A Critical Analysis of how events contribute to destination community development.

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A Critical Analysis of how events contribute to destination community development.

Introduction

A tourism destination is a place where tourists base themselves to participate in tourism activities; the well-being of the destination community is influenced by such activities. To achieve positive destination community well-being the Destination Marketing Organisations (DMOs) should focus on the destinations needs, rather than the tourists demands.

Objectives for DMOs to follow to achieve good community well-being, are to enhance the long-term prosperity of locals, maximise profitability of local enterprises, maximise multiplier effects, and optimise tourism impacts by ensuring a sustainable balance between economic benefits, and socio-cultural and environmental costs (Buhalis, 2000).

The destination community Capitals are influenced by tourism, and events. Such capitals include: Built, Human, Social, Cultural, and Natural. Tourism also affects sustainability of the destination, which brings into effect Sustainable Tourism. Sustainable Tourism involves the Triple Bottom Line model, and is expected to be considered in all events.

This critical analysis literature review investigates the impact that tourism events have on the destination community’s wellbeing, and sustainable tourism, through the analysis of Capitals, and sustainability. To being this literature review start with the four ‘starter references’, focus on key words, and categorise the articles into the type of Capital it relates to. Then use the key words to find further relevant articles in the JCU OneSearch search engine, ensure that the search is refined by: ‘full test online’, ‘journal article’, ‘English’, and if no relevant results are appearing ‘business’. Once a relevant article is found use the search on page (Control+f) to search for key words in the article (‘event’, ‘capital’, ‘social’, ‘sustainable’ ect). Highlight the key parts of the articles, and again categorise them to the relevant type of Capital, or sustainability. Limitations include the use of only one database, and a lot of relevant research has been done on some of the capitals, while other types aren’t as easy to find.

Events and Destination Community Wellbeing

Events and Built Capital


Built Capital refers to the hand-made environment that is constructed to suit the needs of the community, it may include the infrastructure, recreational facilities, commercial facilities, industrial facilities, housing, parks, water access, buildings, transport, waste and energy, and technology that helps the community function.

A study was done to determine “whether the built environment... affects the degree to which people are involved in their communities and with each other” (Leyden, 2003), they found that “residents living in walkable, mixed-use neighbourhoods are more likely to know their neighbours, to participate politically, to trust others, and to be involved socially” (Leyden, 2003). Another review found that the built environment can “provide the physical backdrop by which people live their lives, attend local community events and interact with each other” (Butterworth, 2000). These studies highlight that the environment is detrimental to how a community functions, and is used for small community events. However, the built capital in which the community utilises could potentially bring in larger events, and thus tourists, which can in turn contribute to an increase in built capital, whether it is a benefit or disadvantage for the host community.

Clark, 2016, performed a review on mega-events upon the host community. While mixed outlooks were found among the community “new infrastructure, amenities and especially housing were broadly welcomed, including by some participants who were very distressed by the regeneration process” (Clark, 2016).

However, a report that focused on the South African FIFA World Cup, found that “entire skylines and multiple public arenas are built and reimagined for the sake of worldwide mass media coverage” (Kolamo & Vuolteenaho, 2013). These developments “left behind severe contradictions and problems which the South African cities and society at large will have to cope with in the ensuing decades: gigantic underused venues whose maintenance costs remain the taxpayers’ burden, traffic nodes and networks built to serve potential tourist flows rather than local communities, densely digitalized and gentrified enclaves neighbouring non-electrified neighbourhoods of urban destitution” (Kolamo & Vuolteenaho, 2013).

This showcases that the host community needs to be largely considered in the planning of new built capital for events, so the built capital can be successfully utilised after the event.

Events and Human Capital

Human capital is defined as the knowledge, health, motivation, assets, experiences, and skills that individuals obtain, in which they can use to trade for other forms of capital. Individuals can develop different values of human capital through training, education, tenure, health, and experience within a company, field, or position.

An article that focuses on the social sustainability within host communities of non-mega events emphasises that “events provide opportunities for knowledge and skill development for local residents” (Taks, 2013). However, the article also considers that it is expected that there will be more opportunities for local residents to volunteer, and achieve personal growth and skill development, through small, local events, as the chances for locals to take part in the planning and managing is higher than in large/mega events (Taks, 2013).

Youcheng & Abraham (2011) theorised that “Successful local events can create a positive community attitude towards events, and may also help to develop event management expertise and an experienced pool of event volunteers” (pp. 253). Which in turn creates a positive contribution to the human capital of the host community, which allows them to contribute to future event production (Youcheng & Abraham, 2011).

The literature that analyses the affect events have on human capital is generally focusing on local events because, as mentioned earlier, locals are more likely to have a chance to volunteer and work in smaller events, to improve their human capital. However, the literature suggests that once the human capital has been developed than the host community will be able to partake in hosting larger events, which in turn will improve their human capital once again.

