Scholarly Article Review-APA

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Everything you need to succeed… in class, in clinical, on exams and on the NCLEX®

YOUR GUIDE TO

Psychiatric Mental Health NursingLE

A R

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STEP #1 Build a solid foundation.

Movie Connections list films that demonstrate the conditions and behaviors you may not encounter in clinical.

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C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 59

One of the Quality and Safety in Nursing Educa- tion (QSEN) criteria identified by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) (2003) stresses that the patient

must be at the center of decisions about treatment (patient-centered care), and this type of assessment tool provides an opportunity to actively engage the patient in describing what medications have been effective or inef- fective and identifying side effects that may impact will- ingness to adhere to a medication regimen.

Antianxiety Agents Background Assessment Data Indications Antianxiety drugs are also called anxiolytics and his- torically were referred to as minor tranquilizers. They are used in the treatment of anxiety disorders, anxiety symptoms, acute alcohol withdrawal, skeletal muscle spasms, convulsive disorders, status epilepticus, and preoperative sedation. They are most appropriate for

BOX 4-1 Medication Assessment Tool

Date __________________________ Client’s Name __________________________________ Age ______________________ Marital Status ____________________ Children __________________________ Occupation ___________________________ Presenting Symptoms (subjective & objective) _______________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ Diagnosis (DSM-5) _____________________________________________________________________________________ Current Vital Signs: Blood Pressure: Sitting ________/________ ; Standing __________/__________; Pulse____________ ; Respirations ____________ Height ___________________ Weight _______________________

CURRENT/PAST USE OF PRESCRIPTION DRUGS (Indicate with “c” or “p” beside name of drug whether current or past use):

Name Dosage How Long Used Why Prescribed By Whom Side Effects/Results ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________ ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________ ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________

Name Dosage How Long Used Why Prescribed By Whom Side Effects/Results ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________ ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________ ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________

CURRENT/PAST USE OF STREET DRUGS, ALCOHOL, NICOTINE, AND/OR CAFFEINE (Indicate with “c” or “p” beside name of drug): Name Amount Used How Often Used When Last Used Effects Produced _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ ______________________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ ______________________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ ______________________

Any allergies to food or drugs?____________________________________________________________________________

Any special diet considerations?___________________________________________________________________________

TA B L E 4 – 2 Effects of Psychotropic Medications on Neurotransmitters—cont’d ACTION ON NEUROTRANSMITTER

EXAMPLE OF MEDICATION AND/OR RECEPTOR DESIRED EFFECTS SIDE EFFECTS

5-HT1A agonist D2 agonist D2 antagonist

Relieves anxiety Nausea, headache, dizziness Restlessness

Antianxiety: buspirone

5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin); ACh, acetylcholine; ADHD, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder; BZ, benzodiazepine; D, dopamine; EPS, extrapyramidal symptoms; GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid; H, histamine; MAO, monoamine oxidase; MAO-A, monoamine oxidase A; MAOI, monoamine oxidase inhibitor; NE, norepinephrine; SNRI, serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.

AU: Ok to add here?

Continued

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Therapeutic Communication Icon identifies helpful interventions and guidance on how to speak with your patients. Look for this icon in Care Plan sections.

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ASSESSING ASS

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STEP #3 Study smarter, not harder.

Davis Edge is the interactive, online Q&A review platform that provides the practice you need to master course content and to improve your scores on classroom exams. Access it from a laptop, tablet, or mobile device for review and study on the go.

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Comprehensive rationales explain why your responses are correct or incorrect. Page-specific references direct you to the relevant content in Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing.

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Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing: Concepts of Care in Evidence-Based Practice

NINTH EDITION

Mary C. Townsend, DSN, PMHCNS-BC Clinical Specialist/Nurse Consultant Adult Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing

Former Assistant Professor and Coordinator, Mental Health Nursing Kramer School of Nursing Oklahoma City University Oklahoma City, Oklahoma

Karyn I. Morgan, RN, MSN, CNS Psychiatric Clinical Nurse Specialist Professor of Instruction, Mental Health Nursing The University of Akron Akron, OH

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F. A. Davis Company 1915 Arch Street Philadelphia, PA 19103 www.fadavis.com

Copyright © 2018 by F. A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2018 by F. A. Davis Company. All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Senior Acquisitions Editor: Susan R. Rhyner Content Project Manager II: Amy M. Romano Electronic Project Editor: Samantha Olin Cover Design: Carolyn O’Brien

As new scientific information becomes available through basic and clinical research, recommended treatments and drug therapies undergo changes. The author(s) and publisher have done everything possible to make this book accurate, up to date, and in accord with accepted standards at the time of publication. The author(s), editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from application of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of the book. Any practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in accordance with professional standards of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation. The reader is advised always to check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding dose and contraindications before administering any drug. Caution is especially urged when using new or infrequently ordered drugs.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014944300 ISBN: 978-0-8036-6054-0

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Townsend, Mary C., 1941- author. | Morgan, Karyn I., author. Title: Psychiatric mental health nursing : concepts of care in evidence-based

practice / Mary C. Townsend, Karyn I. Morgan. Description: Ninth edition. | Philadelphia, PA : F. A. Davis Company, [2018]

| Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017009564| ISBN 9780803660540 | ISBN 0803660545 Subjects: | MESH: Psychiatric Nursing—methods | Mental Disorders—nursing |

Evidence-Based Nursing Classification: LCC RC440 | NLM WY 160 | DDC 616.89/0231—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017009564

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THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO:

FRANCIE

God made sisters for sharing laughter

and wiping tears

–Mary Townsend

To my friend and mentor, Chaplain (Colonel) Thomas W. Elsey

He was dearly loved and will be deeply missed

October 26, 1942–November 10, 2015

–Karyn Morgan

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Theresa Aldelman Bradley University Peoria, Illinois

Fredrick Astle University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina

Carol Backstedt Baton Rouge Community College Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Elizabeth Bailey Clinton Community College Pittsburgh, New York

Sheryl Banak Baptist Health Schools – Little Rock Little Rock, Arkansas

Joy A. Barham Northwestern State University Shreveport, Louisiana

Barbara Barry Cape Fear Community College Wilmington, North Carolina

Carole Bomba Harper College Palatine, Illinois

Judy Bourrand Samford University Birmingham, Alabama

Susan Bowles Barton Community College Great Bend, Kansas

Wayne Boyer College of the Desert Palm Desert, California

Joyce Briggs Ivy Tech Community College Columbus, Indiana

Toni Bromley Rogue Community College Grants Pass, Oregon

Terrall Bryan North Carolina A & T State University Greensboro, North Carolina

Ruth Burkhart New Mexico State University/Dona Ana Community

College Las Cruces, New Mexico

Annette Cannon Platt College Aurora, Colorado

Deena Collins Huron School of Nursing Cleveland, Ohio

Martha Colvin Georgia College & State University Milledgeville, Georgia

Mary Jean Croft St. Joseph School of Nursing Providence, Rhode Island

Connie Cupples Union University Germantown, Tennessee

Karen Curlis State University of New York Adirondack Queensbury, New York

Nancy Cyr North Georgia College and State University Dahlonega, Georgia

Carol Danner Baptist Health Schools Little Rock – School of Nursing Little Rock, Arkansas

Carolyn DeCicco Our Lady of Lourdes School of Nursing Camden, New Jersey

Leona Dempsey, PhD, APNP (ret.), PMHCS-BC University of Wisconsin Oshkosh Oshkosh, Wisconsin

Debra J. DeVoe Our Lady of Lourdes School of Nursing Camden, New Jersey

Victoria T. Durkee, PhD, APRN University of Louisiana at Monroe Monroe, Louisiana

J. Carol Elliott St. Anselm College Fairfield, California

viii

Reviewers

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Reviewers ix

Sandra Farmer Capital University Columbus, Ohio

Patricia Freed Saint Louis University St. Louis, Missouri

Diane Gardner University of West Florida Pensacola, Florida

Maureen Gaynor Saint Anselm College Manchester, New Hampshire

Denise Glenore West Coast University Riverside, California

Sheilia R. Goodwin Winston Salem State University Salem, North Carolina

Janine Graf-Kirk Trinitas School of Nursing Elizabeth, New Jersey

Susan B. Grubbs Francis Marion University Florence, South Carolina

Elizabeth Gulledge Jacksonville State University Jacksonville, Alabama

Kim Gurcan Columbus Practical School of Nursing Columbus, Ohio

Patricia Jean Hedrick Young Washington Hospital School of Nursing Washington, Pennsylvania

Melinda Hermanns University of Texas at Tyler Tyler, Texas

Alison Hewig Victoria College Victoria, Texas

Cheryl Hilgenberg Millikin University Decatur, Illinois

Lori Hill Gadsden State Community College Gadsden, Alabama

Ruby Houldson Illinois Eastern Community College Olney, Illinois

Eleanor J. Jefferson Community College of Denver Platt College Metropolitan St. College Denver, Colorado

Dana Johnson Mesa State College/Grand Junction Regional Center Grand Junction, Colorado

Janet Johnson Fort Berthold Community College New Town, North Dakota

Nancy Kostin Madonna University Livonia, Michigan

Linda Lamberson University of Southern Maine Portland, Maine

Irene Lang Bristol Community College Fall River, Massachusetts

Rhonda Lansdell Northeast MS Community College Baldwyn, Mississippi

Jacqueline Leonard Franciscan University of Steubenville Steubenville, Ohio

Judith Lynch-Sauer University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan

Glenna Mahoney University of Saint Mary Leavenworth, Kansas

Jacqueline Mangnall Jamestown College Jamestown, North Dakota

Lori A. Manilla Hagerstown Community College Hagerstown, Maryland

Patricia Martin West Kentucky Community and Technical College Paducah, Kentucky

Christine Massey Barton College Wilson, North Carolina

Joanne Matthews University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky

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Joanne McClave Wayne Community College Goldsboro, North Carolina

Mary McClay Walla Walla University Portland, Oregon

Susan McCormick Brazosport College Lake Jackson, Texas

Shawn McGill Clovis Community College Clovis, New Mexico

Margaret McIlwain Gordon College Barnesville, Georgia

Nancy Miller Minneapolis Community and Technical College Minneapolis, Minnesota

Vanessa Miller California State University Fullerton Fullerton, California

Mary Mitsui Emporia State University Emporia, Kansas

Cheryl Moreland, MS, RN Western Nevada College Carson City, Nevada

Daniel Nanguang El Paso Community College El Paso, Texas

Susan Newfield West Virginia University Morgantown, West Virginia

Dorothy Oakley Jamestown Community College Olean, New York

Christie Obritsch University of Mary Bismarck, North Dakota

Sharon Opsahl Western Technical College La Crosse, Wisconsin

Vicki Paris Jackson State Community College Jackson, Tennessee

Lillian Parker Clayton State University Morrow, Georgia

JoAnne M. Pearce, MS, RN Idaho State University Pocatello, Idaho

Karen Peterson DeSales University Center Valley, Pennsylvania

Carol Pool South Texas College McAllen, Texas

William S. Pope Barton College Wilson, North Carolina

Karen Pounds Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts

Konnie Prince Victoria College Victoria, Texas

Cheryl Puntil Hawaii Community College Hilo, Hawaii

Larry Purnell University of Delaware Newark, Delaware

Susan Reeves Tennessee Technological University Cookeville, Tennessee

Debra Riendeau Saint Joseph’s College of Maine Lewiston, Maine

Sharon Romer South Texas College McAllen, Texas

Lisa Romero Solano Community College Fairfield, California

Donna S. Sachse Union University Germantown, Tennessee

Betty Salas Otero Junior College La Junta, Colorado

Sheryl Samuelson, PhD, RN Millikin University Decatur, Illinois

John D. Schaeffer San Joaquin Delta College Stockton, California

x Reviewers

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Reviewers xi

Mindy Schaffner Pacific Lutheran University Tacoma, Washington

Becky Scott Mercy College of Northwest Ohio Toledo, Ohio

Janie Shaw Clayton State University Morrow, Georgia

Lori Shaw Nebraska Methodist College Omaha, Nebraska

Joyce Shea Fairfield University Fairfield, Connecticut

Judith Shindul-Rothschild Boston College Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts

