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Discovering Your Learning Styles, Self-Concept, and Values
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The transformation began when Shaniqua Turner got her first paper back from her English literature instruc- tor. It wasn’t the grade—which was good—that mattered so much, but what her instructor uttered, almost as an
LO 3-1 Discovering Your Learning Styles
Members of the Trukese people, a small group of islanders in the South Pacific, often sail hundreds of miles on the open sea. They manage this feat with none of the navigational equipment used by Western sailors. No compass. No chronometer. No sextant. They don’t even sail in a straight line. Instead, they zigzag back and forth. Yet they almost always reach their destination with precision.
Through the experiences we have in life, we build up a sense of our strengths and weaknesses, what we like and dislike about ourselves. In the process, the sense of who we are also affects the choices we make and the things that we do.
In this chapter you will be asked to consider various aspects of yourself. First you’ll look at the ways in which you learn and how you can use your personal learning style to study more effectively.
You’ll then explore who you are more broadly, considering the various aspects of your personality. You’ll see how your self-esteem—the way you perceive your strengths and weaknesses—can lead to success or failure.
Finally, this chapter helps you investigate where you are headed. By creating your own personal mission statement, you’ll begin to solidify the knowledge of who you are and where you would be happiest and most productive in the future.
Looking Ahead
Learning Outcomes By the time you finish this chapter you will be able to
LO 3-1 Identify your learning styles and how they affect your academic success.
LO 3-2 Explain how self-concept and self-esteem affect academic performance.
LO 3-3 Create a personal mission statement.
©James Woodson/Digital Vision/Getty Images
afterthought, as she handed the paper back to Shaniqua: “Nice job. Your insights were good, and you have great poten- tial as a writer.”
Shaniqua was thrilled. She had always thought of herself as having only modest talent in English, and though at one point she had harbored the fantasy of being a newspaper reporter, she had never felt she was good enough to make it.
But now something clicked: Maybe she did have the ability to succeed in a career involving writing.
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Trukese sailors can’t really explain how they learned to navigate nor explain the processes that they use, but clearly they are successful sailors.
The case of Trukese sailors vividly illustrates that there are different ways to learn and achieve our goals.
Each of us has preferred ways of learning, approaches that work best for us. Our success depends not just on how well we learn but also on how we learn.
Learning styles reflect our preferred manner of acquiring, using, and thinking about knowledge. We have not just one learning style, but a variety of styles. Even though our ability may be identical to someone else’s, our learning styles might be quite different.
You probably already know quite a lot about your learning styles. Maybe you do particularly well in your biology classes while struggling with English literature. Or it may be the other way around. Because biology tends to be about natural pro- cesses, teachers present the subject as a series of related facts. English literature, however, requires you to think more abstractly, analyzing and synthesizing ideas.
Although we may have general preferences for fact-based learning or for learn- ing that requires more abstract thinking, we all use a variety of learning styles. Some involve our preferences regarding the way information is presented to us, some relate to how we think and learn most readily, and some relate to how our personality traits affect our performance. We’ll start by considering the preferences we have for how we initially perceive information.
What Is Your Preferred Receptive Learning Style? One of the most basic aspects of our learning styles concerns the way in which we first encounter information. Our receptive learning style pertains to how we initially receive information from our sense organs. People have different strengths in terms of how they most effectively process information and which of their senses they prefer to use in learning. Specifically, there are four different types of receptive learning styles:
▸ Read/write learning style. If you have a read/write learning style, you prefer information that is presented visually in a written format. You feel most com- fortable reading, and you may recall the spelling of a word by thinking of how the word looks. You probably learn best when you have the opportunity to read about a concept rather than listening to a teacher explain it.
▸ Visual/graphic learning style. Students with a visual/graphic learning style learn most effectively when material is presented visually in a diagram or picture. You might recall the structure of a chemical compound by reviewing a picture in your mind, and you benefit from instructors who make frequent use of visual aids such as videos, maps, and models. Students with visual learning styles find it easier to see things in their mind’s eye—to visualize a task or concept—than to be lectured about them.
▸ Auditory/verbal learning style. Have you ever asked a friend to help you put something together by having her read the directions to you while you worked? If you did, you may have an auditory/verbal learning style. People with auditory/ verbal learning styles prefer listening to explanations rather than reading them.
learning style One’s preferred manner of acquiring, using, and thinking about knowledge.
receptive learning style Learning style related to the way in which we initially receive information from our sense organs.
read/write learning style A style that involves a preference for written material, favoring reading over hearing and touching.
visual/graphic learning style A style that favors material presented visually in a diagram or picture.
auditory/verbal learning style A style that favors listening as the best approach to learning.
Some South Pacific islanders are able to navigate with great accuracy across open seas without the use of standard navigation tools used by sailors in Western cultures. Their abilities illustrate that there are multiple ways to attain our goals and that there is no single route to success. ©9 Peter Essick/Getty Images
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They love class lectures and discussions, because they can easily take in the information that is being talked about.
▸ Tactile/kinesthetic learning style. Students with a tactile/kinesthetic learning style prefer to learn by doing—touching, manipulating objects, and doing things. For instance, some people enjoy the act of writing because of the feel of a pencil or a computer keyboard—the tactile equivalent of thinking out loud. Or they may find that it helps them to make a three-dimensional model to understand a new idea.
To get a sense of your own receptive learning style, complete Try It! 1. But remember, having a particular receptive learning style simply means that it will be easier to learn material that is presented in that style. It does not mean you cannot learn any other way!
Receptive learning styles have implications for effective studying:
If you have a read/write style, consider writing out summaries of information, highlighting and underlining written material, and using flash cards. Transform diagrams and math formulas into words.
tactile/kinesthetic learning style A style that involves learning by touching, manipulating objects, and doing things.
How I Learn How would you respond to the following learning situations?
1. Would you rather read a newspaper, listen to the news on the radio, watch it on TV, or click your way through it on a website? Why do you think you have this preference?
2. When you get a new piece of software or a new tool, do you like to read the instruc- tions or just “play with it” until you get the hang of it?
3. Suppose a friend is teaching you a new and complex procedure (such as a new game or the way to use a piece of computer software). Do you prefer to get the “big picture” first or the details?
4. When you’re in class, what do you do during lectures? Try to write down the instruc- tor’s exact words, draw diagrams and make tables, or jot down a few big ideas?
5. What do your answers to the previous questions reveal about the way you prefer to learn new information?
Journal ReflectionsJournal Reflections
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1
What’s Your Receptive Learning Style? Read each of the following statements and rank them in terms of their usefulness to you as learning approaches. Base your ratings on your personal experiences and preferences, using the following scale:
1 = Not at all useful
2 = Not very useful
3 = Neutral
4 = Somewhat useful
5 = Very useful
1 2 3 4 5
1. Studying alone
2. Studying pictures and diagrams to understand complex ideas
3. Listening to class lectures
4. Performing a process myself rather than reading or hearing about it
5. Learning a complex procedure by reading written directions
6. Watching and listening to film, computer, or video presentations
7. Listening to a book or lecture on tape
8. Doing lab work
9. Studying teachers’ handouts and lecture notes
10. Studying in a quiet room
11. Taking part in group discussions
12. Taking part in hands-on classroom demonstrations
13. Taking notes and studying them later
14. Creating flash cards and using them as a study and review tool
15. Memorizing and recalling how words are spelled by spelling them “out loud” in my head
16. Writing down key facts and important points as a tool for remembering them
PERSONAL STYLES Try It!
(continued)
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1 2 3 4 5
17. Recalling how to spell a word by seeing it in my head
18. Underlining or highlighting important facts or passages in my reading
19. Saying things out loud when I’m studying
20. Recalling how to spell a word by “writing” it invisibly in the air or on a surface
21. Learning new information by reading about it in a textbook
22. Using a map to find an unknown place
23. Working in a study group
24. Finding a place I’ve been to once by just going there without directions
SCORING: The statements cycle through the four receptive learning styles in this order: (1) read/write; (2) visual/graphic; (3) audi- tory/verbal; and (4) tactile/kinesthetic.
To find your primary learning style, disregard your 1, 2, and 3 ratings. Add up your 4 and 5 ratings for each learn- ing style (i.e., a “4” equals 4 points and a “5” equals 5 points). Use the following chart to link the statements to the learning styles and to write down your summed ratings:
Learning Style Statements Total (Sum) of Rating Points
Read/write 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, and 21
Visual/graphic 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, and 22
Auditory/verbal 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, and 23
Tactile/kinesthetic 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, and 24
The total of your rating points for any given style will range from a low of 0 to a high of 30. The highest total indi- cates your main receptive learning style. Don’t be surprised if you have a mixed style, in which two or more styles receive similar ratings.
