go to see what happens. (18 mos.; McCarty, Clifton, and Collard 1999)
• Clap and bounce with joy after making a handprint with paint. (12–18 mos.; Sroufe 1979; Lally and others 1995, 71)
• Squeeze a toy in different ways to hear the sounds it makes. (Scaled score of 10 for 13:16–14:15 mos.;* Bayley 2006)
• Smile after walking up a steep incline without falling or carry ing a bucket full of sand from one place to another without spilling.
• Proudly hold up a book hidden in a stack after being asked by the infant care teacher to find it.
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*Denotes thirteen months, 16 days, to fourteen months, 15 days. Chart continues on next page.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children show an understanding of their own abilities and may refer to those abilities when describing themselves.
For example, the child may:
• Communicate, “I take care of the bunny” after helping to feed the class rabbit. (18–36 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 71)
• Finish painting a picture and hold it up to show a family member.
• Complete a difficult puzzle for the first time and clap or express, “I’m good at puzzles.”
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Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Try again and again to roll over, even though not yet able to roll completely over.
• Grasp, suck, or look at a teeth ing ring. (Before 8 mos. of age; Fogel 2001, 218)
• Shake a toy, hear it make noise, and shake it again.
• Stop crying upon seeing the infant care teacher approach with a bottle.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Drop a blanket over the side of the crib and wait for the infant care teacher to pick it up. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Drop a toy truck in the water table and blink in anticipation of the big splash. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Look over a shoulder, smile at the mother, and giggle in a playful way while crawling past her, to entice her to play a game of run-and-chase. (10–14 mos.; Bayley 2006)
• Turn light switch on and off repeatedly.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Insist on zipping up a jacket when the infant care teacher tries to help. (20–28 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 62; 24 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 122 and 129; 20–36 mos.; Bates 1990; Bullock and Lutkenhaus 1988, 1990; Stipek, Gralinski, and Kopp 1990)
• Point to a stack of blocks he has made and express, “look” to the infant care teacher. (28 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 96)
• Communicate, “I doing this,” “I don’t do this, “ “I can do this,” or “I did this.” (25 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 121; Dunn, 1987; Stipek, Gralinski, and Kopp 1990)
• Say, “I climb high” when telling the infant care teacher about what happened during outside play time, then run outside to show him how. (30 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
��
Foundation: Expression of Emotion The developing ability to express a variety of feelings through facial
expressions, movements, gestures, sounds, or words
8 months
At around eight months of age, children express a variety of primary emotions such as contentment, distress, joy, sadness, interest, surprise, disgust, anger, and fear. (Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 341)
For example, the child may:
• Exhibit wariness, cry, or turn away when a stranger ap proaches. (6 mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 338; Fogel 2001, 297; 7–8 mos.; Lewis 2000a, 277)
• Be more likely to react with an ger than just distress when ac cidentally hurt by another child. (later in the first year; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 341)
• Express fear of unfamiliar people by moving near a famil iar infant care teacher. (8 mos.; Bronson 1972)
• Stop crying and snuggle after being picked up by a parent.
• Show surprise when the infant care teacher removes the blan ket covering her face to start a game of peek-a-boo.
Chart continues on next page.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children express emotions in a clear and intentional way, and begin to express some complex emotions, such as pride.