Audrey Silveri UMass Worcester Graduate School of Nursing Worcester, Massachusetts

Brenda Smith, MSN, RN North Georgia College and State University Dahlonega, Georgia

Janet Somlyay University of Wyoming Laramie, Wyoming

Charlotte Strahm, DNSc, RN, CNS-PMH Purdue North Central Westville, Indiana

Jo Sullivan Centralia College Centralia, Washington

Kathleen Sullivan Boise State University Boise, Idaho

Judy Traynor Jefferson Community College Watertown, New York

Claudia Turner Temple College Temple, Texas

Suzanne C. Urban Mansfield University Mansfield, Pennsylvania

Dorothy Varchol Cincinnati State Cincinnati, Ohio

Connie M. Wallace Nebraska Methodist College Omaha, Nebraska

Sandra Wardell Orange County Community College Middletown, New York

Susan Warmuskerken West Shore Community College Scottville, Michigan

Roberta Weseman East Central College Union, Missouri

Margaret A. Wheatley Case Western Reserve University, FPB School

of Nursing Cleveland, Ohio

Jeana Wilcox Graceland University Independence, Missouri

Jackie E. Williams Georgia Perimeter College Clarkston, Georgia

Rita L. Williams, MSN, RN, CCM Langston University School of Nursing & Health

Professions Langston, Oklahoma

Rodney A. White Lewis and Clark Community College Godfrey, Illinois

Vita Wolinsky Dominican College Orangeburg, New York

Marguerite Wordell Kentucky State University Frankfort, Kentucky

Jan Zlotnick City College of San Francisco San Francisco, California

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xii

Acknowledgments

Amy M. Romano, Content Project Manager, Nursing, F.A. Davis Company, for all your help and support in preparing the manuscript for publication.

Sharon Y. Lee, Production Editor, for your support and competence in the final editing and production of the manuscript.

The nursing educators, students, and clinicians, who provide critical information about the usability of the textbook and offer suggestions for improvements. Many changes have been made on the basis of your input.

To those individuals who critiqued the manuscript for this edition and shared your ideas, opinions, and sug- gestions for enhancement. I sincerely appreciate your contributions to the final product.

My husband, Jim, and children and grandchildren, Kerry and Ryan, Tina and Jonathan, Meghan, Matthew, and Catherine for showing me what life is truly all about.

Mary C. Townsend

First of all, sincere thanks to Mary Townsend for hav- ing the confidence in me to be included in authoring this exceptional text. I have the utmost respect for what you have created and for your foresight in rec- ognizing the most relevant issues in the changing face of psychiatric mental health nursing care.

My thanks also to Susan Rhyner for the encourage- ment, humor, and passion that have made this work enjoyable. Thanks to Amy Romano, Andrea Miller, and Christine Becker for your expertise and accessi- bility in preparing the manuscript. I, too, appreciate all the reviewers who have offered feedback and their unique expertise. Thanks to Jennifer Feldman, MLIS, AHIP, for sharing your skills and research assistance. I have learned just how true it is that it “takes a village” and I am grateful for each of you.

Special thanks to Erin Barnard, Alan Brunner, Fred Frese, Emmy Strong, and the others who coura- geously allowed their stories to be told. Your contri- butions to student learning and to breaking down the barriers of stigmatization are immeasurable.

I appreciate each of you more than I can say.

Karyn I. Morgan

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xiii

Contents

UNIT 1 Basic Concepts in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 1

Chapter 1 The Concept of Stress Adaptation 2 Objectives 2 Homework Assignment 2 Stress as a Biological Response 3 Stress as an Environmental Event 5 Stress as a Transaction Between the

Individual and the Environment 7 Stress Management 8 Summary and Key Points 9 Review Questions 10

Chapter 2 Mental Health and Mental Illness: Historical and Theoretical Concepts 12 Objectives 12 Homework Assignment 12 Historical Overview of Psychiatric Care 13 Mental Health 14 Mental Illness 15 Psychological Adaptation to Stress 16 Mental Health/Mental Illness

Continuum 22 Summary and Key Points 23 Review Questions 23

UNIT 2 Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 27

Chapter 3 Concepts of Psychobiology 28 Objectives 28 Homework Assignment 28 The Nervous System: An Anatomical

Review 29 Neuroendocrinology 39 Genetics 45 Psychoneuroimmunology 48 Psychopharmacology and the Brain 49 Implications for Nursing 49 Summary and Key Points 50 Review Questions 51

Chapter 4 Psychopharmacology 54 Objectives 54 Homework Assignment 54 Historical Perspectives 55 The Role of the Nurse in

Psychopharmacology 55 How Do Psychotropics Work? 57 Applying the Nursing Process in

Psychopharmacological Therapy 57

Summary and Key Points 82 Review Questions 83

Chapter 5 Ethical and Legal Issues 86 Objectives 86 Homework Assignment 86 Ethical Considerations 88 Legal Considerations 92 Summary and Key Points 101 Review Questions 102

Chapter 6 Cultural and Spiritual Concepts Relevant to Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 105 Objectives 105 Homework Assignment 105 Cultural Concepts 106 How Do Cultures Differ? 106 Application of the Nursing Process 108 Spiritual Concepts 120 Addressing Spiritual and Religious Needs

Through the Nursing Process 123 Summary and Key Points 128 Review Questions 129

UNIT 3 Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care 133

Chapter 7 Relationship Development 134 Objectives 134 Homework Assignment 134 Role of the Psychiatric Nurse 135 Dynamics of a Therapeutic Nurse-Client

Relationship 136 Conditions Essential to Development

of a Therapeutic Relationship 139 Phases of a Therapeutic Nurse-Client

Relationship 141 Boundaries in the Nurse-Client

Relationship 143 Summary and Key Points 144 Review Questions 145

Chapter 8 Therapeutic Communication 147 Objectives 147 Homework Assignment 147 What Is Communication? 148 The Impact of Preexisting Conditions 148 Nonverbal Communication 150 Therapeutic Communication Techniques 152 Nontherapeutic Communication Techniques 154 Active Listening 154 Motivational Interviewing 156 Process Recordings 157 Feedback 160

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Summary and Key Points 160 Review Questions 161

Chapter 9 The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 164 Objectives 164 Homework Assignment 164 The Nursing Process 165 Why Nursing Diagnosis? 175 Nursing Case Management 176 Applying the Nursing Process in

the Psychiatric Setting 178 Concept Mapping 179 Documentation of the Nursing Process 179 Summary and Key Points 185 Review Questions 185

Chapter 10 Therapeutic Groups 188 Objectives 188 Homework Assignment 188 Functions of a Group 189 Types of Groups 189 Physical Conditions That Influence Group

Dynamics 190 Therapeutic Factors 191 Phases of Group Development 191 Leadership Styles 192 Member Roles 193 Psychodrama 193 The Role of the Nurse in Therapeutic Groups 194 Summary and Key Points 195 Review Questions 196

Chapter 11 Intervention With Families 199 Objectives 199 Homework Assignment 199 Stages of Family Development 200 Major Variations 202 Family Functioning 204 Therapeutic Modalities With Families 208 The Nursing Process—A Case Study 214 Summary and Key Points 219 Review Questions 220

Chapter 12 Milieu Therapy—The Therapeutic Community 223 Objectives 223 Homework Assignment 223 Milieu, Defined 224 Current Status of the Therapeutic

Community 224 Basic Assumptions 224 Conditions That Promote a Therapeutic

Community 225 The Program of Therapeutic Community 226 The Role of the Nurse in Milieu Therapy 229 Summary and Key Points 230 Review Questions 231

Chapter 13 Crisis Intervention 234 Objectives 234 Homework Assignment 234 Characteristics of a Crisis 235 Phases in the Development of a Crisis 235 Types of Crises 237 Crisis Intervention 239

Phases of Crisis Intervention: The Role of the Nurse 239

Disaster Nursing 241 Application of the Nursing Process to

Disaster Nursing 242 Summary and Key Points 249 Review Questions 250

Chapter 14 Assertiveness Training 253 Objectives 253 Homework Assignment 253 Assertive Communication 254 Basic Human Rights 254 Response Patterns 254 Behavioral Components of Assertive

Behavior 256 Techniques That Promote Assertive

Behavior 257 Thought-Stopping Techniques 258 Role of the Nurse in Assertiveness

Training 259 Summary and Key Points 262 Review Questions 263

Chapter 15 Promoting Self-Esteem 266 Objectives 266 Homework Assignment 266 Components of Self-Concept 267 Development of Self-Esteem 268 Manifestations of Low Self-Esteem 270 Boundaries 271 The Nursing Process 273 Summary and Key Points 277 Review Questions 277

Chapter 16 Anger and Aggression Management 280 Objectives 280 Homework Assignment 280 Anger and Aggression, Defined 281 Predisposing Factors to Anger and

Aggression 281 The Nursing Process 283 Summary and Key Points 289 Review Questions 290

Chapter 17 Suicide Prevention 293 Objectives 293 Homework Assignment 293 Historical Perspectives 294 Epidemiological Factors 294 Risk Factors 296 Predisposing Factors: Theories of Suicide 298 Application of the Nursing Process

With the Suicidal Client 299 Summary and Key Points 312 Review Questions 313

Chapter 18 Behavior Therapy 318 Objectives 318 Homework Assignment 318 Classical Conditioning 319 Operant Conditioning 320 Techniques for Modifying Client Behavior 320 Role of the Nurse in Behavior Therapy 322 Summary and Key Points 324 Review Questions 325

xiv Contents

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Chapter 19 Cognitive Therapy 327 Objectives 327 Homework Assignment 327 Historical Background 328 Indications for Cognitive Therapy 328 Goals and Principles of Cognitive Therapy 328 Basic Concepts 329 Techniques of Cognitive Therapy 331 Role of the Nurse in Cognitive Therapy 333 Summary and Key Points 336 Review Questions 337