1 continued Try It!
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What type of learning style do you think this student is demonstrating? ©Huntstock/Getty Images
“To be fond of learning is to be near to knowledge.” Attributed to Confucius, in “The Doctrine of the the Mean” [Zhong Yong Chung Yung], trans. In Wing-Tsit Chan, A Sourcebook in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963, 95–115.
If you have a visual/graphic style, devise diagrams and charts. Translate words into symbols and figures.
If you have an auditory/verbal style, recite material out loud when studying. Work with others in a group, talking through the material, and consider tape-recording lectures.
If you have a tactile/kinesthetic style, incorporate movement into your study. Trace diagrams, build models, arrange flash cards, and move them around. Keep yourself active during class, taking notes, drawing charts, and jotting down key concepts.
Multiple Intelligences: Showing Strength in Different Domains Do you feel much more comfortable walking through the woods than navigating city streets? Are you an especially talented musician? Is read- ing and using a complicated map second nature to you?
If so, in each case you may be demonstrating a special and specific kind of intelligence. According to psychologist Howard Gardner, rather than asking “How smart are you?” we should be asking a different ques- tion: “How are you smart?” To answer the latter question, Gardner has developed a theory of multiple intelligences that offers a unique approach to understanding learning styles and preferences.
The multiple intelligences theory says that we have eight dif- ferent forms of intelligence, each relatively independent of the others. Each of the separate intelligences is linked to a specific kind of information processing in our brains:
▸ Logical-mathematical intelligence involves skills in problem solving and scientific thinking.
▸ Linguistic intelligence is linked to the production and use of language.
▸ Spatial intelligence relates to skills involving spatial shapes, contours, and struc- tures, such as those used by artists and architects.
▸ Interpersonal intelligence is found in learners with particularly strong skills involving interacting with others, such as sensitivity to the moods, tempera- ments, motivations, and intentions of others.
▸ Intrapersonal intelligence relates to a particularly strong understanding of the internal aspects of oneself and having access to one’s own feelings and emotions.
▸ Musical intelligence involves skills relating to music.
▸ Bodily kinesthetic intelligence relates to skills in using the whole body or por- tions of it in the solution of problems or in the construction of products or displays, exemplified by dancers, athletes, actors, and surgeons.
▸ Naturalist intelligence involves exceptional abilities in identifying and classify- ing patterns in nature.
All of us have the same eight kinds of intelligence, though in different degrees, and they form the core of our learning styles and preferences. These separate intel- ligences do not operate in isolation. Instead, any activity involves several kinds of intelligence working together. And, as Gardner points out, these eight intelligences may be only scratching the surface of what our capabilities are. For example, he
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suggests there may be even more intelligences that shape how we interact with the world. For example, there may be an “existential intelligence,” which involves iden- tifying and thinking about the fundamental questions of human existence.
To get a sense of which of the basic eight intelligences best characterize you, complete Try It! 2.
Personality Styles Our learning styles are also influenced by our personality. Are you likely to try out for school productions? Or is the idea of getting on a stage totally lacking in appeal (if not completely terrifying)? Do you relate to the world around you primarily through careful planning or by spontaneously reacting?
According to the rationale of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a ques- tionnaire frequently used in business and organizational settings to place people in one of 16 categories, personality type plays a key role in determining how we react to different situations. Specifically, we work best in situations in which others— both students and instructors—share our preferences and in which our personality is most suited to the particular task on which we are working.
The Myers-Briggs approach suggests that four major personality dimensions are critical to understanding personality styles. Although we’ll describe the extremes of each dimension, keep in mind that most of us fall somewhere between the end points of each dimension.
▸ Introverts versus extraverts. A key difference between introverts and extraverts is whether they enjoy working with others. Independence is a key characteristic of introverted learners. They enjoy working alone, and they are less affected by how others think and behave. In contrast, extraverts are outgoing and more affected by the behavior and thinking of others. They enjoy working with oth- ers, and they are energized by having other people around.
▸ Intuitors versus sensors. Intuitors enjoy being creative and solving problems that require leaps of judgment. They get impatient with details, and they enjoy the challenge of solving problems and taking a big-picture approach. People catego- rized as sensors, on the other hand, prefer a concrete, logical approach in which they can carefully analyze the facts of the situation and come to a reasoned con- clusion. Although they are good with details, they sometimes miss the big picture.
▸ Thinkers versus feelers. Thinkers prefer logic over emotion. They reach decisions and solve problems by systematically analyzing a situation. In contrast, feeling types rely more on their emotional responses. They are aware of others and their feelings, and they are influenced by their personal values and attachments to others.
▸ Perceivers and judgers. Before drawing a conclusion, perceivers attempt to gather as much information as they can. Because they are open to multiple perspectives and appreciate all sides of an issue, they sometimes have difficulty completing a task. Judgers, in comparison, are quick and decisive. They like to set goals, accomplish them, and then move on to the next task.
The Origins of Our Learning Styles For many of us, our learning style preferences result from the kind of processing the two halves of our brain “specialize” in. Although the two halves of the brain are interdependent, certain kinds of tasks are more likely to be controlled by a particu- lar half of the brain.
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Your Sense of Intelligence In this Try It!, you will be able to get a sense of your own pattern of multiple intelligences. To start, place a check beside each statement that applies to you.
_____ 1. Sometimes people say that I am a born leader.
_____ 2. I am good at solving mazes and other visual puzzles.
_____ 3. My life would be much less meaningful without music.
_____ 4. I figure out how things work, and I can usually fix things when they break.
_____ 5. Conserving resources and sustainable growth are two of the biggest issues of our times.
_____ 6. I think about my life goals pretty often.
_____ 7. I love word games like Scrabble, anagrams, and crossword puzzles.
_____ 8. I keep track of advances in science.
_____ 9. I listen to music on a daily basis.
_____ 10. I am able to learn about things by touching them.
_____ 11. People often look to me to help resolve disputes.
_____ 12. I make lists of things that I want to accomplish.
_____ 13. I cherish my collection of books.
_____ 14. I enjoy thinking about big philosophical questions.
_____ 15. I can recognize and name many different types of trees, flowers, and plants.
_____ 16. I am usually sensitive to color.
_____ 17. I keep a diary.
_____ 18. I have a good sense of rhythm. I can usually keep time to a piece of music.
_____ 19. Sometimes I can think without words, using just abstract ideas.
_____ 20. I seldom get lost, even in new places.
_____ 21. I am open to attending counseling sessions to learn more about myself.
_____ 22. Math and science are harder for me than English, social studies, and history.
_____ 23. People sometimes tell me that my mind works like a computer.
_____ 24. I am in good contact with my personal feelings.
_____ 25. When I am outside, I notice things like tracks, nests, and wildlife.
_____ 26. I am great at reading maps. I am usually the navigator.
_____ 27. When I talk with people, I often bring up things that I have read.
_____ 28. I like to garden and make things grow.
_____ 29. I can play one or more musical instruments.
_____ 30. I read whenever I have a free minute.
_____ 31. I am very systematic when I have to solve a problem.
_____ 32. I am pretty well coordinated.
_____ 33. I have pets, or at least I want to have them.
_____ 34. I have a good idea of my own strengths and weaknesses.
_____ 35. I have an appreciation for the arts.
_____ 36. I have three or more close friends.
_____ 37. I often tap out rhythms or sing melodies during the day.
_____ 38. I am a pretty good “do-it-yourselfer.”
_____ 39. I am physically active at least three times a week.
_____ 40. I like to teach people what I know.
Using the scoring keys that follow, give yourself one point for each question that corresponds to the sentence you checked.
2 Try It!
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2 continued Try It!
KEY: Types of Intelligence
Linguistic Questions: 7, 13, 22, 27, 30 Number of these statements checked: _____
Bodily kinesthetic Questions: 4, 10, 32, 38, 39 Number of these statements checked: _____
Musical Questions: 3, 9, 18, 29, 37 Number of these statements checked: _____
Interpersonal Questions: 1, 11, 17, 36, 40 Number of these statements checked: _____
Naturalist Questions: 5, 15, 25, 28, 33 Number of these statements checked: _____
Intrapersonal Questions: 6, 12, 21, 24, 34 Number of these statements checked: _____
Logical-mathematical Questions: 8, 14, 19, 23, 31 Number of these statements checked: _____
Spatial Questions: 2, 16, 20, 26, 35 Number of these statements checked: _____
Now fill in the summary chart below to identify your pattern of different kinds of intelligence.