For example, the child may:
• Show affection for a family member by hugging. (8–18 mos.; Lally and others 1995; Greenspan and Greenspan 1985, 84)
• Express jealousy by trying to crowd onto the infant care teacher’s lap when another child is already sitting there. (12–18 mos.; Hart and others 1998)
• Express anger at having a toy taken away by taking it back out of the other child’s hands or hitting her. (18 mos.; Squires, Bricker, and Twombly 2002, 115)
• Smile directly at other children when interacting with them. (18 mos.; Squires, Bricker, and Twombly 2002, 115)
• Express pride by communi cating, “I did it!” (15–24 mos.; Lewis and others 1989; Lewis 2000b)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children express complex, self- conscious emotions such as pride, embarrassment, shame, and guilt. Children demonstrate awareness of their feelings by using words to describe feelings to others or acting them out in pretend play. (Lewis and others 1989; Lewis 2000b; Lagattuta and Thompson 2007)
For example, the child may:
• Hide face with hands when feel ing embarrassed. (Lagattuta and Thompson 2007)
• Use words to describe feelings; for example, “I don’t like that.” (24–36 mos.; Fogel 2001, 414; 24–36 mos.; Harris and others 1989; Yuill 1984)
• Communicate, “I miss Grandma,” after talking on the phone with her. (24–36 mos.; Harris and oth ers 1989; Yuill 1984)
• Act out different emotions dur ing pretend play by “crying” when pretending to be sad and “cooing” when pretending to be happy. (Dunn, Bretherton, and Munn 1987)
• Express guilt after taking a toy out of another child’s cubby with out permission by trying to put it back without anyone seeing. (Lagattuta and Thompson 2007)
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Expression of Emotion
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Get frustrated or angry when unable to reach a toy. (4–6 mos.; Sternberg, Campos, and Emde 1983)
• Express joy by squealing. (5–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 125)
• Frown and make noises to indicate frustration. (5–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 125)
• Be surprised when something unexpected happens. (First 6 mos. of life; Lewis 2000a)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Become anxious when a parent leaves the room. (6–9 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Knock a shape-sorter toy away when it gets to be too frustrat ing. (10–12 mos.; Sroufe 1979)
• Show anger, when another child takes a toy, by taking it back. (10–12 mos.; Sroufe 1979)
• Express fear by crying upon hearing a dog bark loudly or seeing someone dressed in a costume. (10 mos.; Bronson 1972)
• Express sadness by frown ing after losing or misplacing a favorite toy. (9–10 mos.; Fogel 2001, 300)
• Smile with affection as a sibling approaches. (10 mos.; Sroufe 1979; Fox and Davidson 1988)
• Push an unwanted object away. (12 mos.; Squires, Bricker, and Twombly 2002, 114)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Communicate, “Mama mad” after being told by the mother to stop an action. (28 mos.; Breth erton and others 1986)
• Use one or a few words to de scribe feelings to the infant care teacher. (18–30 mos.; Bretherton and others 1986; Dunn 1987)
• Express frustration through tan trums. (18–36 mos.; Pruett 1999, 148)
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Foundation: Empathy The developing ability to share in the emotional experiences of others
8 months
At around eight months of age, children demonstrate awareness of others’ feelings by reacting to their emotional expressions.
For example, the child may:
• Stop playing and look at a child who is crying. (7 mos.; Ameri can Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 212)
• Laugh when an older sibling or peer makes a funny face. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Return the smile of the infant care teacher.
• Grimace when another child cries. (Older than 6 mos.; Wingert and Brant 2005, 35)
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children change their behav ior in response to the feelings of others even though their actions may not always make the other person feel better. Children show an increased understanding of the reason for another’s distress and may become distressed by the other’s distress. (14 mos.; Zahn-Waxler, Robinson, and Emde 1992; Thompson 1987; 24 mos.; Zahn-Waxler and Radke-Yarrow 1982, 1990)
For example, the child may:
• Offer to help a crying playmate by bringing his own mother over. (13–15 mos.; Wingert and Brant 2005, 35)
• Try to hug a crying peer. (18 mos.; Thompson 1987, 135)
• Bring her own special blanket to a peer who is crying. (13–15 mos.; Wingert and Brant 2005, 35)
• Become upset when another child throws a tantrum.
• Gently pat a crying peer on his back, just like his infant care teacher did earlier in the day. (16 mos.; Bergman and Wilson 1984; Zahn-Waxler and others 1992)
• Hit a child who is crying loudly.
• Stop playing and look with con cerned attention at a child who is screaming.