Chapter 20 Electroconvulsive Therapy 340 Objectives 340 Homework Assignment 340 Electroconvulsive Therapy, Defined 341 Historical Perspectives 341 Indications 342 Contraindications 342 Mechanism of Action 343 Side Effects 343 Risks Associated With Electroconvulsive

Therapy 343 The Role of the Nurse in Electroconvulsive

Therapy 344 Summary and Key Points 346 Review Questions 347

Chapter 21 The Recovery Model 350 Objectives 350 Homework Assignment 350 What Is Recovery? 351 Guiding Principles of Recovery 351 Models of Recovery 353 Nursing Interventions That Assist

With Recovery 359 Summary and Key Points 360 Review Questions 361

UNIT 4 Nursing Care of Clients With Alterations in Psychosocial Adaptation 363

Chapter 22 Neurocognitive Disorders 364 Objectives 364 Homework Assignment 364 Delirium 365 Neurocognitive Disorder 366 Application of the Nursing Process 374 Medical Treatment Modalities 386 Summary and Key Points 393 Review Questions 394

Chapter 23 Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders 399 Objectives 399 Homework Assignment 400 Substance Use Disorder, Defined 400 Substance-Induced Disorders, Defined 401 Predisposing Factors to Substance-

Related Disorders 401 The Dynamics of Substance-Related

Disorders 403 Application of the Nursing Process 425

The Chemically Impaired Nurse 440 Codependency 441 Treatment Modalities for Substance-Related

Disorders 442 Non-Substance Addictions 447 Summary and Key Points 450 Review Questions 451

Chapter 24 Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders 456 Objectives 456 Homework Assignment 456 Nature of the Disorder 457 Predisposing Factors 458 Other Schizophrenia Spectrum

and Psychotic Disorders 463 Application of the Nursing Process 467 Treatment Modalities for Schizophrenia

and Other Psychotic Disorders 479 Summary and Key Points 488 Review Questions 489

Chapter 25 Depressive Disorders 494 Objectives 494 Homework Assignment 494 Historical Perspective 495 Epidemiology 495 Types of Depressive Disorders 497 Predisposing Factors 500 Developmental Implications 504 Application of the Nursing Process 509 Treatment Modalities for Depression 519 Summary and Key Points 527 Review Questions 527

Chapter 26 Bipolar and Related Disorders 533 Objectives 533 Homework Assignment 533 Historical Perspective 534 Epidemiology 534 Types of Bipolar Disorders 534 Predisposing Factors 537 Developmental Implications 538 Application of the Nursing Process

to Bipolar Disorder (Mania) 540 Treatment Modalities for Bipolar

Disorder (Mania) 547 Summary and Key Points 555 Review Questions 555

Chapter 27 Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive, and Related Disorders 559 Objectives 559 Homework Assignment 559 Historical Aspects 560 Epidemiological Statistics 560 How Much Is Too Much? 562 Application of the Nursing Process—

Assessment 562 Diagnosis and Outcome Identification 571 Planning and Implementation 574 Evaluation 578 Treatment Modalities 580 Summary and Key Points 586 Review Questions 587

Contents xv

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Chapter 28 Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders 591 Objectives 591 Homework Assignment 591 Historical and Epidemiological Data 592 Application of the Nursing Process—

Trauma-Related Disorders 592 Application of the Nursing Process—

Stressor-Related Disorders 600 Treatment Modalities 606 Summary and Key Points 610 Review Questions 611

Chapter 29 Somatic Symptom and Dissociative Disorders 614 Objectives 614 Homework Assignment 614 Historical Aspects 615 Epidemiological Statistics 616 Application of the Nursing Process 616 Treatment Modalities 632 Summary and Key Points 637 Review Questions 638

Chapter 30 Issues Related to Human Sexuality and Gender Dysphoria 641 Objectives 641 Homework Assignment 641 Development of Human Sexuality 642 Variations in Sexual Orientation 644 Gender Dysphoria 646 Application of the Nursing Process

to Gender Dysphoria in Children 647 Gender Dysphoria in Adolescents

and Adults 650 Sexual Disorders 652 Application of the Nursing Process

to Sexual Disorders 659 Summary and Key Points 668 Review Questions 668

Chapter 31 Eating Disorders 673 Objectives 673 Homework Assignment 673 Epidemiological Factors 674 Application of the Nursing Process 676 Treatment Modalities 690 Summary and Key Points 693 Review Questions 693

Chapter 32 Personality Disorders 697 Objectives 697 Homework Assignment 697 Historical Aspects 699 Types of Personality Disorders 700 Application of the Nursing Process 707 Treatment Modalities 721 Summary and Key Points 725 Review Questions 726

UNIT 5 Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing of Special Populations 731

Chapter 33 Children and Adolescents 732 Objectives 732 Homework Assignment 732 Neurodevelopmental Disorders 733 Disruptive Behavior Disorders 754 Anxiety Disorders 763 Quality and Safety Education for

Nurses (QSEN) 765 General Therapeutic Approaches 767 Summary and Key Points 768 Review Questions 769

Chapter 34 The Aging Individual 773 Objectives 773 Homework Assignment 773 How Old is Old? 774 Epidemiological Statistics 775 Theories of Aging 776 The Normal Aging Process 779 Special Concerns of the Elderly Population 785 Application of the Nursing Process 791 Summary and Key Points 798 Review Questions 801

Chapter 35 Survivors of Abuse or Neglect 806 Objectives 806 Homework Assignment 806 Predisposing Factors 807 Application of the Nursing Process 809 Treatment Modalities 822 Summary and Key Points 824 Review Questions 825

Chapter 36 Community Mental Health Nursing 831 Objectives 831 Homework Assignment 831 The Changing Focus of Care 832 The Public Health Model 833 The Community as Client 834 Summary and Key Points 858 Review Questions 858

Chapter 37 The Bereaved Individual 862 Objectives 862 Homework Assignment 862 Theoretical Perspectives on Loss and

Bereavement 863 Length of the Grief Response 867 Anticipatory Grief 867 Maladaptive Responses to Loss 868 Application of the Nursing Process 869 Additional Assistance 875 Summary and Key Points 878 Review Questions 879

xvi Contents

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Chapter 38 Military Families 883 Objectives 883 Homework Assignment 883 Historical Aspects 884 Epidemiological Statistics 884 Application of the Nursing Process 884 Treatment Modalities 894 Summary and Key Points 897 Review Questions 898

Appendix A Answers to Chapter Review Questions Appendix-1

Appendix B Examples of Answers to Communication Exercises Appendix-3

Appendix C Mental Status Assessment Appendix-6 Appendix D DSM-5 Classification: Categories

and Codes Appendix-10

Appendix E Assigning NANDA International Nursing Diagnoses to Client Behaviors Appendix-26

Glossary Glossary-1 Index Index-1

Ebook Bonus Chapters

Chapter 39 Complementary and Psychosocial Therapies 903

Chapter 40 Relaxation Therapy 929 Chapter 41 Theoretical Models of Personality

Development 940 Chapter 42 Forensic Nursing 959

Contents xvii

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Currently in progress, implementation of the recom- mendations set forth by the New Freedom Commis- sion on Mental Health has given enhanced priority to mental health care in the United States. Moreover, at the 65th meeting of the World Health Assembly (WHA) in May 2012, India, Switzerland, and the United States cosponsored a resolution requesting that the World Health Organization, in collaboration with member countries, develop a global mental health action plan. This resolution was passed at the 66th WHA in May 2013. By their support of this res- olution, member countries have expressed their commitment for “promotion of mental health, pre- vention of mental disorders, and early identification, care, support, treatment, and recovery of persons with mental disorders.” With the passage of this res- olution, mental health services may now be available for millions who have been without this type of care. More recently, national initiatives have sought to address the growing crises of deaths related to sui- cide and opiate overdoses. Mental health and mental illness continue to gain attention globally in the wake of these and other critical issues but much still needs to be done to reduce stigmatization and premature loss of life in this population.

Many nurse leaders see this period of mental health- care reform as an opportunity for nurses to expand their roles and assume key positions in education, pre- vention, assessment, and referral. Nurses are, and will continue to be, in key positions to assist individuals to attain, maintain, or regain optimal emotional wellness.

As it has been with each new edition of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing: Concepts of Care in Evidence-Based Nursing, the goal of this ninth edition is to bring to prac- ticing nurses and nursing students the most up-to-date information related to neurobiology, psychopharmacol- ogy, and evidence-based nursing interventions. This edi- tion includes changes associated with the latest( fifth) edition of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diag- nostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).

Content and Features New to the Ninth Edition

All content has been updated to reflect the current state of the discipline of nursing.

All nursing diagnoses are current with the NANDA-I 2015–2017 Nursing Diagnoses Definitions and Classifications.

Communication Exercises are included in Chapters 13, Crisis Intervention; 17, Suicide Prevention; 21, The Recovery Model; 22, Neurocognitive Disorders; 23, Sub- stance Use and Addictive Disorders; 24, Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders; 25, Depres- sive Disorders; 26, Bipolar and Related Disorders; 27, Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive, and Related Disor- ders; 30, Issues Related to Human Sexuality; 31, Eating Disorders; 32, Personality Disorders; 35, Survivors of Abuse or Neglect; and 37, The Bereaved Individual. These exercises portray clinical scenarios that allow the student to practice communication skills with clients. Examples of answers appear in an appendix at the back of the book.

A new feature, “Real People, Real Stories,” in- cludes interviews conducted by one of the authors, Karyn Morgan, in which individuals discuss their experience of living with a mental illness and their thoughts on important information for nurses to know. These discussions can be used with students to explore communication issues and interventions to combat stigmatization and to build empathy through understanding individuals’ unique experi- ences. “Real People, Real Stories” interviews are in Chapters 8, Therapeutic Communication; 17, Sui- cide Prevention; 23, Substance Use and Addictive Disorders; 24, Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders; 25, Depressive Disorders; 30, Issues Related to Human Sexuality and Gender Dysphoria; and 38, Military Families.

New QSEN icons (in addition to the existing QSEN Teaching Strategy boxes) have been added selectively throughout chapters to highlight content that reflects application of one or more of the six QSEN compe- tencies (patient-centered care, evidence-based prac- tice, teamwork and collaboration, maintaining safety, quality improvement, and informatics).

Chapter 4, Psychopharmacology, has been moved from DavisPlus to the textbook. While each class of psychoactive substances is discussed in this chapter, lists of commonly used agents have been retained in the chapters that discuss specific disorders. For exam- ple, a list of commonly used antipsychotic agents (along with dosage ranges, half-life, and pregnancy categories) appears in Chapter 24, Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders. These lists also appear online at DavisPlus.

New content on motivational interviewing appears in Chapters 8 and 23.

xviii

To the Instructor

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To the Instructor xix

New content describing the concept of emotional intelligence is included in Chapter 14, Assertiveness Training.

New content on RAISE (Recovery After an Initial Schizophrenia Episode), based on the NIMH initia- tive is included in Chapter 24.

New content on gender dysphoria and transgender issues appears in Chapter 21.

Updated and new psychotropic drugs approved since the publication of the eighth edition are included in the specific diagnostic chapters to which they apply.