Type of Intelligence Score
Linguistic
Musical
Naturalist
Logical-mathematical
Bodily kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Spatial
Are you surprised by the pattern of strengths in the different kinds of intelligence described by Gardner? Why or why not? How do you think your profile affects the way you learn and your learning styles and preferences?
WORKING IN A GROUP Compare your patterns of strengths in the different types of intelligence. Ask others how their pattern affects their studying. How might working in a study group with students with different patterns from yours affect the success of the study group?
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Specifically, left-brain processing concentrates more on tasks requiring verbal competence. For example, speaking, reading, thinking, and reasoning are more apt to occur in the left half of the brain. Information is processed in small, sequential units in left-brain processing.
In contrast, right-brain processing concentrates more on the processing of infor- mation in nonverbal domains, such as the understanding of spatial relationships, recognizing patterns and drawings, music, and emotional expression. Furthermore, the right hemisphere tends to process information globally, considering it as a whole. Consequently, people who naturally tend toward right-brain processing might prefer visual/graphic learning styles.
Here are some key facts to remember about learning, personality, and process- ing styles:
▸ You have a variety of styles. As you can see in the summary of different catego- ries of styles in Table 3.1, there are several types of styles. For any given task or challenge, some types of styles may be more relevant than others. Furthermore, success is possible even when there is a mismatch between what you need to accomplish and your own pattern of preferred styles. It may take more work, but learning to deal with situations that require you to use less-preferred styles is important practice for life after college.
▸ Your style reflects your preferences regarding which abilities you like to use—not the abilities themselves. Styles are related to our preferences and the mental approaches we like to use. However, you may do quite well in areas that relate to learning styles that you don’t prefer. Furthermore, you may struggle in situ- ations in which you are using your preferred learning styles. Learning styles don’t dictate success; hard work does.
▸ Your style will change over the course of your life. You can learn new styles and expand the range of learning experiences in which you feel perfectly comfortable. In fact, you can conceive of this book as one long lesson in learning styles, because it provides you with strategies for learning more effectively in a variety of ways.
▸ You should work on improving your less-preferred styles. Although it may be tempting, don’t consistently make choices that increase your exposure to pre- ferred styles and decrease your practice with less-preferred styles. The more you use approaches for which you have less of a preference, the better you’ll be at developing the skills associated with those styles.
▸ Work with others who have different styles. If your instructor asks you to work in groups, seek out classmates who have styles that are different from yours. Not only will your classmates’ differing styles help you to achieve collective success, but you can also learn from observing others’ approaches to tackling the assignment.
Learning about Learning: The Theories That Explain How You Learn Learning styles reflect how each of us prefers to study and approach new informa- tion that we encounter in our classes. But all of us are affected by some basic pro- cesses that underlie learning.
Researchers have developed a number of theories to explain learning. Learning theories are broad explanations about how we learn. Each of these theories takes a different approach and looks at somewhat different factors that help us to learn. Understanding the theories behind learning will help you study, remember informa- tion, and ultimately be a better learner.
We’ll consider the three main learning theories.
left-brain processing Information processing primarily performed by the left hemisphere of the brain, focusing on tasks requiring verbal competence, such as speaking, reading, thinking, and reasoning; information is processed sequentially, one bit at a time.
right-brain processing Information processing primarily performed by the right hemisphere of the brain, focusing on information in nonverbal domains, such as the understanding of spatial relationships and recognition of patterns and drawings, music, and emotional expression.
learning theory A broad explanation about how one learns.
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table 3.1 Learning, Personality, and Processing Styles
All of us have particular learning, personality, and processing styles that we tend to rely on. At the same time, we have capa- bilities in less-preferred styles. So for example, though you may be primarily a read/write learner, you have the capacity to use auditory/verbal and tactile/kinesthetic approaches. Note in particular that the four categories of personality styles are consid- ered independent of one another. For instance, you may be an extravert and at the same time a sensor, a feeler, and a judger. Furthermore, though the “Using the Style” column suggests ways that students with a particular style can make the most of that style, you should also try strategies that work for styles different from your own.
Category Type Description Using the Style
Receptive Learning Styles
Read/write A style that involves a preference for material in a written format, favoring reading over hearing and touching.
Read and rewrite material, take notes and rewrite them; organize material into tables; transform diagrams and math formulas into words.
Visual/graphic A style that favors material presented visually in a diagram or picture.
Use figures and drawings; replay classes and discussions in your mind’s eye; visualize material; translate words into symbols and figures.
Auditory/verbal A style in which the learner favors listening as the best approach.
Recite material out loud when studying; consider how words sound; study different languages; tape-record lectures; work with others, talk through the material.
Tactile/ kinesthetic
A style that involves learning by touching, manipulating objects, and doing things.
Incorporate movement into studying; trace figures and drawings with your finger; create models; make flash cards and move them around; keep active during class, taking notes, drawing charts, jotting down key concepts.
Multiple- Intelligences
Logical- mathematical
Strengths in problem solving and scientific thinking.
Express information mathematically or in formulas.
Linguistic Strengths in the production and use of language.
Write out notes and summarize information in words; construct stories about material.
Spatial Strengths involving spatial configurations, such as those used by artists and architects.
Build charts, graphs, and flowcharts.
Interpersonal Strengths found in learners with particularly strong skills involving interacting with others, such as sensitivity to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions of others.
Work with others in groups.
Intrapersonal Strengths in understanding the internal aspects of oneself and having access to one’s own feelings and emotions.
Build on your prior experiences and feelings about the world; use your originality.
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Musical Strengths relating to music. Write a song or lyrics to help remember material.
Bodily kinesthetic
Strengths in using the whole body or portions of it in the solution of problems or in the construction of products or displays, exemplified by dancers, athletes, actors, and surgeons.
Use movement in studying; build models.
Naturalist Exceptional strengths in identifying and classifying patterns in nature.
Use analogies based on nature.
Personality Styles
Introvert versus extravert
Independence is a key characteristic of introverted learners, who enjoy working alone and are less affected by how others think and behave. In contrast, extraverts are outgoing and more affected by the behavior and thinking of others. They enjoy working with others.
Experiment with studying in groups compared with working alone; consider your performance in class discussions compared with working on your own.
Intuitor versus sensor
Intuitive people enjoy solving problems and being creative, often taking a big- picture approach. Sensors, on the other hand, prefer a concrete, logical approach in which they can carefully analyze the facts of the situation.
For intuitors, reflect on the personal meaning of material and seek out tasks that involve creativity. For sensors, seek out concrete tasks that involve the application of logical principles.
Thinker versus feeler
Thinkers prefer logic over emotion, reaching decisions through rational analysis. In contrast, feelers rely more on their emotions and are influenced by their personal values and attachments to others.
Thinkers should seek to systematically analyze situations, attempting to identify patterns. For feelers, use emotional responses to reflect on material.
Perceiver versus judger
Before drawing a conclusion, perceivers attempt to gather as much information as they can and are open to multiple perspectives. Judgers, in comparison, are quick and decisive, enjoying setting goals and accomplishing them.
Perceivers organize material sequentially and into component parts; for judgers, using goal-setting preferences facilitates learning.
Brain Processing Styles
Left-brain processing
Information processing that focuses on tasks requiring verbal competence, such as speaking, reading, thinking, and reasoning; information is processed sequentially, one bit at a time.
Organize material logically; identify patterns; make tables of key information; break material into component parts.
Right-brain processing
Information processing that focuses on information in nonverbal domains, such as the understanding of spatial relationships, recognition of patterns and drawings, music, and emotional expression.
Identify patterns; use graphs and drawings; read aloud; create models.
Source: Adapted from Lazear, D. (1999). The intelligent curriculum: Using MI to develop your students’ full potential. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press.
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Operant Conditioning Learning Theory: The Reinforcement Behind Learning Very good . . . What a clever idea . . . Fantastic . . . I agree . . . Excellent . . . Super . . . Great point . . . This is the best paper you’ve ever written . . . You are really getting the hang of it . . . I’m impressed . . . A+
Did you ever wonder why we love to be praised? It turns out that positive affir- mations of this sort underlie a type of learning known as operant conditioning, which is the basis for many of the most important kinds of learning.
Operant conditioning is learning in which a behavior is made more or less likely to recur regularly because of the presence of a reinforcer. Reinforcers are things that increase the probability that a behavior will occur again. If you study hard for a test and are rewarded with a high grade, the high grade serves as a reinforcer. Operant conditioning theory tells us that you are more like to study hard in the future because of the rewards you received from studying in the past.