Events and Social Capital

Defined as a proxy for social cohesion by Gibson 2014, Social Capital enables a society to function effectively through the networks among the people who live and work within that society. However, there is no set definition, so the definition adopted by a study will depend on the discipline, and level of investigation (Lindon J. Robison, 2010)

The impact that events have on social capital has been studied using many different types of events. Nico Schulenkorf (2011), investigated the impact intercommunity sport events have on social capital, and found that “as an active and participatory form of social development, inter- community sport events offer potential to go be-yond the symbolic value of spectator sport events and encourage people to experience first-hand the social power of intergroup celebration.” While Moscardo (2007), analysed the role of festivals and events in regional development, and considered how such events contribute to building social capital. Including how some “festivals or events described were seen as providing enhanced opportunities for regional residents to interact and develop the relationships and networks that are at the core of social capital” (Moscardo, 2007). However, when put to the test by Gibson (2014), in a review of a pre-post analysis of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, it found that after testing social capital pre- and post-event, the mean scores decreased in the post event data. Although the review continued with “it appears that one key to achieving social utility from hosting mega-events is active involvement of community members throughout all phases of the event… perhaps the fact that so few of the pre- and post-event respondents reported being actively involved in the World Cup may also explain why there was little improvement in long-term social capital.”

Therefore, if an event is organised so that social capital is included, then the positive effects will have a better possibility of maintaining long term.

Events and Cultural Capital

Theorised by Bourdieu with the cultural capital theory; originally cultural capital was thought of as an individual’s cultural resources and skills. Until the later defined three different forms of cultural capital which an individual can possess; embodied (in dispositions), objectified (in cultural goods), and institutionalized (knowledge, and educations). Some features of culture, and how it is expressed can include: knowledge, events, heritages, performances, arts, crafts, rituals. These features are what draws tourists into a destination; so, they can experience the culture first hand.

There has been an increase in the “use of cultural events as a means of stimulating economic development or improving the image of cities” (Richards, 2009) during this century. An example of an event that affects cultural capital well, is the Cultural Capital Event that is held in Europe. Originally started in 1985 as an event designed to bring the peoples of member states closer together, the event is held in a different state every year, and is now generally focused on international tourists to bring in expenditure. “This change can be linked to the growing importance of culture as a source of economic development and growth” (Richards, 2009). The promise of economic development and growth has led hosting states to decide that “larger financial investments in the event are justified largely by the economic returns it is expected to generate, rather than the cultural benefits the event may produce” (Richards, 2009).

“Most research on event impacts has tended to concentrate on the economic impacts” (Richards & Wilson, The Impact of Cultural Events on City Image: Rotterdam, Cultural Capital of Europe 2001, 2004). “However, more image-related impact studies of cultural events have begun to emerge… study of the 1990 Glasgow ECC event briefly considered image effects. This research showed a more positive cultural image of the city developing in the run-up to the event and during the year itself, but dropping off very rapidly thereafter” (Richards & Wilson, The Impact of Cultural Events on City Image: Rotterdam, Cultural Capital of Europe 2001, 2004). Which leads to the realisation that cultural events may not be positively affecting Cultural Capital within the destination.

Events and Natural Capital

Natural capital is the range of resources, assets, and services that support life. These types of services are called ecosystem services, they include a clear majority of the natural environment; some obvious examples are: water, food, climate regulation, plant materials used for fuel, medicines, and building materials. “Those materials have four functions: the provision of resources for production; the absorption of wastes from production; the provision of basic context and condition for supporting life; and the aesthetic quality of those materials” (Yuan, 2007).

The activities involved in events can affect the natural capital of a host community; the most common types of concern are: resource usage, waste and pollution, and behavioural considerations (Yuan, 2007). “Event goers act like tourists, participate in events, and gain experience that differs from ‘normal day of living’; they pursue leisure, social, or cultural purposes with high expectations on the quality of environment” (Yuan, 2007). This can have a negative impact on the natural capital of the host community, as event goers are not considering the affects they are having on the environment.

Although there is a growing awareness of the environmental impact that event activity can generate (Pulido-Fernández & López-Sánchez, 2016). Event managers should not only be incorporating sustainable measures into their event plan, they should be providing information to attendees and stakeholders of the event about the planning and conservation resources, as well as appropriate behaviour when attending the event (Yuan, 2007).

The incorporation, and promotion of environmental sustainability at events provides a positive contribution to not only the host community but to the stakeholders of future events.

Events and Sustainable Tourism

Sustainable Tourism incorporates sustainable practices into its operations, and management. Sustainability involves environmental, economic, and socio-cultural, responsibilities and concerns.

This can be reflected in the triple-bottom-line (TBL) model, figure 1. Without all three of the areas being met, the tourism event cannot be sustainable.

Figure 1For a tourism event to be sustainable it needs to fulfil important economic, environmental, cultural, and social roles that people value, by doing this the event can become a permanently supported institution in the community (Laing & Frost, 2010).

“Events are essential tourism motivators, and figure prominently in the development and marketing plans of most destinations” (Chih-Hung, Sheng-Hshiung, Chang-Hua, & Tu, 2016). Large, and Mega events can provide a crucial tool of urban and regional renewal through redevelopment and enhancement, as well as attracting investment, promote tourism, and create new images for host cities (Essex & Chalkley, 2007). Studies have found that other benefits for host communities can include tax revenues, employment, extra income sources, enhance the region as a tourism destination, and new opportunity offers from investors (Chih-Hung, Sheng-Hshiung, Chang-Hua, & Tu, 2016).