• Move quickly away from a child who is crying loudly.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children understand that other people have feelings that are different from their own and can sometimes respond to another’s distress in a way that might make that person feel better. (24–36 mos.; Hoff man 1982; 18 mos.; Thomp son 1987, 135).
For example, the child may:
• Do a silly dance in an attempt to make a crying peer smile. (24–36 mos.; Dunn 1988)
• Communicate, “Lucas is sad because Isabel took his cup.” (36 mos.; Harris and others 1989; Yuill 1984)
• Comfort a younger sibling who is crying by patting his back, expressing “It’s okay” and of fering him a snack. (Denham 1998, 34)
• Communicate, “Mama sad” when the mother cries during a movie. (24–36 mos.; Dunn 1994; Harris 2000, 282).
• Communicate, “Olivia’s mama is happy” and point to or indicate the illustration in the picture book. (24 mos.; Harris 2000, 282).
• Get an infant care teacher to help a child who has fallen down and is crying.
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Empathy
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Cry when hearing another baby cry. (Younger than 6 mos; Wing ert and Brant 2005, 35)
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months) foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Stand nearby and quietly watch • Hug a crying peer. (18–24 mos.; a peer who has fallen down Parks 2004, 123) and is crying. • Become upset in the presence
• Exhibit social referencing by of those who are upset. looking for emotional indica tors in others’ faces, voices, or gestures to decide what to do when uncertain. (10–12 mos.; Thompson 1987, 129)
• Cry upon hearing another child cry. (12 mos.; Meisels and oth ers 2003, 26)
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Foundation: Emotion Regulation The developing ability to manage emotional responses, with
assistance from others and independently
8 months
At around eight months of age, children use simple behaviors to comfort themselves and begin to communicate the need for help to alleviate discomfort or distress.
For example, the child may:
• Turn away from an overstimulating activity. (3–12 mos.; Rothbart, Ziaie, and O’Boyle 1992)
• Vocalize to get a parent’s attention. (6.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 126)
• Lift arms to the infant care teacher to communicate a desire to be held. (7–9 mos.; Coplan 1993, 3; 5–9 mos.; Parks 2004, 121)
• Turn toward the infant care teacher for assistance when crying. (6–9 mos.; Fogel 2001, 274)
• Cry after her hand was accidentally stepped on by a peer and then hold the hand up to the infant care teacher to look at it.
• Reach toward a bottle that is up on the counter and vocalize when hun gry.
• Make a face of disgust to tell the infant care teacher that he does not want any more food. (6–9 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
• Bump head, cry, and look to infant care teacher for comfort.
• Suck on a thumb to make self feel better.
• Look at the infant care teacher when an unfamiliar person enters the room.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children demonstrate a vari ety of responses to comfort themselves and actively avoid or ignore situations that cause discomfort. Children can also communicate needs and wants through the use of a few words and gestures. (National Re search Council and Institute of Medicine 2000, 112; 15–18 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 270; Coplan 1993, 1)
For example, the child may:
• Use gestures and simple words to express distress and seek specific kinds of assistance from the infant care teacher in order to calm self. (Brazelton 1992; Kopp 1989, 347)
• Use comfort objects, such as a special blanket or stuffed toy, to help calm down. (Kopp 1989, 348)
• Seek to be close to a parent when upset. (Lieberman 1993)
• Play with a toy as a way to distract self from discomfort. (12–18 mos.; Kopp 1989, 347)
• Communicate, “I’m okay” after falling down. (National Research Council and Institute of Medi cine 2000, 112)
• Indicate her knee and say “boo boo” after falling down and gesture or ask for a bandage.
• Approach the infant care teacher for a hug and express, “Mommy work,” then point to the door to communicate miss ing the mother.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children anticipate the need for comfort and try to prepare themselves for changes in routine. Children have many self-comforting behaviors to choose from, depending on the situation, and can communicate specific needs and wants. (Kopp 1989; CDE 2005)
For example, the child may:
• Reach for the mother’s hand just before she pulls a ban dage off the child’s knee.