Cognitive Learning Theory: The Thoughts Behind Learning Some learning theorists focus on the thought processes that underlie learning. According to cognitive approaches to learning, our cognitions (or thoughts) shape the way we learn. In particular, they look at the importance of observational learn- ing, in which we learn by watching, and imitating, the behavior of other people.
Observational learning takes place in four steps:
1. Paying attention and perceiving the most critical features of another person’s behavior
2. Remembering the behavior
3. Reproducing the action
4. Being motivated to learn and carry out the behavior
Not all behavior that we witness is learned or carried out. Whether we later imitate someone else depends, in part, on what eventually happens to that person as a result of the behavior.
If we observe a friend who studies more frequently than we do and notice that she receives higher grades, we are more apt to model her behavior than if her study- ing leads to nothing more than a sharp decline in her social life and an increase in fatigue. Models who are seen receiving reinforcement for their actions are more likely to be mimicked than those who are observed receiving punishment.
Classical Conditioning Learning Theory: Does the Name Pavlov Ring a Bell? Ivan Pavlov was a Russian scientist who discovered, quite accidentally, one of the basic kinds of learning, called classical conditioning. In studying salivation in dogs, he found that sometimes the mere sight of the person who normally brought the dog’s food, or even the sound of that person’s footsteps, was enough to produce salivation in the dogs.
Pavlov’s genius lay in his ability to recognize the implications of this dis- covery. He saw that the dogs were responding not only on the basis of a biologi- cal need (hunger) but also as a result of learning—or, as it came to be called,
operant conditioning Learning in which a behavior is modified by the presence of a reinforcer.
reinforcer Action or consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur again.
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classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus (such as someone’s footsteps) comes to elicit a response after being paired with a different stimulus (such as food) that naturally brings about that response.
To demonstrate classical conditioning, Pavlov (1927) attached a tube to the salivary gland of a dog, allowing him to measure precisely the dog’s salivation. He then rang a bell and, just a few seconds later, presented the dog with meat. This pairing occurred repeatedly and was carefully planned so that each time exactly the same amount of time elapsed between the presentation of the bell and the meat. At first the dog would salivate only when the meat was presented, but soon it began to salivate at the sound of the bell. In fact, even when Pavlov stopped presenting the meat, the dog still salivated after hearing the sound. The dog had been classically conditioned to salivate to the bell.
But what about humans? In fact, Pavlov’s discovery of classical conditioning has some very practical implications for how we come to associate various stimuli with responses. For example, you may not go to a dentist as often as you should because of previous associations of dentists with pain. Similarly, we may come to associate academic tests with negative emotions and anxiety, which can hinder our performance.
Why Learning Theories Matter Although the basics of the three main learning theories are somewhat abstract, each has important practical implications for helping you to learn better. For example, operant conditioning suggests that rewarding yourself with periodic breaks while you study will make your study sessions more productive, because the breaks act as a reinforcer.
Similarly, using cognitive approaches to learning, you might watch the behavior of other students who have been successful. By observing the behavior of successful students, you can attempt to imitate their study habits.
Finally, classical conditioning, which focuses on learning through associations, suggests that studying in the room where you’ll later be taking a test will help you to perform better on the test. Being in the same room will help trigger memories of the material you studied earlier—an idea that research has proven correct.
If you are wondering which of the theories is “best,” you’re asking the wrong question. Each of the theories takes a different approach and focuses on differ- ent aspects of learning, in much the same way that we can take multiple routes on a map to the same location. Understanding each of the learning theories, along with knowledge of your preferred learning styles, will help you develop your own personal learning system that can help you become a more successful student.
Using Your Instructors’ Teaching Styles In the same way that each of us has preferred learning styles, instructors have their own styles of teaching, often based on their own personal learning styles. They may not even be aware of them, but their learning styles have an important impact on the way they teach—and that, in turn, will help determine how well you do in their classes.
classical conditioning A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus elicits a response after being paired with a natural stimulus.
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3 WORKING IN A GROUP Try It!
Instructor Styles Working as a group with your classmates, try to determine your course instructor’s learning style by answering the fol- lowing questions:
1. What clues does the language your instructor uses give you about his or her learning style?
2. What assignments has the instructor scheduled, and what do they tell you about the instructor’s learning style?
3. Are there constraints (such as class size, scheduling factors, school traditions) that also influence the instructor’s teaching style, apart from his or her underlying learning style?
Instructors who make frequent requests to “draw” or “diagram” may favor a more visual-graphic learning style. In contrast, if their tendency is to ask you to “list,” or “discuss,” or “analyze,” they may be more in tune with a verbal/reading style.
Similarly, instructors who assign frequent projects that involve oral presenta- tions and demonstrations might be indicating that their learning style is somewhat auditory. On the other hand, instructors whose assignments consist of frequent written work may have a more visual style. Work on “Instructor Styles” (Try It! 3) to get a sense of your instructor’s learning style, and look at the Course Connections feature for strategies for dealing with what you find.
Learning styles are only one example of how the kind of person you are—your strengths and weaknesses, your likes and dislikes, your overall personality—affects your academic success. In fact, the totality of who you are is central in determining the path you follow in achieving success. Let’s turn now to how an understanding of the totality of who you are influences your college performance by considering self-concept.
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C o
u rs
e
C o
n n
e c ti
o n
sHow Your Instructor’s Teaching Style Can Guide Your Studying Strategies Having a sense of your instructor’s teaching style can help maximize your success in a course. It can give you insight into the kinds of test questions your instructor may favor and help you strat- egize about what to pay particular attention to when you’re reading and studying course material.
If your instructor focuses on broad, conceptual views of material
• Be prepared for essay questions that ask you to pull different pieces of information together.
• Expect assignments in which you must synthesize different points of view into a coherent whole.
• As you read material, consider how different facts fit together into a broader picture.
If your instructor focuses on facts and details
• Prepare for tests by learning individual facts, which may be tested using multiple-choice or fill-in test questions.
• Expect assignments that are very specific and detailed.
• Study by focusing on specific facts. For instance, consider creating note cards on which you write individual bits of information.
What if your preferred learning style doesn’t match up with your instructor’s teaching style? Don’t fall into the trap of assuming that you’re at a disadvantage in the class. Keep in mind that there are benefits to the discomfort that you may experience when your instructor emphasizes activities that don’t match your own learning styles. Remember that real learning is often difficult and uncomfortable, and the practice you get with less-preferred learning styles in the end will make you a more accomplished student.
It’s also important to avoid using a mismatch of class requirements and your own learning style preferences as an excuse for not doing well in a class. You’re going to be asked to carry out tasks throughout your academic and professional career that don’t speak to your personal strengths and preferences. You need to overcome your own hesitance and throw yourself into tasks that don’t speak to your strengths. That’s how real learning and growth will occur.
LO 3-2 Self-Concept and Self-Esteem Of course you know who you are. You know your first and last name. You know where and when you were born, and you have no trouble identifying your ethnic background. You can probably recite your Social Security number with ease.
But if this is all that comes to mind when you think about who you are, you’re missing a lot of the picture. There’s a lot more to you than name, rank, and serial number. What makes you unique and special are your thoughts, your beliefs, your dreams. You have a unique history, and this set of experiences together with your genetic makeup—the combination of genes you inherited from your parents—is unlike anyone else’s.
Our view of ourselves—our self-concept—has three parts:
1. Our physical self is both who we are physically—the color of our eyes or the curliness of our hair—and how we feel about our physical form. We all have our blemishes, protruding stomachs, long noses, or other physical quirks, but we don’t all feel the same way about them.
self-concept One’s view of oneself that forms over time, comprising three components: the physical self, the social self, and the personal self.
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2. Our social self is made up of the roles we play in our social interactions with others. As you’re reading these words, you’re not only a student but also a son or daughter, a friend, a citizen, and possibly an employee, a spouse, a lover, and/or a parent. Each of these roles plays an important part in defining your self-concept. Each also helps determine how you behave while acting in that particular role.
“When I discover who I am, I’ll be free.”
Tze-Sze, philosopher
3. Finally, our self-concept also contains a personal self—our inner core, which is that private part of ourselves that no one knows about except us. It consists of the innermost thoughts and experiences that we may or may not choose to share with others.
Self-Concept and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies The way we view ourselves determines how we interact with others, what challenges we feel ready to take on, and our expectations for future success. If you look at yourself as a successful student, you are likely to expect that you’ll be a successful student in the future. On the other hand, if you see yourself as an incapable, inept student, your chances for future success are diminished.
