A Critical Analysis of how events contribute to destination community development.

( [BX3194: Destination management and planning] | [gianna moscardo] CRITICAL ANALYSIS ASSIGNMENT The Contribution of Events to Destination Community Well-Being and Sustainable Tourism HD SAMPLE PAPER )

1.0 Introduction

The concept of sustainable tourism has been at the forefront of tourism policies, strategies and research for years (Moscardo & Murphy, 2016). It assumes that tourism practice can be sustainable through addressing immediate environmental, social and cultural impacts, however rarely, if ever, proposes that “no tourism” is an option (Moscardo & Murphy, 2016). This is a reactive approach to tourism-related issues and counterintuitive to sustainability, conveying that tourism is an end in itself, with destinations as resources and tourists as key stakeholders (Moscardo & Murphy, 2016). Consequently, studies have demonstrated the need to reconceptualise the idea of sustainable tourism to focus on “tourism as a tool for sustainability” (Moscardo & Murphy, 2016). This is where tourism acts as a positive resource to destinations and a means to an ends, with a focus on achieving destination community well-being (Moscardo & Murphy, 2016). By using tourism as a tool to generate economic benefits for locals, and contribute to cultural and natural heritage, a far more proactive approach to sustainability can be achieved (Moscardo & Murphy, 2016). In order to do this, tourism must focus on increasing, and effectively and efficiently using all forms of capital. This paper reviews available literature on the positive contribution of events – as a specific type of tourism – to built, natural, social, human and cultural capital, and to sustainable tourism within the destination region. From there, a series of policy actions that could be used by destination planners and managers to ensure events do improve destination community well-being and sustainable tourism will be provided. The two databases adopted for the online search included JCU One Search and Google Scholar. Table 1 outlines a number of search terms that were used to find the literature and the word “AND” was inserted to combine search terms.

Table 1. Examples of keywords used in the literature search process

Keywords	Other keywords with similar meanings
Human capital	Skills, competencies, knowledge, education, training, community capacity
Built capital	Infrastructure, facilities, amenities, physical structures
Natural capital	Ecosystems, natural environment
Social capital	Social interaction, social engagement, social ties, social relationships
Cultural capital	Culture, heritage
Quality of life	Life satisfaction, standard of living
Community well-being	Destination well-being

To refine the search and ensure recency and relevance of materials, the timeframe of the last five years was applied to some searches. Both journal articles and books were used. The search for literature was by no means exhaustive, but the findings nevertheless serve as a summary of the research conducted thus far. Furthermore, there was no consistently as to the type, size, location, audience, or any other factor of the events discussed, therefore their positive contributions to the capitals and sustainable tourism may be highly situation specific, limiting the overall generalisation of their benefits.

2.0 events and destination community well-being

2.1 events and built capital

Events are associated with an influx of visitors, and thus positively contribute to built capital by creating the demand to develop new, or enhance existing, facilities and infrastructure (Moscardo, 2007; Abebe, Bolton, Pavelka, & Pierstorff, 2014). Built capital refers to buildings, public spaces and distribution systems for energy, water, transportation and communication, that are available for community use (Batten, 1991; Moscardo, Konovalov, Murphy, & McGehee, 2013). These offerings are conducive to a higher standard of living and consequently increase quality of life (Moscardo, 2008; Abebe et al., 2014). An example of an event that positively contributed to built capital was the 2015 Pan American Games in Toronto (Gillespie, 2013; WATERFRONToronto, n.d.). The athletes village was built on a challenging brownfield in the flood plains of the Don River (Gillespie, 2013). The areas selection was intentional with the purpose to leverage and accelerate the established plans for community development that had never gotten off the ground (Gillespie, 2013; WATERFRONToronto, n.d.). During the event the athletes’ village provided accommodation and games-related services to 10,000 athletes and officials, however is now home to a thriving community comprised of a recreational facility, affordable rental housing and student residences, units of townhouses and condominiums, with vibrant retail, beautiful streets and public spaces, all complemented by improved transit and transportation (Gillespie, 2013; WATERFRONToronto, n.d.). This example demonstrates that events can positively contribute to built capital by driving destination managers and planners to invest in much needed infrastructure, along with providing a deadline to this developmental process (Gillespie, 2013; Abebe et al., 2014). It is important to note however, that the benefits of built capital apply only to the extent that the physical facilities and infrastructure are wanted and needed by locals – that is, they increase the standard of living and/or quality of life of residents. Beyond this, their maintenance and construction or rejuvenation presents merely as a burden to tax-payer money (Moscardo et al., 2013; Abebe et al., 2014). Certain types of built capital can also address issues of carrying capacity (Weaver & Lawton, 2010; Moscardo, 2007; Eagles & McCool, 2004). This is essential for communities hosting events, as the increased number of people to the destination, increases the potential for harm to the environment.