• Ask the infant care teacher to hold him up to the window to wave good-bye before the par ent leaves in the morning.
• Show the substitute teacher that she likes a back rub dur ing naptime by patting own back while lying on the mat.
• Play quietly in a corner of the room right after drop-off, until ready to play with the other children.
• Ask the infant care teacher to explain what’s going to happen at the child’s dental appoint ment later in the day.
• Communicate, “Daddy always comes back” after saying good-bye to him in the morn ing.
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Emotion Regulation
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Suck on hands, focus on an in teresting toy, or move the body in a rocking motion to calm self. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 10)
• Cry inconsolably less often than in the early months. (6 mos.; Parks 2004, 10)
• Calm self by sucking on fingers or hands. (4 mos.; Thelen and Fogel 1989; 3–12 mos.; Bron son 2000b, 64)
• Be able to inhibit some negative emotions. (Later in the first year; Fox and Calkins 2000)
• Shift attention away from a dis tressing event onto an object, as a way of managing emo tions. (6 mos.; Weinberg and others 1999)
• Fall asleep when feeling over whelmed.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Move away from something that is bothersome and move toward the infant care teacher for comfort. (6–12 mos.; Bron son 2000b, 64)
• Fight back tears when a parent leaves for the day. (12 mos.; Bridges, Grolnick, and Con nell 1997; Parritz 1996; Sroufe 1979)
• Look for a cue from the infant care teacher when unsure if something is safe. (10–12 mos.; Fogel 2001, 305; Dickstein and Parke 1988; Hirshberg and Svejda 1990)
• Fuss to communicate needs or wants; begin to cry if the infant care teacher does not respond soon enough. (11–19 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 77)
• Repeat sounds to get the infant care teacher’s attention. (11–19 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 79)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Continue to rely on adults for reassurance and help in con trolling feelings and behavior. (Lally and others 1995)
• Reenact emotional events in play to try to gain mastery over these feelings. (Greenspan and Greenspan 1985)
• Use words to ask for specific help with regulating emotions. (Kopp 1989)
• Express wants and needs verbally; for example, say, “hold me” to the infant care teacher when feeling tired or over whelmed. (30–31.5 mos.; Parks 2004, 130)
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Foundation: Impulse Control The developing capacity to wait for needs to be met,
to inhibit potentially hurtful behavior, and to act according to social expectations, including safety rules
8 months
At around eight months of age, children act on impulses. (Birth–9 mos.; Bronson 2000b, 64)
For example, the child may:
• Explore the feel of hair by pulling it. (4–7 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 226)
• Reach for an interesting toy that another child is mouthing.
• Reach for another child’s bottle that was just set down nearby.
• Turn the head away or push the bottle away when finished eat ing (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 19).
Chart continues on next page.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children respond positively to choices and limits set by an adult to help control their behavior. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 34; Kaler and Kopp 1990)
For example, the child may:
• Stop drawing on the wall when a parent asks. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Choose one toy when the infant care teacher asks, “Which one do you want?” even though the child really wants both.
• Express “no no” while ap proaching something the child knows she should not touch, because the infant care teacher has communicated “no no” in the past when the child tried to do this.
• Look to the infant care teacher to see his reaction when the child reaches toward the light switch.
• Stop reaching for the eyeglass es on the infant care teacher’s face when she gently says, “no no.” (Scaled score of 10 for 7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 87; 12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 27)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children may sometimes exercise voluntary control over actions and emotional expres sions. (Bronson 2000b, 67)
For example, the child may:
• Jump up and down on the couch but stop jumping and climb down when a parent enters the room. (36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Experience difficulty (e.g., cry, whine, pout) with transitions. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 320)
• Begin to share.
• Handle transitions better when prepared ahead of time or when the child has some control over what happens.
• Touch a pet gently without needing to be reminded.
• Wait to start eating until others at the table are also ready.