In short, our self-concept can act as a self-fulfilling prophecy. A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when we hold a belief or expectation that affects our behavior, thereby increasing the likelihood that our beliefs or expectations will come true. For instance, a person who views herself as a poor student may find herself think- ing: “Why bother working hard? I’m no good as a student; that’s just the way I am.” It’s easy to see how such a view could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy: By not working hard, the student guarantees that the prophecy of poor performance comes true.
On the other hand, self-fulfilling prophecies can have positive effects. A person who sees herself as a good student will probably be motivated to study and com- plete assignments enthusiastically. Her view of herself can therefore bring about the expected behavior—in this case, success.
To get a clearer picture of your own self-concept:
▸ Examine the roles you play. To understand who we are, we need to understand the different roles that we play in life. Consider which of these roles are central to who you are—and who you want to be. Consider how an outsider might look at your actions, beliefs, and interests. How would that person characterize you?
▸ Identify your strengths and weaknesses. Look at yourself with a clear and objec- tive eye, and consider what you do particularly well and what you don’t do particularly well. If you’re honest, you’ll come up with several areas in which you need work—and many other areas in which you’re already quite strong. Use Table 3.2 to help you organize your thoughts and build an initial inventory of your strengths and weaknesses.
As you consider your strengths and weaknesses, don’t place a value on them. The fact that you procrastinate and put off tasks doesn’t make you a bad person, just as the fact that you’re a good student doesn’t necessarily make you a good person. The point in seeking to identify who you are is to determine your self-concept with accuracy, not to determine how good (or bad) a human being you are.
self-fulfilling prophecy A phenomenon that occurs when we hold a belief or expectation that affects our behavior, thereby increasing the likelihood that our beliefs or expectations will come true.
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table 3.2 Inventory Your Strengths and Weaknesses To get a clearer picture of your self-concept, complete an honest inventory of your strengths and weaknesses. To help you organize your thoughts, use the following table, adding brief examples.
Aspects of Self Strengths Weaknesses
Physical self
Health and fitness
Sports
Nutrition and diet
Appearance
Other
Social self
Friend
Son/daughter
Lover/spouse
Citizen/community member
Employee
Student
Roommate
Classmate
Team or group member (e.g., sports, band, club)
Other
Personal self
Personal experiences
Unique traits
Personality
Spiritual self
Habits
Attitudes/opinions
Ideas/thoughts
Other
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▸ Construct your own definition of who you are. Don’t let what you believe others think about you determine what you think you’re good at and bad at. See your- self through your own eyes, not someone else’s.
▸ Accept your entire self-concept. If you’re being honest with yourself, you’ll find that there are parts of yourself that you like more than others. That’s OK. Don’t disown the parts you don’t like; they’re also part of who you are. Instead, accept that some parts of yourself need work, while others are the source of justifiable pride.
Make Sure Your Self-Concept Is Yours Our self-concept is not only influenced by our own views of ourselves. In addition, we sometimes permit our behavior to be influenced by others’ views of who we are and their expectations about us.
For example, if we think an instructor views us as a particularly hard worker, we may not want to disappoint him by slacking off. If we believe that our boss admires our persistence, we may be motivated to show her our persistence when we’re work- ing on a difficult problem on the job.
Responding to others’ positive perceptions can be fine, for the results are good. But what happens if someone holds a negative view of who we are? What if we’re constantly told that we’re not working hard enough . . . or that we’re not as smart as our older brother . . . or that we are the hard worker, but not the creative one?
The results can be devastating. If we consistently hear such messages about who we are, we can come to believe them. Even worse, our behavior can start to mirror the negative messages we’re hearing. If we’re consistently told that we don’t work hard enough, we may begin to slack off. If we’re told we’re not as smart as someone else, we may begin to think of ourselves as not
very bright, and not try very hard on academic tasks. Or if someone tells us we’re not creative, we may not try very hard to be creative.
In short, the negative messages that we hear from others can come to act as a prison, placing us in bondage to others’ negative beliefs about who we are and what our capabilities are. It’s crucial, then, not to buy into others’ negative views of who we are. Our biggest help, and sometimes handicap, in this effort is self-esteem.
Self-Concept and the Returning Student For students who return to college after a significant break in their education, answering the question “Who am I?” is complicated. Some returning students have held jobs with significant responsibilities. Or they may have been supervisors who made key decisions. Now they must follow the direction of multiple instructors who make assignments that affect their lives on a daily basis. In some ways, it’s like hav- ing many bosses.
In other cases, returning students feel out of touch with their fellow students who may be younger than they are. It may feel strange to suddenly be placed in the role of “student,” and it may make them wonder what they’ve gotten themselves into. Because they may not have taken classes or studied for years, they may lack self-confidence. Furthermore, if spouses or other family members are not support- ive of those who return to college, students might feel threatened.
If you’re a returning student, remember that you’re still the same person you were before you came back to college. The competencies that you had prior to
“Respect yourself if you would have others respect you.” Baltasar Gracian, author
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college, that helped you navigate the world, are still part of who you are. In fact, other students may look up to you or seek your advice because of pre-college experience.
Returning to College After Military Service: The Special Case of Veterans Starting or returning to college can be particularly difficult for returning military veterans. Soldiers may have faced life-and-death decisions on a daily basis, and they may find the issues they face in college trivial in comparison. Furthermore, soldiers live in highly structured situations in which most decisions are made by others.
In contrast, college is unstructured in a way that can be unsettling. Furthermore, some veterans simply are bored with college, compared with the high levels of stim- ulation that accompanied their lives in combat zones.
If you are a returning veteran, how can you adjust to the new reality you face in college? Several strategies may be effective:
▸ Go out of your way to establish relationships with other students and college faculty and staff. Becoming involved in organized activities can help break down the barriers you may feel with other students.
▸ Don’t be afraid to show your feelings. Although you may have learned to hide your emotions in a combat situation, you need to be able to express your emo- tions. You may be surprised to see how much non-veterans are interested in and accepting of how you react to situations.
▸ Lead a balanced life. Combat may have made you more pessimistic and cyni- cal. Focus on people and institutions (such as a religion) that can produce more positive feelings.
▸ Talk to other veterans on campus. They have shared similar experiences and can understand the feelings that you may be having.
▸ Seek out special services for veterans. Many colleges have offices devoted to supporting returning veterans. Talk with counselors or other support staff. They will provide a sympathetic ear and can make a real difference in your well-being and ultimately your success in college.
Self-Esteem: Building a Positive View of Yourself When you think about yourself as a student, you probably don’t stop there. Instead, you may see yourself as a “good” student or maybe a “just OK” student. Similarly, when you consider yourself in the role of friend, you may view yourself as a “loyal-to- the-end” friend or maybe, in the opposite case, a “fair-weather” friend. In short, when we look inward at who we are, we don’t just stop with a characterization of the differ- ent roles that we play in the world. Instead, we place a value on them. We see the vari- ous facets of our self-concept not in neutral terms, but as either positive or negative.
Self-esteem is the overall evaluation we give ourselves as individuals. It reflects the degree to which we see ourselves as individuals of worth and determines our general acceptance of ourselves. If we have high self-esteem, we generally feel respect for and acceptance of ourselves. On the other hand, if we have low self- esteem, we may lack respect for ourselves, reject parts of who we are, and judge ourselves negatively.
To get a sense of your own general level of self-esteem, complete the self- assess ment in Try It! 4.
self-esteem The overall evaluation we give ourselves as individuals.
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4 Try It!
Measuring Your Self-Esteem To get an informal estimate of your self-esteem, complete the following scale..
Add your points together, and interpret the total as follows: The highest possible score (i.e., an apparently very high level of self-esteem) is 40 points, and the minimum score
(i.e., an apparently very low level of self-esteem) is 10. Most people score in the 30- to 40-point range. A much smaller number of people score in the 20s. A score of 10 to 20 is often found in people who suffer from chronic depression; those who score at this level should consider consulting a health care provider or call a 24-hour hotline such as 800- 448-3000. Keep in mind that this is a very rough gauge of self-esteem and that scores will vary depending on a number of factors, including your mood when you complete the questionnaire.
Now consider the following:
• Do the results of the questionnaire match your own gut feelings about yourself? • Do you think your self-esteem has changed? Do you have any ideas as to why?
Source: Rosenberg, Morris. 1989. Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Revised edition. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
Scoring: For statements 1, 3, 4, 7, and 10, score as follows:
1. Strongly agree = 4 points
2. Agree = 3 points
3. Disagree = 2 points
4. Strongly disagree = 1 point
For statements 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9, score as follows:
1. Strongly agree = 1 point
2. Agree = 2 points
3. Disagree = 3 points
4. Strongly disagree = 4 points
Statement Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
2. At times I think I am no good at all.
3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
4. I am able to do things as well as most other people.
5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.