Features That Have Been Retained in the Ninth Edition

The concept of holistic nursing is retained in the ninth edition. An attempt has been made to ensure that the physical aspects of psychiatric-mental health nursing are not overlooked. In all relevant situations, the mind/body connection is addressed.

Nursing process is retained in the ninth edition as the tool for delivery of care to the individual with a psy- chiatric disorder or to assist in the primary prevention or exacerbation of mental illness symptoms. The six steps of the nursing process, as described in the American Nurses Association Standards of Clinical Nurs- ing Practice, are used to provide guidelines for the nurse. These standards of care are included for the DSM-5 diagnoses, as well as those on the aging individual, the bereaved individual, survivors of abuse and neglect, and military families, and as examples in several of the ther- apeutic approaches. The six steps include:

Assessment: Background assessment data, including a description of symptomatology, provides an ex- tensive knowledge base from which the nurse may draw when performing an assessment. Several assessment tools are also included.

Diagnosis: Nursing diagnoses common to specific psychiatric disorders are derived from analysis of assessment data.

Outcome Identification: Outcomes are derived from the nursing diagnoses and stated as measurable goals.

Planning: A plan of care is presented with selected nursing diagnoses for the DSM-5 diagnoses, as well as for the elderly client, the bereaved individual, victims of abuse and neglect, military veterans and their families, the elderly homebound client, and the primary caregiver of the client with a chronic mental illness. The planning standard also includes tables that list topics for educating clients and fam- ilies about mental illness. Concept map care plans are included for all major psychiatric diagnoses.

Implementation: The interventions that have been identified in the plan of care are included along with

rationales for each. Case studies at the end of each DSM-5 chapter assist the student in the practical application of theoretical material. Also included as a part of this particular standard is Unit 3, Therapeu- tic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care. This section of the textbook addresses psychiatric nursing intervention in depth and frequently speaks to the differentiation in scope of practice between the basic- level psychiatric nurse and the advanced practice– level psychiatric nurse.

Evaluation: The evaluation standard includes a set of questions that the nurse may use to assess whether the nursing actions have been successful in achiev- ing the objectives of care.

Following are additional features of this ninth edition:

■ Internet references for each DSM-5 diagnosis, with website listings for information related to the disorder.

■ Tables that list topics for client/family education (in the clinical chapters).

■ Boxes that include current research studies with implications for evidence-based nursing practice (in the clinical chapters).

■ Assigning nursing diagnoses to client behaviors (diagnostic chapters).

■ Taxonomy and diagnostic criteria from the DSM-5 (2013). Used throughout the text.

■ All references have been updated throughout the text. Classical references are distinguished from general references.

■ Boxes with definitions of core concepts appear throughout the text.

■ Comprehensive glossary. ■ Answers to end-of-chapter review questions

(Appendix A). ■ Answers to communication exercises (Appendix B). ■ Sample client teaching guides (online at www

.davisplus.com). ■ Website. An F.A. Davis/Townsend website that con-

tains additional nursing care plans that do not ap- pear in the text, links to psychotropic medications, concept map care plans, and neurobiological con- tent and illustrations, as well as student resources including practice test questions, learning activities, concept map care plans, and client teaching guides.

Additional Educational Resources Faculty may also find the teaching aids that accompany this textbook helpful. These Instructor Resources are located at www.davisplus.com:

■ Multiple choice questions (including new format questions reflecting the latest NCLEX blueprint).

■ Lecture outlines for all chapters

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■ Learning activities for all chapters (including answer key)

■ Answers to the Critical Thinking Exercises from the textbook

■ PowerPoint Presentation to accompany all chapters in the textbook

■ Answers to the Homework Assignment Questions from the textbook

■ Case studies for use with student teaching

Additional chapters on Theories of Personality Development, Relaxation Therapy, Complementary and Psychosocial Therapies, and Forensic Nursing are presented online at www.davisplus.com.

It is hoped that the revisions and additions to this ninth edition continue to satisfy a need within psychiatric-mental health nursing practice. The mis- sion of this textbook has been, and continues to be, to provide both students and clinicians with up-to-date information about psychiatric-mental health nursing. The user-friendly format and easy-to-understand lan- guage, for which we have received many positive com- ments, have been retained in this edition. We hope that this ninth edition continues to promote and advance the commitment to psychiatric/mental health nursing.

Mary C. Townsend Karyn I. Morgan

xx To the Instructor

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U N I T 1 Basic Concepts in Psychiatric-Mental

Health Nursing

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1The Concept of Stress Adaptation C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Objectives

Homework Assignment

Stress as a Biological Response

Stress as an Environmental Event

Stress as a Transaction Between the Individual and the Environment

Stress Management

Summary and Key Points

Review Questions

K EY T E R M S

adaptive responses

fight-or-flight syndrome

general adaptation syndrome

maladaptive responses

precipitating event

predisposing factors

O B J EC T I V E S After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Define adaptation and maladaptation. 2. Identify physiological responses to stress. 3. Explain the relationship between stress and

“diseases of adaptation.” 4. Describe the concept of stress as an environ-

mental event.

5. Explain the concept of stress as a transaction between the individual and the environment.

6. Discuss adaptive coping strategies in the management of stress.

H O M E W O R K A S S I G N M E N T Please read the chapter and answer the following questions:

1. How are the body’s physiological defenses affected when under sustained stress? Why?

2. In the view of stress as an environmental event, what aspects are missing when considering an individual’s response to a stressful situation?

3. In their study, what event did Miller and Rahe (1997) find produced the highest level of stress reaction in their participants?

4. What is the initial step in stress management?

CORE CONCEPTS Adaptation Maladaptation Stressor

2

Psychologists and others have struggled for many years to establish an effective definition of the term stress. This term is used loosely today and still lacks a definitive explanation. Stress may be viewed as an individual’s reaction to any change that requires an adjustment or response, which can be physical, men- tal, or emotional. Responses directed at stabilizing

internal biological processes and preserving self- esteem can be viewed as healthy adaptations to stress.

Roy (1976), a nursing theorist, defined an adaptive response as behavior that maintains the integrity of the individual. Adaptation is viewed as positive and is correlated with a healthy response. When behavior

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disrupts the integrity of the individual, it is perceived as maladaptive. Maladaptive responses by the individ- ual are considered to be negative or unhealthy.

Various 20th-century researchers contributed to several different concepts of stress. Three of these concepts include stress as a biological response, stress as an environmental event, and stress as a transaction between the individual and the environ- ment. This chapter includes an explanation of each of these concepts.

Stress as a Biological Response

In 1956, Hans Selye published the results of his re- search on the physiological response of a biological system to an imposed change on the system. Since his initial publication, his definition of stress has evolved to “the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically induced changes within a biologic system” (Selye, 1976). This combi- nation of symptoms has come to be known as the fight-or-flight syndrome. Schematics of these biologi- cal responses, both initially and with sustained stress, are presented in Figures 1–1 and 1–2. Selye called this phenomenon the general adaptation syndrome. He described three distinct stages of the reaction:

1. Alarm reaction stage: During this stage, the physi- ological responses of the fight-or-flight syndrome are initiated.

C H A P T E R 1 ■ The Concept of Stress Adaptation 3

CORE CONCEPT Stressor A biological, psychological, social, or chemical factor that causes physical or emotional tension and may con- tribute to the development of certain illnesses.

HYPOTHALAMUS

Stimulates

Sympathetic Nervous System

Innervates

Adrenal medulla

Eye Cardiovascular system

Lacrimal glands

Respiratory system

GI system Liver Urinary system

Fat cells

Sweat glands

Pupils dilated

Bronchioles dilated

Respiration rate increased

Gastric and intestinal motility

Secretions Sphincters

contract

Ureter motility Bladder muscle

contracts Sphincter relaxes

Lipolysis

Norepinephrine and epinephrine

released

Secretion increased

Force of cardiac contraction

Cardiac output Heart rate

Blood pressure

Glycogenolysis and

gluconeogenesis Glycogen synthesis

Secretion

FIGURE 1–1 The fight-or-flight syndrome: The initial stress response.

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2. Stage of resistance: The individual uses the physi- ological responses of the first stage as a defense in the attempt to adapt to the stressor. If adaptation occurs, the third stage is prevented or delayed. Physiological symptoms may disappear.

3. Stage of exhaustion: This stage occurs when the body responds to prolonged exposure to a stressor. The adaptive energy is depleted, and the individual can no longer draw from the resources for adapta- tion described in the first two stages. Diseases of adaptation (e.g., headaches, mental disorders, coro- nary artery disease, ulcers, colitis) may occur. With- out intervention for reversal, exhaustion and, in some cases, even death, ensues (Selye, 1956, 1974).

The fight-or-flight response undoubtedly served our ancestors well. Those Homo sapiens who had to face the giant grizzly bear or the saber-toothed tiger as part of their struggle for survival must have used

these adaptive resources to their advantage. The response was elicited in emergency situations, used in the preservation of life, and followed by restoration of the compensatory mechanisms to the preemergent condition (homeostasis).

Selye performed his extensive research in a con- trolled setting with laboratory animals as subjects. He elicited the physiological responses with physical stim- uli, such as exposure to heat or extreme cold, electric shock, injection of toxic agents, restraint, and surgical injury. Since the publication of his original research, it has become apparent that the fight-or-flight syn- drome of symptoms occurs in response to psycholog- ical or emotional stimuli just as it does to physical stimuli. Psychological or emotional stressors are often not resolved as rapidly as physical stressors, so the body may be depleted of its adaptive energy more readily than it is from physical stressors. The fight-or-flight response may be inappropriate or even

4 U N I T 1 ■ Basic Concepts in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

HYPOTHALAMUS

Stimulates

Pituitary Gland

Releases

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Growth hormoneVasopressin (ADH)

Thyrotropic hormone (TSH)

Gonadotropins

(Initially) Sex hormones; later, with sustained stress: Secretion of sex hormones

Direct effect on protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism, resulting in increased serum glucose and free fatty acids

StimulatesStimulates

Releases

Adrenal cortex

Basal metabolic rate

Thyroid gland

Glucocorticoids Mineralocorticoids

Gluconeogenesis Immune response Inflammatory response

Retention of sodium and water

Blood pressure through constriction of blood vessels Fluid retention

Libido Impotence

FIGURE 1–2 The fight-or-flight syndrome: The sustained stress response.

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dangerous in our modern lifestyle in which stress has been described as a pervasive, chronic, and relent- less psychosocial state. When the stress response becomes chronic, the body’s existence in the aroused condition for extended time periods promotes susceptibility to disease.

Miller and Rahe (1997) have updated the original Social Readjustment Rating Scale devised by Holmes and Rahe in 1967 to reflect an increased number of modern stressors. Just as in the earlier version, numer- ical values are assigned to various common life events based on the stress these events create. In their research, Miller and Rahe found that women react to life stress events at higher levels than do men, and unmarried people gave higher scores than married people for most of the events. Younger participants rated more events at a higher stress level than did older participants. A high score on the Recent Life Changes Questionnaire (RLCQ) places the individual at greater susceptibility to physical or psychological illness. The questionnaire may be completed consid- ering life stressors within a 6-month or 1-year period. Six-month totals equal to or greater than 300 life change units (LCUs) or 1-year totals equal to or greater than 500 LCUs are considered indicative of a high level of recent life stress, thereby increasing the individual’s risk of illness. The RLCQ is presented in Table 1–1.