2.2 events and natural capital

Events positively contribute to natural capital by providing resources and support for the conservation and restoration of natural environments (Weaver & Lawton, 2010). Hosting an event can be the impetus to investing in much needed site hardening – that is, increasing the carrying capacity of the destination through structural and other changes – in order to manage and mitigate stressor activities (Weaver & Lawton, 2010; Yfantidou & Matarazzo, 2016). Events can also encourage destination and event planners to enhance the environmental health and aesthetics of the hosting region. This is because clean, scenic settings and the appearance of healthy, thriving ecosystems are conducive to ascertaining a positive destination image (Weaver & Lawton, 2010; Laing & Frost, 2009). Failure to do so can lead to extensive negative publicity, such as that experienced by Beijing during the 2008 Olympic Games, regarding its poor air quality (Laing & Frost, 2009). Furthermore, the fact that events typically involve large numbers of people in a designated area, means that environmental messages can be distributed more effectively and efficiently, often directed at those who may not typically be seen as green (Laing & Frost, 2009). An example of this is Falls Music and Arts Festival which promotes sustainability through its policies and practices. Many of their initiatives require co-creation with the patron – for instance, the reimbursement of car passes for vehicles with three or more passengers; an option to include a carbon offset fee in the ticket price; the provision of water-free, chemical-free, flush-free compost toilets; different coloured bins for general waste and recyclables; and low-flow timed showers – thereby creating a supportive environment for attitudinal and behavioural change towards environmental conservation (Laing & Frost, 2009; Falls Music and Arts Festival, 2013). Overall, the preservation of natural capital is essential as it lies at the heart of human existence (Sirleaf, 2012). However, on a less physiological level, its significance can often be linked to its cultural ties.

2.3 events and cultural capital

Events positively contribute to cultural capital by providing an incentive to preserve, restore or revitalise elements of culture and heritage including historical buildings, sites, ceremonies and traditions (Weaver & Lawton, 2010; Liu, 2014). This incentive is derived from western societies hunger for authentic, meaningful and fulfilling experiences (Weaver & Lawton, 2010; Liu, 2014; Pearce, 2005). Cultural capital refers to enduring values, ideas, attitudes and behaviours that are learnt, shared and manifested in expressions of society such as arts and crafts, rituals and spiritual practices, languages, knowledge, and performances and events (Kotabe et al., 2014; Moscardo, Konovalov, Murphy, & McGehee, 2013; Nunkoo & Smith, 2015). An example of an event that has positively contributed to cultural capital is Desert Mob (Weaver & Lawton, 2010). This annual event originated in the early 1990s and is held in Alice Springs in September each year (Weaver & Lawton, 2010). It started out as a modest exhibition of regional indigenous art but has now expanded into a major regional three-day festival, featuring the exhibition, along with a marketplace, site for traditional songs and dances, and a symposium during which featured artists speak about their art and experiences as indigenous artists (Weaver & Lawton, 2010). The events success is largely attributable to its emphasis on “cultural authenticity, indigenous control, [and] the return of all profits to indigenous artists and communities” (Weaver & Lawton, 2010, p.241; Pearce, 2005; Liu, 2014). The event positively contributes to cultural capital by providing residents with the opportunity to experience and appreciate their history, that might otherwise die out due to modernisation and the globalisation of today’s society (Weaver & Lawton, 2010; Liu, 2013). Despite this success story, the issue of commodification commonly undermines the efforts of events to increase cultural capital. According to Weaver and Lawton (2010, p.242), commodification “occurs when the inherent qualities and meanings of cultural artefacts and performances become less important than the goal of earning revenue from their reproduction and sales.” Consequently, the onus is on event organisers to draw the line between capitalising on cultural events and exploiting them to the point of deterioration. Moreover, the capacity for events to facilitate intra- and inter-group engagement, provides a supportive environment for the development of cross-cultural understanding and appreciation (Weaver & Lawton, 2010; Pearce, 2005; Liu, 2014).