6. I certainly feel useless at times.
7. I feel that I am a person of worth, at least the equal of others.
8. I wish I could have more respect for myself.
9. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.
10. I take a positive attitude toward myself.
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Why Self-Esteem Matters People with high self-esteem are generally happier and better able to cope with adversity. High self-esteem provides a sense of security, because people with high self-esteem feel they are able to deal with problems that may arise. They also have a sense of self-efficacy, the expectation that they are capable of achieving their goals in many different kinds of situations. High self-esteem can also give people a sense of purpose and the belief that they are productive members of society.
In contrast, individuals lacking in self-esteem are more insecure, and their belief in their ability to reach their goals is weak. They feel less tied to others, and their sense of purpose is not firm. And when others are successful, people with low self- esteem may feel jealousy and envy.
Low self-esteem can produce a cycle of failure in which low self-esteem leads to low expectations, reduced effort, elevated anxiety, poor performance, and, finally, an affirmation of the low self-esteem that began the cycle in the first place. Such a cycle can be difficult to break (see Figure 3.1).
If a student with low self-esteem begins studying for a test believing that he is likely to do badly, he may put forth relatively little effort. Moreover, because he is virtually sure he is going to do poorly on the test, he may experience extremes of anxiety, feeling that (another) failure is lurking just ahead.
self-efficacy The expectation that one is capable of achieving one’s goals in many different kinds of situations.
figure 3.1 The Cycle of Failure and the Cycle of Success Low self-esteem can lead to low performance expectations. In turn, low performance expectations can produce reduced effort and high anxiety, both of which can lead to failure— and ultimately reinforce the low self-esteem that started the cycle. In contrast, those with high self-esteem expect success, and that expectation leads to greater effort and lower anxiety, thereby increasing the likelihood of actual success. Ultimately, this success boosts self-esteem.
Low performance expectation
Higher anxietyLow
self-esteem
Cycle of FAILURE
High performance expectation
Lower anxiety
Increased effortHigh
self-esteem
Actual success
Cycle of SUCCESS
Actual failure
Reduced effort
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Ultimately, the combination of lack of effort and anxiety produced by his low self-esteem does him in, and he actually does do poorly on the test. But the cycle of failure is not yet complete: Rather than telling himself that low effort and elevated anxiety caused his poor test performance, he views it as an affirma- tion of his inferior ability. In turn, this misperception serves to reinforce his low self-esteem.
On the other hand, people with higher self-esteem find themselves in a cycle of success shown in Figure 3.1. Their higher expectations lead to increased effort and lower anxiety, making the probability of success greater. In turn, this helps affirm their higher sense of self-esteem that started the cycle.
Breaking the Self-Esteem Cycle of Failure “OK,” you may be saying to yourself, “I understand that self-esteem is important. But how am I supposed to ignore a lifetime of learning and improve my self-esteem?”
It’s not a simple matter to shed a less-than-ideal view of ourselves and adopt a more positive one. And you certainly won’t be able to change your basic conception of yourself in the course of a few days. But there are steps you can take to bring yourself closer to an ideal level of self-esteem. They include the following:
▸ Accept yourself, warts and all. No one is perfect, and becoming a perfect person should not be your goal in life. If it were, you’d be doomed to failure, because you’d never measure up.
Accept the fact that there are certain aspects of yourself and your life that you’re not pleased with. In fact, embrace your awareness of your displeasure: If you didn’t realize that there were some things about yourself that needed improvement, you’d be out of touch with who you are.
▸ Understand that everyone has value and self-worth. Every individual has value and self-worth, some unique spark that sets him or her apart from everyone
Physicist Stephen Hawking overcame significant challenges in the physical realm to make ground-breaking intellectual contributions. ©Twocoms/Shutterstock
else. Examine yourself and your life, and get a picture of the particu- lars that make you you.
Low self-esteem can lead to low performance expectations. In turn, low performance can produce reduced effort and high anxiety, both of which can lead to failure—and ultimately reinforce the low self- esteem that started the cycle.
▸ Distinguish the different parts of who you are. No one is all bad, just as no one is all good. Understanding that you have failings in one arena of life doesn’t mean that you can’t be successful in others. It makes no sense to base your self-esteem on what you do worst in life, so don’t make the mistake of focusing solely on your failings and minimizing your successes.
▸ Don’t just rely on—or wait for—others’ praise. Your self-esteem should not be solely dependent on the praise you get from others. Use your own judgment to evaluate the level of success you’ve achieved on a given task.
▸ Understand that building self-esteem is a lifelong undertaking. It’s taken a lifetime to develop whatever level of self-esteem you currently have. Your self-esteem is not going to change overnight.
Rebuilding self-esteem isn’t easy. It’s particularly hard to do at a time when you face a major life transition, such as the beginning of your college experience; your oldest friends and family may not be
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nearby, and the level of academic work you encounter presents new challenges. In fact, starting college presents a special opportunity to grow and develop. It’s a new environment, giving you the opportunity to unlearn old patterns of behavior that have held you back and master new ones that will permit you to have a more positive view of yourself. Don’t let low self-esteem keep you from becoming what you can be.
LO 3-3 Preparing a Personal Mission Statement
Twenty-five hundred years later, Plato’s words are still true. If you never consider what you want out of life, what your dreams and aspirations are, and where you’re heading, you’re in danger of missing out on the most fundamental and meaningful parts of life. The day-to-day details of life will use up all your time, and you won’t know exactly where it has gone.
One way to get a clearer picture of our life is to create a formal document—called a personal mission statement—of what we actually hope to achieve during our lifetime. The P.O.W.E.R. framework provides a systematic series of steps (described below, and summarized in the P.O.W.E.R. Plan graphic) that can help us look inward and determine the way we wish to carry out our lives.
Identifying Your Values The first step toward understanding ourselves is to assess our underlying values. Values are the qualities we see as most desirable and important. They are the attri- butes that are most important to us, the ones that we use to guide our lives.
To assess your values, work through the following steps:
1. Choose the five values that you hold most dear. Here are some examples, but don’t necessarily restrict yourself to these: a comfortable life, an exciting life, a sense of accomplishment, world peace, beauty, equality, security, freedom, happiness, inner harmony, love, national security, pleasure, religion, self- respect, fame, friendship, wisdom, work, financial security, risk taking, being challenged.
2. For each value, answer each of these questions below: Why is it important to you, who taught it to you, how has it affected your behavior in the past, and in what ways can you affirm it through your future behavior?
Value # 1 ___________
Why it is important:
Who taught it to you:
How it has affected your past behavior:
In what ways you can affirm it through future behavior:
Value # 2 ___________
Why it is important:
Who taught it to you:
personal Mission Statement A formal statement regarding what a person hopes to achieve during his or her lifetime.
values The qualities we see as desirable and most important.
P.O.W.E.R. Plan
Identify your values
Impose order on what motivates you
Create a personal mission statement
Assess your personal mission statement
Reconsider your options
“The life that is unexamined is not worth living.” Plato, in Plato & Jowett, B. (1913). Dialogues of Plato. United Holdings Group.
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How it has affected your past behavior:
In what ways you can affirm it through future behavior:
Value # 3 ___________
Why it is important:
Who taught it to you:
How it has affected your past behavior:
In what ways you can affirm it through future behavior:
Value # 4 ___________
Why it is important:
Who taught it to you:
How it has affected your past behavior:
In what ways you can affirm it through future behavior:
Value # 5 ___________
Why it is important:
Who taught it to you:
How it has affected your past behavior:
In what ways you can affirm it through future behavior:
After you’ve identified your most important values, you’ll be ready to move to the “organize” step in developing a mission statement: determining what motivates you.
Imposing Order on What Motivates You
Abraham Lincoln. Albert Einstein. Eleanor Roosevelt. What is the common link among these three people?
According to psychologist Abraham Maslow, each of them achieved self-actualization. Self-actualization is a state of self- fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential in their own unique way.
Maslow says that self-actualization is the highest of the various needs that moti- vate our behavior. As you can see in the illustration in Figure 3.2, our underlying needs form a pyramid. At the bottom of the pyramid are our most basic needs, such as the biological needs that drive our behavior, including food, water, sleep, and sex. The basic needs are not much different from those that drive the behavior of nonhu- man animals. The needs on the next higher level of the pyramid are safety needs; we need a safe, secure environment to function effectively.