It is unknown whether stress overload merely pre- disposes a person to illness or actually precipitates it, but there does appear to be a link (Amirkhan, 2012). Individuals differ in their reactions to life events, and these variations are related to the degree to which the change is perceived as stressful. Life changes

C H A P T E R 1 ■ The Concept of Stress Adaptation 5

TA B L E 1– 1 The Recent Life Changes Questionnaire LIFE CHANGE EVENT LCU LIFE CHANGE EVENT LCU

HEALTH An injury or illness which: 74

Kept you in bed a week or more, or sent you to the hospital

Was less serious than above 44

Major dental work 26

Major change in eating habits 27

Major change in sleeping habits 26

Major change in your usual type/amount 28 of recreation

WORK Change to a new type of work 51

Change in your work hours or conditions 35

Change in your responsibilities at work: More responsibilities 29 Fewer responsibilities 21 Promotion 31 Demotion 42 Transfer 32

Troubles at work: With your boss 29 With coworkers 35 With persons under your supervision 35 Other work troubles 28

Major business adjustment 60

Retirement 52

Loss of job: Laid off from work 68 Fired from work 79

Correspondence course to help you in your work 18

PERSONAL AND SOCIAL Change in personal habits 26

Beginning or ending school or college 38

Change of school or college 35

Change in political beliefs 24

Change in religious beliefs 29

CORE CONCEPT Adaptation Adaptation is said to occur when an individual’s physical or behavioral response to any change in his or her in- ternal or external environment results in preservation of individual integrity or timely return to equilibrium.

Stress as an Environmental Event

A second concept defines stress as an “event” that trig- gers an individual’s adaptive physiological and psychological responses. The event creates change in the life pattern of the individual, requires significant adjustment in lifestyle, and taxes available personal resources. The change can be either positive, such as outstanding personal achievement, or negative, such as being fired from a job. The emphasis here is on change from the existing steady state of the individ- ual’s life pattern.

Continued

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6 U N I T 1 ■ Basic Concepts in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 1– 1 The Recent Life Changes Questionnaire—cont’d LIFE CHANGE EVENT LCU LIFE CHANGE EVENT LCU

Spouse beginning or ending work 46

Child leaving home: To attend college 41 Due to marriage 41 For other reasons 45

Change in arguments with spouse 50

In-law problems 38

Change in the marital status of your parents: Divorce 59 Remarriage 50

Separation from spouse: Due to work 53 Due to marital problems 76

Divorce 96

Birth of grandchild 43

Death of spouse 119

Death of other family member: Child 123 Brother or sister 102 Parent 100

FINANCIAL Major change in finances:

Increased income 38 Decreased income 60 Investment and/or credit difficulties 56

Loss or damage of personal property 43

Moderate purchase 20

Major purchase 37

Foreclosure on a mortgage or loan 58

Change in social activities 27

Vacation 24

New, close, personal relationship 37

Engagement to marry 45

Girlfriend or boyfriend problems 39

Sexual difficulties 44

“Falling out” of a close personal relationship 47

An accident 48

Minor violation of the law 20

Being held in jail 75

Death of a close friend 70

Major decision regarding your immediate future 51

Major personal achievement 36

HOME AND FAMILY Major change in living conditions 42

Change in residence: Move within the same town or city 25 Move to a different town, city, or state 47

Change in family get-togethers 25

Major change in health or behavior of family 55 member

Marriage 50

Pregnancy 67

Miscarriage or abortion 65

Gain of a new family member: Birth of a child 66 Adoption of a child 65 A relative moving in with you 59

LCU, life change unit.

SOURCE: Miller, M.A., & Rahe, R.H. (1997). Life changes scaling for the 1990s. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 43(3), 279-292, with permission.

questionnaires have been criticized because they do not consider the individual’s perception of the event. These types of instruments also fail to consider cul- tural variations, the individual’s coping strategies, and available support systems at the time when the life change occurs. Amirkhan (2012) developed a tool to assess stress overload that attempts to correct for these limitations by asking a series of 30 questions

that all begin with “In the past week have you felt . . .” followed by choices such as calm, inade- quate, depressed, and others. The emphasis in this tool is on the individual’s perception of events rather than on the events themselves. Although the ap- proaches to assessing for stress and vulnerability vary, it is clear that positive coping mechanisms and strong social or familial support can reduce the intensity of

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stressful life changes and promote a more adaptive response.

Stress as a Transaction Between the Individual and the Environment

The concept of stress as a transaction between the individual and the environment emphasizes the relationship between internal variables (within an indi- vidual) and external variables (within the environ- ment). This concept parallels the modern concept of disease etiology. No longer is causation viewed solely as an external entity; whether or not illness occurs depends also on the receiving organism’s sus- ceptibility. Similarly, to predict psychological stress as a reaction, the internal characteristics of the person in relation to the environment must be considered.

Precipitating Event Lazarus and Folkman’s seminal theory (1984) defines stress (and potentially illness) as a psychological phenomenon in which the relationship between the person and the environment is appraised by the per- son as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being. A precipitating event is a stimulus arising from the internal or exter- nal environment and perceived by the individual in a specific manner. Determination of an event as stress- ful depends on the individual’s cognitive appraisal of the situation. Cognitive appraisal is an individual’s evaluation of the personal significance of the event or occurrence. The event “precipitates” a response on the part of the individual, and the response is influ- enced by the individual’s perception of the event. The cognitive response consists of a primary appraisal and a secondary appraisal.

Individual’s Perception of the Event Primary Appraisal Lazarus and Folkman (1984) identify three types of primary appraisal: irrelevant, benign-positive, and stressful. An event is judged irrelevant when the outcome holds no significance for the individual. A benign-positive outcome is one that is perceived as pro- ducing pleasure for the individual. Stress appraisals include harm or loss, threat, and challenge. Harm or loss appraisals refer to damage or loss already experienced by the individual. Appraisals of a threat- ening nature are perceived as anticipated harms or losses. When an event is appraised as challenging, the individual focuses on potential for gain or growth rather than on risks associated with the event. Chal- lenge produces stress even though the emotions associated with it (eagerness and excitement) are viewed as positive, and coping mechanisms must be

called upon to face the new encounter. Challenge and threat may occur together when an individual ex- periences these positive emotions along with fear or anxiety over possible risks associated with the chal- lenging event.

When stress is produced in response to harm or loss, threat, or challenge, a secondary appraisal is made by the individual.

Secondary Appraisal The secondary appraisal is an assessment of skills, re- sources, and knowledge that the person possesses to deal with the situation. The individual evaluates by considering the following:

■ Which coping strategies are available to me? ■ Will the option I choose be effective in this situation? ■ Do I have the ability to use that strategy in an effec-

tive manner?

The interaction between the primary appraisal of the event that has occurred and the secondary appraisal of available coping strategies determines the quality of the individual’s adaptation response to stress.

Predisposing Factors A variety of elements influence how an individual perceives and responds to a stressful event. These predisposing factors strongly influence whether the response is adaptive or maladaptive. Types of predis- posing factors include genetic influences, past expe- riences, and existing conditions.

Genetic influences are those circumstances of an individual’s life that are acquired through heredity. Examples include family history of physical and psy- chological conditions (strengths and weaknesses) and temperament (behavioral characteristics present at birth that evolve with development).

Past experiences are occurrences that result in learned patterns that can influence an individual’s adaptation response. They include previous expo- sure to the stressor or other stressors, learned coping responses, and degree of adaptation to previous stressors.

Existing conditions incorporate vulnerabilities that influence the adequacy of the individual’s physical, psychological, and social resources for dealing with adaptive demands. Examples include current health status, motivation, developmental maturity, severity and duration of the stressor, financial and educa- tional resources, age, existing coping strategies, and a caring support system. Hobfoll’s conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll 1989; Hobfoll, Schwarzer, & Chon, 1998) adds that as existing conditions (loss or lack of resources) exceed the person’s perception of adaptive capabilities, the person not only experi- ence stress in the present but also becomes more

C H A P T E R 1 ■ The Concept of Stress Adaptation 7

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vulnerable to the effects of stress in the future due to a “weaker resource reservoir to call on to meet future demand” (Hobfoll et al., 1998, p. 191). All of the pre- ceding concepts and theories are foundational to the transactional model of stress and adaptation that serves as the framework for the process of nursing in this text. A graphic display of the model is presented in Figure 1–3.

protect the individual from harm (or additional harm) or strengthen the individual’s ability to meet challenging situations. Adaptive responses help restore homeostasis to the body and impede the development of diseases of adaptation. Positive adaptation, particularly in response to adversity, has also been referred to as resilience.

Responses are considered maladaptive when the conflict goes unresolved or intensifies. Energy resources become depleted as the body struggles to compensate for the chronic physiological and psy- chological arousal experienced in response to the stressful event. The effect is a significant vulnerability to physical or psychological illness. One key to stress management is to identify factors and practices that contribute to adaptive coping and resilience.

Adaptive Coping Strategies Awareness The initial step in managing stress is awareness—to become aware of the factors that create stress and the feelings associated with a stressful response. Stress can be controlled only when one recognizes the signs that it is occurring. As an individual becomes aware of stressors, he or she can choose to omit, avoid, or accept them.

Relaxation Individuals experience relaxation in different ways. Some people relax by engaging in large motor activi- ties, such as sports, jogging, and physical exercise. Others use techniques such as breathing exercises and progressive relaxation. A discussion of relaxation therapy may be found online at DavisPlus.

Meditation Meditation has been shown to produce a lasting reduction in blood pressure and other stress-related symptoms when practiced for 20 minutes once or twice a day (Scott, 2016). The practice of mindfulness meditation is foundational to many psychosocial in- terventions aimed at reducing anxiety and improving engagement in problem-solving. Meditation involves assuming a comfortable position, closing the eyes, casting off all other thoughts, and concentrating on a single word, sound, or phrase that has positive meaning to the individual. It may also involve concen- trating on one’s breathing or other mindfulness prac- tices. The technique of meditation is described in detail online at DavisPlus.

Interpersonal Communication As previously mentioned, the strength of an individ- ual’s available support system is an existing condition that significantly influences his or her adaptation when coping with stress. Sometimes just “talking the problem out” with an empathetic individual can interrupt

8 U N I T 1 ■ Basic Concepts in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Precipitating Event

Predisposing Factors Genetic Influences Past Experiences Existing Conditions

Cognitive Appraisal

* Primary *

Irrelevant

No response

Benign positive

Pleasurable response

Stress appraisals

Harm/ loss Threat

Challenge

* Secondary *

Availability of coping strategies Perceived effectiveness of coping strategies Perceived ability to use coping strategies effectively

Quality of Response

Adaptive Maladaptive

FIGURE 1–3 Transactional model of stress and adaptation.

CORE CONCEPT Maladaptation Maladaptation occurs when an individual’s physical or behavioral response to any change in his or her internal or external environment results in disruption of individual integrity or in persistent disequilibrium.