2.4 events and social capital

Events can positively contribute to social capital by providing an environment that fosters social interaction and social ties, which are conducive to increased quality of life (Greenberg, Gullotta, & Martin, 2016; Liu, 2016; Moscardo, 2007). According to Schulenkorf, Thomson and Shclenkler (2011, p.108), social capital refers to the “building of healthy communities through collective, mutually beneficial interactions and accomplishments, particularly those demonstrated through social and civic participation.” Studies have shown that events can also assist in rebuilding social relations by promoting dialogue, integration and peaceful understanding (Schulenkorf et al., 2011; Weaver & Lawton, 2010). This phenomenon was demonstrated by the first International Run for Peace which helped to build rapprochement between ethnic groups in Sri Lanka, that had engaged in civil war for over 25 years (Schulenkorf et al., 2011). Evaluation of the event found that it had positively contributed to social capital through the fostering of:

· Socialisation – which includes the provision of a fun, entertaining and inclusive environment that facilitates interaction and the sharing of experiences;

· Trust – which includes a rise in intercommunity confidence and belief among one another, comfort and perceived safety;

· Reciprocity and solidarity – which includes intergroup cooperation and the provision of physical and emotional support to one another; and

· Contact and networking – which includes the creation of friends, group networks and business relationships (Schulenkorf et al., 2011; Moscardo, 2007).

However, it is important to note that should the event have been rivalrous in nature, with a clear emphasis on winners and losers, than it is unlikely that the same positive outcomes would have occurred (Schulenkorf et al., 2011). In fact, these elements are capable of worsening already strained intergroup relationships, as they are known to increase anti-social behaviour, criminal activity, violence and arrests during sporting events (Schulenkorf et al., 2011). Overall a non-competitive environment allows for networking and relationship building, which can promote cross-cultural understanding and appreciation. Events facilitate direct experience with another, which enables the dispelling of stereotypes, and allows members of groups to perceive each other as individuals, and potentially as friends (Weaver & Lawton, 2010).

2.5 events and human capital

Events positively contribute to local human capital by providing opportunities for residents to enhance their competencies, skills and knowledge (Moscardo, Konovalov, Murphy, & McGehee, 2013; Schulenkorf, Thomson, & Shclenkler, 2011; Moscardo, 2007; Liu, 2016; Delgado, 2016). Human capital plays a significant role in destination community well-being as the combination of health, education and training of residents are directly related to a higher standard of living and quality of life (Liu, 2016; Winters, 2011). Destination residents can gain valuable professional knowledge by partaking in the planning, management and implementation of an event (Schulenkorf et al., 2011). During these different phases, individuals can develop a number of skills, such as effective communication and listening, problem-solving, time management, organisation, leadership and teamwork, which can be transferred to other aspects of their lives (Schulenkorf et al., 2011; Moscardo, 2007; Delgado, 2016). However, learning and development is not only restricted to generic skills or persons involved in the organisation of the event, but the knowledge gained can be far more extensive and realised by those participating and spectating (Schulenkorf et al., 2011; Delgado, 2016). For example, analysation of the positive outcomes of the International Run for Peace found that people developed greater cultural understanding of one another; expanded their cultural perspectives; and learnt that unity and harmony were possible, especially within a non-competitive leisure environment (Schulenkorf et al., 2011). They also acquired valuable social skills which ranged from the establishment of personal contacts and friendships, to links on an institutional level, involving the gaining of business contacts and professional networks (Schulenkorf et al., 2011). Overall, by opening community members up to a range of opportunities and experiences, events can enhance resident capabilities and positively contribute to human capital.

3.0 events and sustainable tourism

In order for events to positively impact on a community, they also need to be sustainable. Moscardo and Murphy’s (2014) concept of responsible tourism can be used as a checklist in event planning to ensure optimum outcomes for residents are realised. The following section will discuss how events can contribute to sustainable tourism through extending length of stay, enhancing the destination image and supporting existing tourism businesses.

Events extend length of stay by giving tourists a reason to stay (Weed, 2006). They augment the tourism product and act as a value-added experience. Initiatives such as the Rugby League Grand Final Week have been implemented to capitalise on the potential that complimentary events, in addition to the mega event, have to foster “extensioners” – a term given to tourists who extend their length of stay in a destination due to attending an event (Tourism and Transport Forum Australia, 2012; Kwaiatkowski, 2016). The Rugby League Grand Final Week not only encompasses the iconic grand final game, but also offers many activities and events that celebrate the premiership season such as the Dally M awards ceremony, the grand final footy show, community fan events, and the NRL community and player education awards ceremony (Tourism and Transport Forum Australia, 2012; National Rugby League, 2015). By extending length of stay, events increase tourist expenditure in the destination, thereby benefiting existing tourism businesses through creating a demand for their products and services.