But as humans are able to meet their more basic survival needs, they have a chance to become acquainted with levels of need that relate to more advanced qualities, such as the need for love. As the pyramid indicates, our love and belong- ingness needs come next: our needs to form relationships with others and to look outside ourselves. We seek to give affection and to be contributing members of groups within society.
After these needs are fulfilled, we strive for the esteem of others. Esteem relates to the desire to develop a sense of self-worth. We want others to be aware of our competence and worth and to acknowledge our value in the world.
self-actualization A state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential in their own unique way.
“Authentic values are those by which a life can be lived.”
Tze-Sze, philosopher
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Only after we meet these physiological, safety, love and belongingness, and esteem needs can we strive for self-actualization. Although early views of self- actualization restricted this quality to a few well-known individuals, self- actualization is now generally regarded as a need that can apply to any of us.
For instance, a parent with excellent nurturing skills who raises a family, a teacher who year after year creates an environment that maximizes students’ oppor- tunities for success, and an artist who realizes her creative potential might all be self-actualized individuals. The crucial characteristic of self-actualization is that we feel at ease with ourselves and satisfied that we are using our talents to the fullest.
Creating a Personal Mission Statement
▸ To make, distribute, & sell the finest quality all natural ice cream & euphoric con- coctions with a continued commitment to incorporating wholesome, natural ingre- dients and promoting business practices that respect the earth and the environment.
▸ To operate the Company on a sustainable financial basis of profitable growth, increasing value for our stakeholders & expanding opportunities for development and career growth for our employees.
▸ To operate the Company in a way that actively recognizes the central role that busi- ness plays in society by initiating innovative ways to improve the quality of life locally, nationally & internationally.1
You may have already guessed the name of the business that would make the state- ments reproduced above: Ben & Jerry’s ice cream company. Like almost every other major organization, Ben & Jerry’s has a mission statement, a series of statements about what the organization does and the principles that guide its corporate life.
What’s good for Ben & Jerry’s is good for you. Each of us should set out a per- sonal mission statement, a description encompassing our own personal objectives,
figure 3.2 Pyramid of Motivational Needs and Their Relationship to Student Behavior
Strive for self- fulfillment
Be aware of and celebrate your successes
Live in a secure environment
Build social networks and relationships
Eat well and get enough sleep
Love and belongingness
Self- actualization
Esteem
Safety needs
Biological needs
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long-term goals, and guiding philosophy. It’s a kind of personal constitution that sets out broad principles of how we wish to conduct our lives. It is a guideline that allows us to adapt our behavior to changes in our lives without straying from our overall direction and purpose.
A personal mission statement also helps us move from our abstract values and motivational needs to something concrete by providing the foundation for developing specific goals to guide our behavior. By making our values explicit, we are better able to formulate short- and long-term goals that reflect what is important to us.
For example, consider the following mission statement created by one student:
My mission is to use my personal abilities fully to become an engineer who will work on projects that will help others improve the quality of their lives. In addition, I hope to form meaningful relationships with others and to marry and raise children who will make their own contri- butions to society. Finally, I wish to participate in bettering the world by volunteering in organizations that will enhance the quality of my own community.
This mission statement reflects several underlying values and needs: the desire to use work to improve others’ lives, the wish to form relationships with others, and the desire to make the world a better place. In some respects it is fairly specific (such as the desire to become an engineer and to marry and have children), while in others it is fairly vague (such as the wish to participate in organizations that can improve community life). The key point is that it provides a general framework, a way of evaluating whether any particular choice fits into this individual’s overall personal mission.
To create your own personal mission statement, follow these three preliminary steps:
▸ Summarize your most important values and motivational needs. You’ve already assessed your values and motivational needs. Try to distill them into several key principles that will guide your life.
▸ Consider what you want your major product to be. Ben & Jerry’s makes ice cream. What do you want to be known and remembered for? Your work? Your family? Your good deeds? Your relationships with others? Something you’ve created—art, photos, writings?
▸ Reflect on the kind of person you want to be. Do you wish to be kind, friendly, helpful, assertive, powerful, wealthy, altruistic?
Once you’ve completed these three steps, you’re in a position to create your own mission statement. Write it in Try It! 5.
Assessing Your Personal Mission Statement
After you’ve written a personal mission statement, consider whether it accurately captures what you are looking for out of life. Would a friend who knows you well see it as a valid reflection of who you are? Does the mission statement take a long- term view, reflecting not just where you are now, but where you wish to be in the future? Is it general enough to fit the many different circumstances in which you will find yourself?
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Identifying Your Interests Creating a personal mission statement can help you think more productively about one of the most important decisions of your college career: identifying your profession. One way to jump- start this process is to systematically identify your current interests, a critical step in determining what kind of work will be most fulfilling and satisfying for you.
However, few of us are fully aware of the complete range of our interests, primarily because we don’t take the time to systematically inventory them. Consequently, career advisor Richard Bolles suggests answering the following questions in order to identify the scope of your interests:
• What are your favorite subjects and hobbies? • What do you like to talk about most? • When you go to a newsstand, what are the subjects of magazines that you are attracted to? • When you read a newspaper, what section do you read first? • If you’re wandering around a bookstore, what kinds of books do you spend the most time
looking at?
• When you surf the World Wide Web, what sites do you find yourself returning to regularly? • When you watch TV game shows, what categories would you choose? • If you were to write a book, what would you write about? • When you get so engrossed in thought that you lose track of time, what is it you are
thinking about?
Once you’ve got a better grip on your interests after answering each of these questions, the next step is to prioritize them, rank-ordering them from most interesting to least interesting. You can then use this rank-ordered list to investigate careers, seeking out work involving interests similar to your own. For example, if you have strong interests in the visual arts, you might explore careers involving graphic design, computer-assisted graphics, or architecture. If you avidly keep up with the news of the day, you might consider journalism or television news production. The critical point is to try to match what you like to do (as well as your learning and personality style strengths) with what you’ll be doing when you’re on the job. The closer the match, the happier and more successful you’ll be.
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Only you can determine the ability of your personal mission statement to cap- ture what is important to you. If you feel it doesn’t, rewrite it. Eventually you’ll come up with a statement that illustrates what you feel makes you special.
Reconsidering Your Options Personal mission statements should not be seen as set in stone. Instead, they should be considered living documents that you can change periodically as you become clearer about what you want for yourself.
That’s why it’s important to periodically revisit your personal mission state- ment, the final step in the P.O.W.E.R. Plan for creating a personal mission state- ment. When you do rethink your statement, ask yourself if it’s still representative of your values and motivational needs. Consider whether it should be amended to reflect changes that have occurred in your life.
Even if you don’t modify it, periodically reading your personal mission state- ment is important. It will remind you of who you are and what you are trying to get out of the one life you have.
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5 Try It!
Write a Mission Statement
1. What are your most important values (e.g., comfort, environmental awareness, kindness to others, inner harmony, challenge, etc.)?
2. What are your motivational needs (e.g., love and belonging, esteem, self-actualization)?
3. In what general area or career do you wish to work?
4. What will be the most important “product” for which you want to be known and remembered (e.g., good deeds, wealth, power, prestige, artistic creations, business acumen, etc.)?
5. What kind of person do you want to be (helpful, kind, solitary, powerful, wealthy, etc.)?
6. In what sort of community do you want to live (large city, small city, small town, suburbs, country, woods, farm, etc.)?
7. With whom do you want to live (e.g., spouse, friends, children, etc.)?
8. What words describe your ideal lifestyle (e.g., sophisticated, woodsy, agricultural, down-home, laid-back, ambitious, etc.)?
Now write your mission statement. You might, for example, state how you plan to achieve your motivational needs and realize your values through your chosen career. Next you might describe the sort of person you want to be and the “product” you plan to contribute to the world. Finally, you might describe your intended lifestyle, including the type of community you would like to live in and the nature of your ideal family.
PERSONAL MISSION STATEMENT
Prepared by:___________ Date:___________
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To Thine Own Self Be True: No One Is Responsible for Your Life but You “Don’t take many English courses; they won’t help you get a decent job.” “How about pre-med? You’d make a great doctor.” “Sign up for management classes so you’ll be ready to join the family business when you graduate.”
Sound familiar? Many of us have heard suggestions like these proposed by par- ents or others close to us. Such comments often sound quite reasonable.
However, suggestions like these should be taken with great caution. The reason is that they relate to decisions that you, and only you, should make. You are the one who must live with their consequences. You are the one who must live with yourself.
One of the most questionable reasons to follow a particular path in life is that other people want you to do something. Decisions that affect your life should be your decisions—decisions you make after you’ve considered various alternatives and chosen the path that suits you best.