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Impulse Control
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Cry when hungry or tired.
• Fall asleep when tired.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Crawl too close to a younger infant lying nearby.
• Refrain from exploring another baby’s hair when reminded to be gentle. (8–10 mos.; Brazel ton 1992, 256)
• Look at the infant care teacher’s face to determine whether it is all right to play with a toy on the table. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 25)
• Bite another child who takes a toy.
• Reach for food on a plate before the infant care teacher offers it. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 25)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Begin to use words and dra matic play to describe, under stand, and control impulses and feelings. (Lally and others 1995)
• Communicate, “Mine!” and take a doll out of the hands of a peer. (23–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 330)
• Throw a puzzle piece on the floor after having trouble fitting it in the opening. (24 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Open the playground door and run out, even after being asked by the infant care teacher to wait. (24 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Start to take another child’s toy, then stop after catching the eye of the infant care teacher. (24 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Use a quiet voice at naptime. (30 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Understand and carry out simple commands or rules. (Bronson 2000b, 85)
• Have a tantrum rather than attempt to manage strong feel ings. (Brazelton 1992)
• Be able to wait for a turn.
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Foundation: Social Understanding The developing understanding of the responses, communication,
emotional expressions, and actions of other people
8 months
At around eight months of age, children have learned what to expect from familiar people, understand what to do to get another’s attention, engage in back-and-forth interactions with others, and imitate the simple actions or facial expressions of others.
For example, the child may:
• Smile when the infant care teacher pauses, to get her to continue playing peek-a-boo or pat-a-cake.
• Squeal in anticipation of the infant care teacher’s uncover ing her eyes during a game of peek-a-boo.
• Learn simple behaviors by imi tating a parent’s facial expres sions, gestures, or sounds.
• Try to get a familiar game or routine started by prompting the infant care teacher.
• Quiet crying upon realizing that the infant care teacher is ap proaching.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children know how to get the infant care teacher to respond in a specific way through ges tures, vocalizations, and shared attention; use another’s emo tional expressions to guide their own responses to unfamiliar events; and learn more com plex behavior through imitation. Children also engage in more complex social interactions and have developed expectations for a greater number of familiar people.
For example, the child may:
• Gesture toward a desired toy or food while reaching, making imperative vocal sounds, and looking toward the infant care teacher.
• Seek reassurance from the infant care teacher when unsure about something.
• Vary response to different infant care teachers depending on their play styles, even before they have started playing; for example, get very excited upon seeing an infant care teacher who regularly plays in an exciting, vigorous manner.
• Engage in back-and-forth play that involves turn-taking, such as rolling a ball back and forth.
• Look in the direction of the infant care teacher’s gesturing or point ing.
• Learn more complex behaviors through imitation, such as watching an older child put toys together and then doing it.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children can talk about their own wants and feelings and those of other people, describe familiar routines, participate in coordinated episodes of pretend play with peers, and interact with adults in more complex ways.
For example, the child may:
• Name own feelings or desires, explicitly contrast them with another’s, or describe why the child feels the way he does.
• Describe what happens during the bedtime routine or another familiar everyday event.
• Move into and out of pretend play roles, tell other children what they should do in their roles, or extend the sequence (such as by asking “Wanna drink?” after bringing a pre tend hamburger to the table as a waiter).
• Help the infant care teacher search for a missing toy.
• Talk about what happened during a recent past experi ence, with the assistance of the infant care teacher.
• Help the infant care teacher clean up at the end of the day by putting the toys in the usual places.
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Social Understanding
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Make imperative vocal sounds to attract the infant care teacher’s attention.
• Participate in playful, face-to face interactions with an adult, such as taking turns vocaliz ing.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Follow the infant care teacher’s gaze to look at a toy.
• Hold up or gesture toward objects in order to direct the infant care teacher’s attention to them.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Vary play with different peers depending on their preferred play activities.
• Imitate the behavior of peers as well as adults.
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