The influx of visitors associated with hosting an event positively contribute to existing tourism businesses by creating a market for their products and services (Moscardo, 2007). Events act as the pull factor attracting people to a particular destination, and once they are in the destination, they spend money on accommodation, food, drinks, transport, retail, entertainment and other activities (Weaver & Lawton, 2010). However, this injection of direct revenue is only beneficial to the extent that monies are spent at locally-owned and operated businesses, who employ local people and source their resources locally (Weaver & Lawton, 2010). Beyond this, revenue leakage occurs, which is an indirect financial cost to tourism, entailing erosion of the income multiplier effect (Weaver & Lawton, 2010). Nonetheless, these existing tourism businesses are vital to events as they play a significant role in increasing destination image.

Destination image refers to “the sum of beliefs, ideas and impressions that people have of a place” (Mendes, Do Valle, & Guerreiro, 2011, p.368). When people attend an event they interact with a number of physical and social attributes of a destination (Pearce, 2005). These include facilities, settings, activities, services, hosts and management (Pearce, 2005). When people are satisfied with these offerings, which occurs when perceived performance meets or exceeds their expectations, destination image is enhanced and is likely to result in positive word-of-mouth and/or repeat visitation (Pearce, 2005).

4.0 synthesis and recommendations

Countless authors have outlined the benefits of public participation in tourism development (Moscardo, 2011). They talk about the success of events depending on community involvement in terms of organising, volunteering, participating and/or attending, and the positive outcomes of destination community well-being and sustainable tourism (Moscardo & Murphy, 2014). Although in theory this all sounds good and well, much literature has indicated the difficulties of its practical application (Hall, 2008). Moscardo (2007, p.25) states that the pre-requisites for tourism development include a community that has some understanding of tourism and its effects; has tourism leaders; and, has mechanisms to coordinate stakeholders and encourage community involvement in, and ownership of, tourism businesses and development. However, evidence has shown that many residents have little experience of tourism or tourists, and that community leaders tend to have a limited appreciation of the complexity of tourism. They are often unprepared for the costs, unable to make the most of the opportunities, are overly optimistic about the benefits, and poorly prepared to meet visitor expectations. Therefore, the first step to community participation in tourism development, is the establishment of tourism knowledge.

It is recommended that tourism education become a compulsory subject in primary schools. This will assist to enhance community understanding of tourism from a young age and hopefully result in the creation of highly educated and knowledgeable adults in the future. The need for a constant influx of young, creative, innovative and competent workers in the tourism industry, is necessary in order to address the perpetuating challenge of destination distinctiveness and competitiveness. The subject will incorporate a mixture of theory and practical components, which will be customised to the place of residence. If applied in Australia for example, the Department of Education and Training, in partnership with Tourism Australia, would be the primary stakeholders responsible for the implementation of the program. This is because they have the time, money, resources and power to effectively put the subject in place. They are also more likely to be supportive of the idea as they realise the importance of tourism as economic activity which promises greater prosperity and social and cultural progress to society as a whole. This initiative has been based off the Tourism Education program in Slovenian schools (Divjak, 2016).

5.0 references

Abebe, N., Bolton, M. T., Pavelka, M., & Perstorff, M. (2014). Bidding for development: How the Olympic bid process can accelerate transportation planning [PDF version]. Retrieved from http://download.springer.com.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/static/pdf/628/bok%253A978-1-4614-8912-2.pdf?originUrl=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4614-8912-2&token2=exp=1489982883~acl=%2Fstatic%2Fpdf%2F628%2Fbok%25253A978-1-4614-8912-2.pdf%3ForiginUrl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Flink.springer.com%252Fbook%252F10.1007%252F978-1-4614-8912-2*~hmac=0724773be13536bf3bd41044cc7d7fd0e8064e3fb18d6a1914421e101e639a42

Batten, D. F. (1991). Built capital, networks of infrastructure and economic development. Scandinavian Housing and Planning Research, 8(3), 171-179. doi:10.1080/02815739108730270

Delgado, M. (2016). Celebrating urban community life: Fairs, festivals, parades, and community practice [Google Books version]. doi: 10.3727/152599508783943255

Divjak, A. (2016). Tourism education in Slovenian primary schools. Quaestus, 9, 231-248. Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/docview/1806554029?accountid=16285

Eagles, P. F. J., & McCool, S. F. (2004). Tourism in nationl parks and protected areas: Planning and management [ProQuest EBook Central version]. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/lib/jcu/reader.action?docID=294754#

Gillespie, K. (2013). Work about more than getting ready for 2015 spotlight: TO2015 boss says job is to 'prime the pump' for potential future events, while creating useful infrastructure for city at reasonable cost. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/docview/1399134577/abstract/D40DB5F952BA4875PQ/1?accountid=16285

Greenberg, A. G., Gullotta, T. P., & Bloom, M. (2016). Social capital and community well-being. Chan, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

Hall, C. M. (2008). Tourism planning: Policies, processes and relationships (2nd ed.). Essex, England: Pearsons Education.