Making your own decisions does not mean that you should ignore the sugges- tions of others. For instance, family members have their own unique experiences that may make their advice helpful. Furthermore, having participated in a great deal of your personal history, they may have a clear view of your strengths and weaknesses.
Still, the views of family members are not necessarily accurate. They may still see you as a child, in need of care and protection. Or they may see only your strengths. Or, in some unfortunate cases, they may focus only on your flaws and shortcomings.
People will always be giving you advice. Ultimately, though, you have to make your own judgments about what’s right for you, following your head—and your heart.
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88 CHAPTER THREE Discovering Your Learning Styles, Self-Concept, and Values
NAME: Colin Powell
SCHOOL: B.A., The City College of New York; M.S.,
George Washington University
• How did Colin Powell’s self-concept change over time, and why?
• How important a role did self-esteem play in Colin Powell’s many successes? [ R E T H I N K ]
S p e a k i n g o f Success
Few who knew Colin Powell when he was growing up would have guessed that he would become the highest- ranking military commander in the United States and later the country’s Secretary of State.
The son of Jamaican immigrants, Powell charac- terizes himself as lacking drive while growing up in a poor South Bronx neighborhood in New York City. He describes himself as aimless.2
Although his parents, who had high educational expectations, urged him to transfer from his neighbor- hood high school to a more demanding school, his guid- ance counselor advised against it, citing his previous undistinguished academic performance. Powell ended up maintaining a C average in his neighborhood school, where simply showing up was largely what it took to pass.
But Powell’s parents encouraged him to continue his education and apply to college. Bowing to their pressure, he entered The City College of New York, starting as an engineering major, and later switching to geology. Most important, though, Powell found a passion: participation in the college ROTC program, which provided training
that allowed students to become officers in the military upon graduation. ROTC training provided him with a sense that he had found what he was looking for in life.
When Powell graduated, he immediately entered the Army, distinguishing himself early on as a military leader. But he also came to feel he needed more education. He enrolled in a master’s degree program in Government and Business Administration at George Washington University, earning nearly straight A’s.
Returning to the Army after receiving his master’s degree, Powell moved up rapidly through the ranks, ulti- mately moving into the highest military post in the coun- try. After retiring from the military, Powell became the U.S. Secretary of State, serving four years in that position.
As a highly visible and successful black American, Powell understands that he is seen as a role model, par- ticularly by young blacks. In his own words, “Do not let the fact that you’re a minority or that you come from a different background or that you are trapped structurally somewhere serve as an anchor to keep you down.”3 He certainly took his own advice.
©stocklight/Shutterstock
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CHAPTER THREE Discovering Your Learning Styles, Self-Concept, and Values 89
LO 3-1 Identify your learning styles and how they affect your academic success. ▸ People have patterns of diverse learning styles—characteristic ways of acquiring and using knowledge.
▸ Learning styles include read/write, visual/graphic, auditory/verbal, and tactile/kinesthetic styles (the receptive learning styles).
▸ The multiple intelligences view says that we have eight different forms of intelligence, each relatively independent of the others.
▸ Personality styles that influence learning are classified along dimensions of introversion/extraversion, intuition/sensing, thinking/feeling, and perceiving/judging.
LO 3-2 Explain how self-concept and self-esteem affect academic performance. ▸ Self-concept is the understanding of the self that a person forms over time. Its major components are
the physical, social, and personal selves.
▸ Self-concept is important because of the effects it has on people’s attitudes and behavior. Self-concept can act as a self-fulfilling prophecy, in that people act in accordance with their self-concepts.
▸ Self-esteem is the overall evaluation we give ourselves as individuals.
▸ High self-esteem can lead to greater happiness, an enhanced ability to cope with adversity, a sense of security and confidence, and a sense of self-efficacy.
▸ Low self-esteem can lead to insecurity, low self-efficacy, and a cycle of failure.
LO 3-3 Create a personal mission statement. ▸ A personal mission statement can be used to determine important values and to state the principles by
which we intend to lead our lives.
▸ People’s needs can be organized into a hierarchy in which the most basic and fundamental needs form the base of a pyramid and higher-order needs sit atop the basic needs.
▸ Although we should consider the ideas and opinions of others, we need to make our own decisions and choose our own path.
Looking Back
[ K E Y T E R M S A N D C O N C E P T S ] Auditory/verbal learning style (p. 59)
Classical conditioning (p. 71)
Learning style (p. 59)
Learning theory (p. 67)
Left-brain processing (p. 67)
Operant conditioning (p. 70)
Personal mission statement (p. 81)
Read/write learning style (p. 59)
Receptive learning style (p. 59)
Reinforcer (p. 70)
Right-brain processing (p. 67)
Self-actualization (p. 82)
Self-concept (p. 73)
Self-efficacy (p. 79)
Self-esteem (p. 77)
Self-fulfilling prophecy (p. 74)
Tactile/kinesthetic learning style (p. 60)
Values (p. 81)
Visual/graphic learning style (p. 59)
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90 CHAPTER THREE Discovering Your Learning Styles, Self-Concept, and Values
ON CAMPUS If you are interested in learning more about your pattern of learning styles, visit your cam- pus counseling center or career center, where you may be able to take special assessment tests that can pinpoint your learning preferences and offer study strategies based on those preferences.
When dealing with the uncertainties of life and establishing your own sense of direc- tion, it may help to speak to someone who has perspective and experience with college students. Here, too, a good place to start on campus is either a general counseling center or one that is designed to help students choose career paths. Mental health offices can also be helpful in putting you in touch with a therapist with whom you can explore issues revolving around your self-concept and self-esteem. Don’t hesitate to get help. You are doing it for yourself.
IN PRINT Thomas Armstrong and Sue Teele’s Rainbows of Intelligence: Exploring How Students Learn (2015) provides an introduction to learning styles, offering tips and suggestions for making use of the ways that people learn.
In addition, Bradley Staats’ Never Stop Learning (Harvard Business Review Press, 2018), Ken Bain’s What the Best College Students Do (Belknap Press, 2012) and Linda Beren’s Understanding Yourself and Others (Telos, 2010) offer insight into learning strate- gies and personality types.
Don’t Sweat the Small Stuff . . . and It’s All Small Stuff (Hyperion, 2007), written by Richard Carlson, is a down-to-earth guide that is meant to help you sort out what is—and is not—important in your life.
ON THE WEB
▸ Greg Kearsley, an instructional designer and online course developer at Walden Institute, has developed a useful site called “Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory into Practice Database” (www.instructionaldesign.org/about.html). This database contains short summaries of 50 major theories of learning and instruction.
▸ EducationPlanner.org, a public service unit of the Pennsylvania Higher Education Assistance Agency, offers an interactive set of questions that can help you find out what kind of student you are, what your learning style is, and which study habits you can improve. http://www.educationplanner.org/students/self-assessments/kind-of- student.shtml
▸ An excellent set of guidelines on setting up a personal mission statement can be found at Kent State University’s Ohio Literacy Resource Center site (http://literacy. kent.edu/Oasis/Leadership/mission.htm).
[ R E S O U R C E S ]
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CHAPTER THREE Discovering Your Learning Styles, Self-Concept, and Values 91
Lana Carlson, a 26-year-old woman living in Carlsbad, Missouri, was at her wits’ end. The instructor in her intro- ductory psychology class spent each 50-minute lecture talking nonstop. He barely paused to acknowledge stu- dents’ questions, and his only goal seemed to be to present as much material as possible. He even gave assignments in the same fast, nasal tone that he used throughout class.
If it weren’t for her friend Darren Rubbell, who was in the same class, Lana would never have managed to
figure out how to complete the assignments, which the professor never bothered to write down. The strange thing was that Darren didn’t seem to have much trouble with the professor’s endless talking. In fact, he claimed to enjoy the class a lot. He had no trouble following the lectures and understanding the assignments, seeming to absorb like a sponge the information the instructor was spouting.
The Case of . . . The Instructor Who
Spoke Too Much
1. Based on what you know about learning styles, what might be the source of Lana’s difficulties?
2. What learning style does the instructor apparently assume all students have? Do you think this is one of Lana’s learning styles? Why or why not?
3. How might the instructor change his presentation to accommodate diverse learning styles?
4. Why does Lana’s friend Darren have so little trouble with the instructor’s lectures?
5. Why do you think Lana has less trouble understanding Darren after class than she has understanding her instructor?
6. If you were Lana, what might you do to improve your situation?
CHAPTER THREE Discovering Your Learning Styles, Self-Concept, and Values 91
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