Stress Management*

The growth of stress management into a multimillion- dollar-a-year industry unto itself attests to its impor- tance in our society. Stress management involves the use of coping strategies in response to stressful situ- ations. Coping strategies are adaptive when they

*Some stress management techniques are discussed at greater length in Unit 3 of this text and in the Complementary and Psy- chosocial Therapies chapter available online at www.DavisPlus.com.

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escalation of the stress response. Writing about one’s feelings in a journal or diary can also be therapeutic.

Problem-Solving Problem-solving is an adaptive coping strategy in which the individual is able to view the situation ob- jectively (or to seek assistance from another individual to accomplish this if the anxiety level is too high to concentrate) and then apply a problem-solving and decision-making model such as the following:

■ Assess the facts of the situation. ■ Formulate goals for resolution of the stressful

situation. ■ Study the alternatives for dealing with the situation. ■ Determine the risks and benefits of each alternative. ■ Select an alternative. ■ Implement the alternative selected. ■ Evaluate the outcome of the alternative imple-

mented. ■ If the first choice is ineffective, select and imple-

ment a second option.

Pets Studies show that those who care for pets, especially dogs and cats, are better able to cope with the stres- sors of life (Mayo Clinic, 2015). The physical act of stroking a dog’s or cat’s fur can be therapeutic, giving the animal an intuitive sense of being cared for and providing the individual the calming feeling of warmth, affection, and interdependence with a re- liable, trusting being. Studies have also shown that individuals with companion pets demonstrate im- provements in heart health, allergies, anxiety, and mental illnesses such as depression (Casciotti & Zuckerman, 2016, Donehy, 2015).

Music It is true that music can “soothe the savage beast.” Studies have shown multiple benefits of listening to music, including relieving pain, improving motivation and performance, improving sleep, enhancing blood vessel function, reducing stress, relieving symptoms of depression, improving cognition, and easing recov- ery in stroke patients (Christ, 2013).

Summary and Key Points

■ Stress has become a chronic and pervasive condi- tion in the United States.

■ Adaptive behavior is a stress response that main- tains the integrity of the individual with a timely return to equilibrium. It is viewed as positive and is correlated with a healthy response.

■ When behavior disrupts the integrity of the indi- vidual or results in persistent disequilibrium, it is perceived as maladaptive. Maladaptive responses by the individual are unhealthy.

■ A stressor is defined as a biological, psychological, social, or chemical factor that causes physical or emotional tension and may be a factor in the etiol- ogy of certain illnesses.

■ Hans Selye identified the biological changes asso- ciated with a stressful situation as the fight-or-flight syndrome.

■ Selye called the general reaction of the body to stress the “general adaptation syndrome,” which occurs in three stages: the alarm reaction stage, the stage of resistance, and the stage of exhaustion.

■ When individuals remain in the aroused response to stress for an extended period of time, they be- come susceptible to diseases, including headaches, mental disorders, coronary artery disease, ulcers, and colitis.

■ Stress may also be viewed as an environmental event, which results when a change from the existing steady state of the individual’s life pattern occurs.

■ When an individual experiences a high level of life change events, he or she becomes susceptible to physical or psychological illness.

■ Limitations of the environmental concept of stress include failure to consider the individual’s percep- tion of the event, coping strategies, and available support systems at the time when the life change occurs.

■ Stress is more appropriately expressed as a transac- tion between the individual and the environment that is appraised by the individual as taxing or ex- ceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being.

■ The individual makes a cognitive appraisal of the precipitating event to determine the personal significance of the event or occurrence.

■ Primary cognitive appraisals may be irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful.

■ Secondary cognitive appraisals include assessment and evaluation by the individual of skills, resources, and knowledge to deal with the stressful situation.

■ Predisposing factors influence how an individual perceives and responds to a stressful event. They include genetic influences, past experiences, and existing conditions.

■ Stress management involves the use of adaptive coping strategies in response to stressful situations in an effort to impede the development of diseases of adaptation.

■ Examples of adaptive coping strategies include developing awareness, relaxation, meditation, interpersonal communication with caring other, problem-solving, pets, and music.

C H A P T E R 1 ■ The Concept of Stress Adaptation 9

Additional info available at www.davisplus.com

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10 U N I T 1 ■ Basic Concepts in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Review Questions Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

Select the answer that is most appropriate for each of the following questions.

1. Sondra, who lives in Maine, hears on the evening news that 25 people were killed in a tornado in south Texas. Sondra experiences no anxiety upon hearing of this stressful situation. What is the most likely reason that Sondra experiences no anxiety? a. She is selfish and does not care what happens to other people. b. She appraises the event as irrelevant to her own situation. c. She assesses that she has the skills to cope with the stressful situation. d. She uses suppression as her primary defense mechanism.

2. Cindy regularly develops nausea and vomiting when she is faced with a stressful situation. Which of the following is most likely a predisposing factor to this maladaptive response by Cindy? a. Cindy inherited her mother’s “nervous” stomach. b. Cindy is fixed in a lower level of development. c. Cindy has never been motivated to achieve success. d. When Cindy was a child, her mother pampered her and kept her home from school when she

was ill.

3. When an individual’s stress response is sustained over a long period, the endocrine system involvement results in which of the following? a. Decreased resistance to disease b. Increased libido c. Decreased blood pressure d. Increased inflammatory response

4. Why is stress management extremely important in today’s society? a. Evolution has diminished the human capability for fight-or-flight responses. b. The stressors of today tend to be ongoing, resulting in a sustained response. c. We have stress disorders that did not exist in the days of our ancestors. d. One never knows when one will have to face a grizzly bear or saber-toothed tiger in today’s society.

5. Elena has just received a promotion on her job. She is very happy and excited about moving up in her company, but she has been experiencing anxiety since receiving the news. Her primary appraisal is that she most likely views the situation as which of the following? a. Benign-positive b. Irrelevant c. Challenging d. Threatening

6. John comes to the mental health clinic with reports of anxiety and depression. According to the trans- actional model of stress and adaptation, which of the following are important to consider when assess- ing John’s complaints? (Select all that apply.) a. John’s perception of precipitating events b. Past stressors and degree of positive coping abilities c. Existing social supports d. Physical strength e. Pupillary adaptation to light

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References Amirkhan, J.H. (2012). Stress overload: A new approach to

the assessment of stress. American Journal of Community Psychology, 49(1-2), 55-71. doi:10.1007/s10464-011- 9438-x

Casciotti, D., & Zuckerman, D. (2016). The benefits of pets for human health. Retrieved from http://center4research.org/ healthy-living-prevention/pets-and-health-the-impact-of- companion-animals

Christ, S. (2013). 20 surprising science-backed health benefits of music. Retrieved from www.usatoday.com/story/news/health/ 2013/12/17/health-benefits-music/4053401

Donehy, K. (2015). Pets for depression and health. Retrieved from www.webmd.com/depression/features/pets- depression

Mayo Clinic. (2015). Pet therapy: Man’s best friend as healer. Retrieved from www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/ consumer-health/in-depth/pet-therapy/art-20046342

Scott, E. (2016). Meditation research and benefits. Retrieved from www.verywell.com/meditation-research-and-benefits- 3144996

Classical References Hobfoll, S. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at

conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist 44(3), 513-524. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513

Hobfoll, S., Schwarzer, R., & Chon, K. (1998). Disentangling the stress labyrinth: Interpreting the meaning of stress as it is studied in the health context. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 11(3), 181-212. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10615809808248311

Holmes, T., & Rahe, R. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11(2), 213-218. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(67)90010-4

Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer Publishing.

Miller, M.A., & Rahe, R.H. (1997). Life changes scaling for the 1990s. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 43(3), 279-292. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(97)00118-9

Roy, C. (1976). Introduction to nursing: An adaptation model. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill. Selye, H. (1974). Stress without distress. New York: Signet Books. Selye, H. (1976). The stress of life (rev. ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

C H A P T E R 1 ■ The Concept of Stress Adaptation 11

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2 Mental Health and Mental Illness: Historical and Theoretical Concepts C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Objectives

Homework Assignment

Historical Overview of Psychiatric Care

Mental Health

Mental Illness

Psychological Adaptation to Stress

Mental Health/Mental Illness Continuum

Summary and Key Points

Review Questions

K EY T E R M S

anticipatory grieving

bereavement overload

defense mechanisms

compensation

denial

displacement

identification

intellectualization

introjection

isolation

projection

rationalization

reaction formation

regression

repression

sublimation

suppression

undoing

humors

mental health

mental illness

neurosis

psychosis

O B J EC T I V E S After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Discuss the history of psychiatric care. 2. Define mental health and mental illness. 3. Discuss cultural elements that influence

attitudes toward mental health and mental illness.

4. Describe psychological adaptation responses to stress.

5. Correlate adaptive and maladaptive responses to the mental health/mental illness continuum.

H O M E W O R K A S S I G N M E N T Please read the chapter and answer the following questions:

1. Explain the concepts of incomprehensibility and cultural relativity.

2. Describe some symptoms of panic anxiety. 3. Jane was involved in an automobile accident

in which both her parents were killed. When

you ask her about it, she says she has no memory of the accident. What ego defense mechanism is she using?

4. In what stage of the grieving process is the individual with delayed or inhibited grief fixed?

CORE CONCEPTS Anxiety Grief

12

The consideration of mental health and mental ill- ness has its basis in the cultural beliefs of the society in which the behavior takes place. Some cultures are quite liberal in the range of behaviors that are considered acceptable, whereas others have very little

tolerance for behaviors that deviate from the cultural norms.

A study of the history of psychiatric care reveals some shocking truths about past treatment of indi- viduals with mental illness. Many were kept in control

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C H A P T E R 2 ■ Mental Health and Mental Illness: Historical and Theoretical Concepts 13

by means that today could be considered less than humane.

This chapter deals with the evolution of psychiatric care from ancient times to the present. Mental health and mental illness are defined, and the psychological adaptation to stress is explained in terms of the two major responses: anxiety and grief. Behavioral re- sponses are conceptualized along the mental health/ mental illness continuum.

Historical Overview of Psychiatric Care

Primitive beliefs regarding mental disturbances took several views. Some cultures thought that an individual with mental illness had been dispossessed of his or her soul and wellness could be achieved only if the soul was returned. Others believed that evil spirits or supernat- ural or magical powers had entered the body. The “cure” for these individuals involved a ritualistic exor- cism to purge the body of these unwanted forces. This purging often consisted of brutal beatings, starvation, or other torturous means. Still other cultures consid- ered that the individual with mental illness may have broken a taboo or sinned against another individual or God, for which ritualistic purification was required or various types of retribution were demanded. The correlation of mental illness to demonology led to some individuals with mental illness being burned at the stake.

These ancient beliefs evolved with increasing knowledge about mental illness and changes in cul- tural, religious, and sociopolitical attitudes. Around 400 BC, the work of Hippocrates was the first to place mental illness in a physical rather than supernatural context. Hippocrates theorized that mental illness was caused by irregularity in the interaction of the four body fluids: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. He called these body fluids humors and associated each with a particular disposition. Disequi- librium among these four humors was often treated by inducing vomiting and diarrhea with potent cathar- tic drugs.