Kotabe, M., Marshall, A., Ang, S., Griffiths, K., Voola, R., Roberts, R., & Helsen, K. (2014). International marketing (4th ed.). Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Kwaiatkowski, G. (2016). Composition of event attendees: A comparison of three small-scale sporting events. International Journal of Sport Finance, 11(2), 163-180. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.elibrary.jcu.edu.au/docview/1836997270?pq-origsite=summon

Laing, J., & Frost, W. (2010). How green was my festival: Exploring challenges and opportunities associated with staging green events. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(2), 261–267. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2009.10.009

Liu, Y. (2013). Socio-cultural impacts of major event: Evidence from the 2008 European Capital of Culture, Liverpool. Social Indicators Research, 115(3), 983-998. doi:10.1007/s11205-013-0245-7

Liu, Y. (2014). Cultural events and cultural tourism development: Lessons from the European capitals of culture. European Planning Studies, 22(3), 498-514. doi:10.1080/09654313.2012.752442

Liu, Y. (2016). Event and quality of life: A case study of Liverpool as the 2008 European Capital of Culture. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 11(3), 707-721. doi:10.1007/s11482-015-9391-1

Mendes, J., Do Valle, P. O., & Guerreiro, M. (2011). Destination image and events: A structural model for the Algarve case. Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management, 20(3-4), 366-384. doi:10.1080/19368623.2011.562424

Moscardo, G. (2007). Analyzing the role of festivals and events in regional development. Event Management, 11(1-2), 23-32. doi:10.3727/152599508783943255

Moscardo, G. (2011). The role of knowledge in good governance for tourism. In Laws, E., Richins, H., Agrusa, J., & Scott, N. (Eds.), Tourist destination governance: practice, theory and issues (67-80). Wallingford, United Kingdom: CAB International.

Moscardo, G., & Laurie, M. (2014). There is no such thing as sustainable tourism: Re-conceptualizing tourism as a tool for sustainability. Sustainability, 6(5), 2538-2561. doi:10.3390/su6052538

Moscardo, G., Konovalov, E., Murphy, L., & McGehee, N. (2013). Mobilities, community well-being and sustainable tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(4), 532-556. doi:10.1080/09669582.2013.785556

National Rugby League. (2015). NRL grand final week: What's on. Retrieved from http://www.nrl.com/nrl-grand-final-week-whats-on/tabid/10874/newsid/89462/default.aspx

Nunkoo, R., & Smith, S. L. J. (2015). Tourist, tourism development and planning. Oxfordshire, England: Routledge

Pearce, P. L. (2005). Tourist behaviour: Themes and conceptual schemes. Clevedon, England: Channel View Publications.

Schulenkorf, N., Thomson, A., & Shclenkler, K. (2011). Intercommunity sports events: Vehicles and catalysts for social capital in divided societies. Event Management, 15, 105-119. doi:10.3727/152599511X13082349958316

Sirleaf, E. J. (2012, May). The importance of natural capital to development. Speech presented at the Summit for Sustainability in Africa, Gaborone, Botwswana.

Tourism and Transport Forum Australia. (2012). Sports tourism: Issues paper

WATERFRONToronto. (n.d.). west don lands. Retrieved from http://www.waterfrontoronto.ca/nbe/portal/waterfront/Home/waterfronthome/precincts/west-don-lands

Weaver, D., & Lawton, L. (2010). Tourism management (4th ed.). Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Weed, M. (2006). Sports tourism and the development of sports events. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242519882_Sports_Tourism_and_the_Development_of_Sports_Events

Winters, J. V. (2011). Human capital, higher education institutions, and quality of life. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 41(5), 446-454. doi:10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2011.03.001

Yfantidou, G., & Matarazzo, M. (2016). The future of sustainable tourism in developing countries. Sustainable Development. doi:10.1002/sd.1655