“Hosting an event usually encourages more visitors to a region, including those who probably would otherwise not have visited, as well as encouraging visitors to extend their length of stay” (Buultjens & Cairnscross, 2015). An example of an event positively benefiting the community is The Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, where “most respondents perceived the impacts of the 2008 games positively, particularly for those related to social- psychological (e.g. bringing the community closer together), urban development (e.g. improved city appearance), and economic development (e.g. increased business opportunities) factors” (Chih-Hung, Sheng-Hshiung, Chang-Hua, & Tu, 2016). Another example is the “examined perceptions of the America's Cup event using a time series design, residents noted that living conditions were significantly enhanced after the event and a positive social impact derived from hosting a major sport tourism event did result” (Kim, Mun Jun, Walker, & Drane, 2015).

However, events can have a negative impact to sustainable tourism; they can result in economic costs, through taxes for example, and negative socio-psychological impact, such as security issues, traffic, overcrowding, noise pollution, and property inflation (Kim, Mun Jun, Walker, & Drane, 2015).

Synthesis and Recommendations

To ensure that the destination community well-being is being met, and that the events are in line with sustainable tourism the planning of the event should be focused around the destination community. Through the analysis it was found that events can bring positive contributions to the capitals of the destination community.

There are three common factors that support event contributions: the first factor is generally focused on in the reviewed literature; economic. Economic benefits are usually the easiest to measure, and are what most event developers focus on. It can be described as the flow of money through the destination community, including the money coming in and where is goes; however, there can be a lot of leakages and the community may not benefit as much as anticipated. The next factor is social. This factor considers the impact the event has on the destination community’s perceptions and quality of life; it can benefit human capital, social capital, and cultural capital. The last factor is environmental; which is includes the impact events can have on the destination environment, and how it is maintained, this factor can affect natural capital.

By including these three factors into the planning stage of an event, the destination community should positively benefit, before, during, and after the event. To ensure that all the factors are met the destination planners and managers should follow a frame work that focuses on destination management.

The frame work should include the following four areas:

· Research and monitoring- it is essential that the destination planners and managers know what their destination has to offer, and what the current market is demanding. Research the destination, and the market that is available, to determine a better understanding of the options available. This stage should also include setting out a process to asses’ impact and too review (Knowledge Transfer Services Pty Ltd).

· Consultative planning- this stage is about learning more about the destination. It is important to discover who the destination stakeholders are, consider the communities vision, the destinations lifecycle, what level of planning is necessary, the scope for growth within the destination, who should be included in the planning process, and what product is on offer (Knowledge Transfer Services Pty Ltd).

· Destination development- this stage focuses on creating and maintaining visitor experiences. It may include developing hard and soft infrastructure, as well as identifying gaps in the tourism product and experience, and discovering new investment opportunities, as long as it meets the needs of the visitor and reflects the destination brand (Knowledge Transfer Services Pty Ltd).

· Marketing and promotion- this section is about increasing the destination brand by growing awareness. This can be done by clearly communicating what the destination has on offer to stakeholders, internal and external, visitors and the community (Knowledge Transfer Services Pty Ltd).

This framework focuses on what benefits the destination community instead of what benefits the tourist, this allows for events to improve destination community wellbeing, and maintain sustainable tourism.

References

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Butterworth, I. (2000, 02). The Relationship Between the Built Environment and Wellbeing: a Literature Review. Melboune, Australia.

Buultjens, J., & Cairnscross, G. (2015). Event tourism in remote areas: an examination of the Birdsville Races. Journal of Place Management and Development, 69-84.

Chih-Hung, Y.-W. L., Sheng-Hshiung, W., Chang-Hua, T., & Tu, Y. J.-H. (2016). Mega-event and urban sustainable development. International Journal of Event and Festival Management.

Clark, J. (2016, 04). Spatial scale, time and process in mega-events: The complexity of host community perspectives on neighbourhood change. Cities, 53, 87-97.

Gibson, H. J. (2014, 10). Psychic income and social capital among host nation residents: A pre–post analysis of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. Tourism Management, 44, 113-122.

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Hanquinet, L. (2016, March). Place and Cultural Capital: Art Museum Visitors across Space. Museum and Society, 65-81.

Kim, W., Mun Jun, H., Walker, M., & Drane, D. (2015). Evaluating the perceived social impacts of hosting large-scale sport tourism events: Scale development and validation. Tourism Management, 48, 21-32.

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Laing, J., & Frost, W. (2010). How green was my festival: Exploring challenges and opportunities associated with staging green events. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 261-267.

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Lietaer, G. H. (n.d.). Creating New Capital: Chapter Three. In G. H. Lietaer, Intentional Cities, Intentional Economies.

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Yuan, Y. Y. (2007). Adding environmental sustainability to the management of event tourism. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 175-183.

Figure 1, retrieved from: mastersorbust.wordpress.com/2012/05/04/the-one-with-the-procured-idea/

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