During the Middle Ages (AD 500 to 1500), the association of mental illness with witchcraft and the supernatural continued to prevail in Europe. During this period, many people with mental illness were set to sea alone in sailing boats with little guidance to search for their lost rationality, a practice from which the expression “ship of fools” was derived. But in Middle Eastern countries, a change in attitude began to occur that led to the perception of mental illness as a medical problem rather than a result of supernat- ural forces. This notion gave rise to the establishment of special units for clients with mental illness within

general hospitals as well as residential institutions specifically designed for this purpose. They can likely be considered the first asylums for individuals with mental illness.

Colonial Americans tended to reflect the attitudes of the European communities from which they had emigrated. Particularly in the New England area, in- dividuals were punished for behavior attributed to witchcraft. In the 16th and 17th centuries, institutions for people with mental illness did not exist in the United States, and care of these individuals became a family responsibility. Those without family or other resources became the responsibility of the communi- ties in which they lived and were incarcerated in places where they could do no harm to themselves or others.

The first hospital in America to admit clients with mental illness was established in Philadelphia in the middle of the 18th century. Benjamin Rush, often called the father of American psychiatry, was a physician at the hospital. He initiated the pro- vision of humanistic treatment and care for clients with mental illness. But although he included kind- ness, exercise, and socialization in his care, he also employed harsh methods such as bloodletting, purging, various types of physical restraints, and extremes of temperatures, reflecting the medical therapies of that era.

The 19th century brought the establishment of a system of state asylums, largely the result of the work of Dorothea Dix, a former New England school- teacher who lobbied tirelessly on behalf of the men- tally ill population. She was unfaltering in her belief that mental illness was curable and that state hospitals should provide humanistic therapeutic care. This sys- tem of hospital care for individuals with mental illness grew, but the mentally ill population grew faster. The institutions became overcrowded and understaffed, and conditions deteriorated. Therapeutic care reverted to custodial care in state hospitals, which provided the largest resource for individuals with mental illness until the initiation of the commu- nity health movement of the 1960s (see Chapter 36, Community Mental Health Nursing).

The emergence of psychiatric nursing began in 1873 with the graduation of Linda Richards from the nursing program at the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Boston. She has come to be known as the first American psychiatric nurse. During her career, Richards was instrumental in the establishment of a number of psychiatric hospitals and the first school of psychiatric nursing at the McLean Asylum in Waverly, Massachusetts, in 1882. This school and others like it provided training in

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custodial care for clients in psychiatric asylums— training that did not include the study of psychological concepts. Significant change in psychiatric nursing education did not occur until 1955, when incorpo- ration of psychiatric nursing into the curricula be- came a requirement for all undergraduate schools of nursing. This new curricula emphasized the impor- tance of the nurse–patient relationship and therapeu- tic communication techniques. Nursing intervention in the somatic therapies (e.g., insulin and electrocon- vulsive therapy) provided impetus for the incorpora- tion of these concepts into the profession’s body of knowledge.

With the increasing need for psychiatric care in the aftermath of World War II, the government passed the National Mental Health Act of 1946. This legislation provided funds for the education of psy- chiatrists, psychologists, social workers, and psychi- atric nurses. Graduate-level education in psychiatric nursing was established during this period. Around the same time, the introduction of antipsychotic medications made it possible for clients with psy- choses to more readily participate in their treatment, including nursing therapies.

Knowledge of the history of psychiatric-mental health care contributes to the understanding of the concepts presented in this chapter and those in the online chapter (available at www.DavisPlus .com), which describe the theoretical models of per- sonality development according to various 19th- and 20th-century leaders in the mental health movement. Modern American psychiatric care has its roots in ancient times. A great deal of opportunity exists for continued advancement of this specialty within the practice of nursing.

Mental Health

A number of theorists have attempted to define the concept of mental health. Many of these concepts deal with various aspects of individual functioning. Maslow (1970) emphasized an individual’s motivation in the continuous quest for self-actualization. He identified a “hierarchy of needs,” with the most basic needs requiring fulfillment before those at higher levels can be achieved and with self-actualization defined as ful- fillment of one’s highest potential. An individual’s position within the hierarchy may revert from a higher level to a lower level based on life circumstances. For example, an individual facing major surgery who has been working to achieve self-actualization may become preoccupied, if only temporarily, with the need for physiological safety. A representation of this needs hierarchy is presented in Figure 2–1.

Maslow described self-actualization as being “psy- chologically healthy, fully human, highly evolved, and fully mature.” He believed that self-actualized individ- uals possess the following characteristics:

■ An appropriate perception of reality ■ The ability to accept oneself, others, and human

nature ■ The ability to manifest spontaneity ■ The capacity for focusing concentration on problem-

solving ■ A need for detachment and desire for privacy ■ Independence, autonomy, and a resistance to

enculturation ■ An intensity of emotional reaction ■ A frequency of “peak” experiences that validate the

worthwhileness, richness, and beauty of life ■ An identification with humankind ■ The ability to achieve satisfactory interpersonal

relationships ■ A democratic character structure and strong sense

of ethics ■ Creativeness ■ A degree of nonconformance

Jahoda (1958) identified a list of six indicators that are a reflection of mental health:

1. A positive attitude toward self: This indicator refers to an objective view of self, including knowledge and acceptance of strengths and lim- itations. The individual feels a strong sense of personal identity and security within his or her environment.

2. Growth, development, and the ability to achieve self-actualization: This indicator correlates with whether the individual successfully achieves the tasks associated with each level of development (see Erikson, in the online chapter Theoretical Models of Personality Development). With success- ful achievement in each level, the individual gains motivation for advancement to his or her highest potential.

3. Integration: The focus of this indicator is on maintaining equilibrium or balance among vari- ous life processes. Integration includes the ability to adaptively respond to the environment and the development of a philosophy of life, both of which help the individual maintain a manageable anxiety level in response to stressful situations.

4. Autonomy: This indicator refers to the individual’s ability to perform in an independent, self-directed manner. He or she makes choices and accepts responsibility for the outcomes.

5. Perception of reality: Accurate reality perception is a positive indicator of mental health. It includes

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C H A P T E R 2 ■ Mental Health and Mental Illness: Historical and Theoretical Concepts 15

perception of the environment without distor- tion as well as the capacity for empathy and social sensitivity—a respect and concern for the wants and needs of others.

6. Environmental mastery: This indicator suggests that the individual has achieved a satisfactory role within the group, society, or environment and is able to love and accept the love of others. When faced with life situations, the individual is able to strategize, make decisions, change, adjust, and adapt. Life offers satisfaction to the individual who has achieved environmental mastery.

Black and Andreasen (2014) describe mental health as a state of being that is relative rather than absolute but marked by the successful performance of mental functions such as adapting to change, cop- ing with stressors, fulfilling relationships with others, and the accomplishing productive activities.

Robinson (1983) offers the following definition of mental health:

A dynamic state in which thought, feeling, and behav- ior that is age-appropriate and congruent with the local and cultural norms is demonstrated. (p. 74)

For purposes of this text, and in keeping with the framework of stress and adaptation, a modification of Robinson’s definition of mental health is consid- ered. Thus, mental health is viewed as “the successful adaptation to stressors from the internal or external environment, evidenced by thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are age-appropriate and congruent with local and cultural norms.”

Mental Illness

Arriving at a universal concept of mental illness is dif- ficult because of the cultural factors that influence such

(The individual possesses a feeling of self- f u l f i l l m e n t a n d t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of his or her highest potential.)

(The individual seeks self-respect and respect from others, works to achieve success and recognition in work, and desires prestige from accomplishments.)

(Needs are for giving and receiving of affection, companionship, satisfactory interpersonal relationships, and identification with a group.)

(Needs at this level are for avoiding harm, maintaining comfort, order, structure, physical safety, freedom from fear, and protection.)

SELF- ACTUALIZATION

SELF-ESTEEM RESPECT OF OTHERS

LOVE AND BELONGING

SAFETY AND SECURITY

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS (Basic fundamental needs include food, water, air, sleep, exercise,

elimination, shelter, and sexual expression.)

FIGURE 2–1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

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a definition. However, certain elements are associated with individuals’ perceptions of mental illness, regard- less of cultural origin. Horwitz (2010) identifies two of these elements as (1) incomprehensibility and (2) cul- tural relativity.

Incomprehensibility relates to the inability of the gen- eral population to understand the motivation behind an individual’s behavior. When observers are unable to find meaning or comprehensibility in behavior, they are likely to label that behavior as mental illness. Horwitz states, “Observers attribute labels of mental illness when the rules, conventions, and understand- ings they use to interpret behavior fail to find any in- telligible motivation behind an action” (p. 17). The element of cultural relativity considers that these rules, conventions, and understandings are conceived within an individual’s own particular culture. Behavior that is considered “normal” and “abnormal” is defined by one’s cultural or societal norms. Horwitz identified a number of cultural aspects of mental illness, which are presented in Box 2–1.

The American Psychiatric Association (2013), in its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), defines mental disorder as

a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognitions, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction

in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning. Mental dis- orders are usually associated with significant distress or disability in social, occupational, or other impor- tant activities. An expected or culturally approved response to a common stressor or loss such as the death of a loved one is not a mental disorder. (p. 20)

For purposes of this text, and in keeping with the transactional model of stress and adaptation, mental illness is characterized as “maladaptive responses to stressors from the internal or external environment, evidenced by thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are incongruent with the local and cultural norms and that interfere with the individual’s social, occu- pational, and/or physical functioning.”

Psychological Adaptation to Stress

All individuals exhibit characteristics associated with both mental health and mental illness at any given point in time. Chapter 1, The Concept of Stress Adap- tation, describes how an individual’s response to stress- ful situations is influenced by physiological factors, his or her personal perception of the event, and a variety of predisposing factors such as heredity, temperament, learned response patterns, developmental maturity, existing coping strategies, and support systems of caring others.

16 U N I T 1 ■ Basic Concepts in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

BOX 2–1 Cultural Aspects of Mental Illness

1. Usually, members of the community, not a psychiatric pro- fessional, initially recognizes that an individual’s behavior deviates from societal norms.

2. People who are related to an individual or who are of the same cultural or social group are less likely to label an individual’s behavior as mentally ill than are people who are relationally or culturally distant. Relatives and those who share a culture try to normalize the behavior by look- ing for an explanation.

3. Often, psychiatrists see a person with mental illness only when the family members can no longer deny the illness. Recognition or acknowledgment of possible mental illness typically occurs when behavior is at its worst as defined by local or cultural norms.

4. Individuals in lower socio-economic classes usually display more mental illness symptoms than do people in higher socio-economic classes. However, they tend to tolerate a wider range of behaviors that deviate from societal norms and are less likely to consider these behaviors as indicative of mental illness. Mental illness labels are most often ap- plied by psychiatric professionals.

5. The higher the social class, the greater the recognition of mental illness behaviors. Members of the higher social

classes are likely to be self-labeled or labeled by family members or friends. Psychiatric assistance is sought near the first signs of emotional disturbance.

6. The more highly educated the person, the greater the recognition of mental illness behaviors. However, even more relevant than the amount of education is the type of education. Individuals in the more humanistic profes- sions (lawyers, social workers, artists, teachers, nurses) are more likely to seek psychiatric assistance than are profes- sionals such as business executives, computer specialists, accountants, and engineers.

7. Women are more likely than men to recognize the symp- toms of mental illness and seek assistance.

8. The greater the cultural distance from the mainstream of society (i.e., the fewer the ties with conventional society), the greater the likelihood of negative societal response to mental illness. For example, immigrants have a greater distance from the mainstream than the native born, ethnic minorities greater than the dominant culture, and “bohemians” greater than the bourgeoisie. These groups are more likely to be subjected to coercive treatment, and involuntary psychiatric commitments are more common.

Adapted from Horwitz, A.V. (2010). The social control of mental illness. Clinton Corners, NY: Percheron Press.

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C H A P T E R 2 ■ Mental Health and Mental Illness: Historical and Theoretical Concepts 17

Anxiety and grief have been described as two primary psychological response patterns to stress. A variety of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are associ- ated with each of these response patterns. Adaptation is determined by the degree to which the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors interfere with an individual’s functioning.

Anxiety Feelings of anxiety are so common in our society that they are almost considered universal. Anxiety arises from the chaos and confusion that exists in the world. Fear of the unknown and conditions of ambiguity offer a perfect breeding ground for anxiety to take root and grow. Low levels of anxiety are adaptive and can provide the motivation required for survival. Anx- iety becomes problematic when the individual is un- able to prevent his or her response from escalating to a level that interferes with the ability to meet basic needs.

Peplau (1963) described four levels of anxiety: mild, moderate, severe, and panic. It is important for nurses to be able to recognize the symptoms associated with each level to plan for appropriate intervention with anxious individuals.

■ Mild anxiety: This level of anxiety is seldom a prob- lem for the individual. It is associated with the tension experienced in response to the events of day-to-day living. Mild anxiety prepares people for action. It sharpens the senses, increases motivation for productivity, increases the perceptual field, and results in a heightened awareness of the environ- ment. Learning is enhanced, and the individual is able to function at his or her optimal level.

■ Moderate anxiety: As the level of anxiety increases, the extent of the perceptual field diminishes. The moderately anxious individual is less alert to events occurring in the environment. The individual’s attention span and ability to concentrate decrease, although he or she may still attend to needs with direction. Assistance with problem-solving may be required. Increased muscular tension and restless- ness are evident.

■ Severe anxiety: The perceptual field of the severely anxious individual is so greatly diminished that concentration centers on one particular detail only or on many extraneous details. Attention span is

extremely limited, and the individual has difficulty completing even the simplest task. Physical symp- toms (e.g., headaches, palpitations, insomnia) and emotional symptoms (e.g., confusion, dread, hor- ror) may be evident. Discomfort is experienced to the degree that virtually all overt behavior is aimed at relieving the anxiety.

■ Panic anxiety: In this most intense state of anxiety, the individual is unable to focus on even one detail in the environment. Misperceptions are common, and a loss of contact with reality may occur. The individual may experience hallucinations or delusions. Behavior may be characterized by wild and desperate actions or extreme withdrawal. Human functioning and com- munication with others is ineffective. Panic anxiety is associated with a feeling of terror, and individuals may be convinced that they have a life-threatening illness or fear that they are “going crazy,” are losing control, or are emotionally weak. Prolonged panic anxiety can lead to physical and emotional exhaustion and can be a life-threatening situation.

A synopsis of the characteristics associated with each of the four levels of anxiety is presented in Table 2–1.

Behavioral Adaptation Responses to Anxiety A variety of behavioral adaptation responses occur at each level of anxiety. Figure 2–2 depicts these behav- ioral responses on a continuum of anxiety ranging from mild to panic.

Mild Anxiety At the mild level, individuals employ any of a number of coping behaviors that satisfy their needs for com- fort. Menninger (1963) described the following types of coping mechanisms that individuals use to relieve anxiety in stressful situations:

CORE CONCEPT Anxiety A diffuse, vague apprehension that is associated with feelings of uncertainty and helplessness.

■ Sleeping ■ Yawning ■ Eating ■ Drinking ■ Physical exercise ■ Daydreaming ■ Smoking ■ Laughing ■ Crying

■ Cursing ■ Pacing ■ Nail biting ■ Foot swinging ■ Finger tapping ■ Fidgeting ■ Talking to someone

with whom one feels comfortable

Undoubtedly, there are many more responses too numerous to mention here, considering that each individual develops his or her own unique ways to relieve mild anxiety. Some of these behaviors are more adaptive than others.

Mild-to-Moderate Anxiety Sigmund Freud (1961) identified the ego as the reality component of the personality, governing

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threat to biological or psychological integrity. Some of these ego defense mechanisms are more adaptive than others, but all are used either consciously or unconsciously as protective devices for the ego in an effort to relieve mild-to-moderate anxiety. The mechanisms become maladaptive when used by an individual to such a degree that there is interfer- ence with the ability to deal with reality, effective in- terpersonal relations, or occupational performance. Maladaptive use of defense mechanisms promotes disintegration of the ego. The major ego defense mechanisms identified by Anna Freud are summa- rized in Table 2–2.

18 U N I T 1 ■ Basic Concepts in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 2 – 1 Levels of Anxiety PHYSICAL EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL

LEVEL PERCEPTUAL FIELD ABILITY TO LEARN CHARACTERISTICS CHARACTERISTICS

Mild

Moderate

Severe

Panic

Heightened perception (e.g., noises may seem louder; details within the environ- ment are clearer)

Increased awareness Increased alertness

Reduction in perceptual field

Reduced alertness to environmental events (e.g., someone talk- ing may not be heard; part of the room may not be noticed)

Greatly diminished; only extraneous details are perceived, or fixation on a single detail may occur

May not take notice of an event even when attention is directed by another

Unable to focus on even one detail within the environment

Misperceptions of the environment common (e.g., a perceived detail may be elaborated and out of proportion)

Learning is enhanced

Learning still occurs but not at optimal ability

Decreased attention span

Decreased ability to concentrate

Extremely limited attention span

Unable to concen- trate or problem- solve

Effective learning cannot occur

Learning cannot occur

Unable to concen- trate

Unable to compre- hend even simple directions

Restlessness Irritability

Increased restlessness Increased heart and

respiration rates Increased perspiration Gastric discomfort Increased muscular

tension Increase in speech rate,

volume, and pitch

Headaches Dizziness Nausea Trembling Insomnia Palpitations Tachycardia Hyperventilation Urinary frequency Diarrhea

Dilated pupils Labored breathing Severe trembling Sleeplessness Palpitations Diaphoresis and pallor Muscular incoordination Immobility or purpose-

less hyperactivity Incoherence or inability

to verbalize

May remain superficial with others

Rarely experienced as distressful

Motivation is increased

A feeling of discontent May lead to a degree of

impairment in interper- sonal relationships as individual begins to focus on self and the need to relieve personal discomfort

Feelings of dread, loathing, horror

Total focus on self and intense desire to relieve the anxiety

Sense of impending doom

Terror Bizarre behavior, including

shouting, screaming, running about wildly, clinging to anyone or anything from which a sense of safety and security is derived

Hallucinations, delusions Extreme withdrawal

into self

Mild Moderate Severe Panic

Coping mechanisms

Ego defense

mechanisms

Psycho- neurotic

responses

Psychotic responses

Psycho- physiological responses

FIGURE 2–2 Adaptation responses on a continuum of anxiety.

problem-solving and rational thinking. As the level of anxiety increases, the strength of the ego is tested, and energy is mobilized to confront the threat. Anna Freud (1953) identified a number of defense mechanisms employed by the ego in the face of

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C H A P T E R 2 ■ Mental Health and Mental Illness: Historical and Theoretical Concepts 19

TA B L E 2 – 2 Ego Defense Mechanisms DEFENSE MECHANISM EXAMPLE DEFENSE MECHANISM EXAMPLE

COMPENSATION Covering up a real or perceived weakness by emphasizing a trait one considers more desirable

DENIAL Refusing to acknowledge the existence of a real situation or the feelings associated with it

DISPLACEMENT The transfer of feelings from one target to another that is considered less threatening or that is neutral

IDENTIFICATION An attempt to increase self-worth by acquiring certain attributes and characteristics of an individual one admires

INTELLECTUALIZATION An attempt to avoid expressing actual emotions associated with a stressful situation by using the intellectual processes of logic, reasoning, and analysis

INTROJECTION Integrating the beliefs and values of another individual into one’s own ego structure

ISOLATION Separating a thought or memory from the feeling, tone, or emotion associated with it

PROJECTION Attributing feelings or

impulses unacceptable to one’s self to another person

A physically handicapped boy is unable to partici- pate in football, so he compensates by becom- ing a great scholar.

A woman drinks alcohol every day and cannot stop, failing to acknowl- edge that she has a problem.

A client is angry with his physician, does not ex- press it, but becomes verbally abusive with the nurse.

A teenager who required lengthy rehabilitation after an accident decides to become a physical therapist as a result of his experiences.

Sarah’s husband is being transferred with his job to a city far away from her parents. She hides anxiety by explaining to her par- ents the advantages asso- ciated with the move.

Children integrate their parents’ value system into the process of con- science formation. A child says to a friend, “Don’t cheat. It’s wrong.”

A young woman de- scribes being attacked and raped without showing any emotion.

Sue feels a strong sexual attraction to her track coach and tells her friend, “He’s coming on to me!”

RATIONALIZATION Attempting to make excuses or formulate logical reasons to justify unacceptable feelings or behaviors

REACTION FORMATION Preventing unacceptable or undesirable thoughts or behaviors from being expressed by exaggerat- ing opposite thoughts or types of behaviors

REGRESSION Retreating in response to stress to an earlier level of development and the comfort mea - sures associated with that level of functioning

REPRESSION Involuntarily blocking unpleasant feelings and experiences from one’s awareness

SUBLIMATION Rechanneling of drives or impulses that are personally or socially unacceptable into activities that are constructive

SUPPRESSION The voluntary blocking of unpleasant feelings and experiences from one’s awareness

UNDOING Symbolically negating or canceling out an experience that one finds intolerable

John tells the rehab nurse, “I drink because it’s the only way I can deal with my bad mar- riage and my worse job.”

Jane hates nursing. She attended nursing school to please her parents. During career day, she speaks to prospective students about the excellence of nursing as a career.

When 2-year-old Jay is hospitalized for tonsillitis he will drink only from a bottle, even though his mother states he has been drinking from a cup for 6 months.

An accident victim can remember nothing about his accident.

A mother whose son was killed by a drunk driver channels her anger and energy into being the president of the local chapter of Mothers Against Drunk Driving.

Scarlett says, “I don’t want to think about that now. I’ll think about that tomorrow.”

Joe is nervous about his new job and yells at his wife. On his way home he stops and buys her some flowers.

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Moderate-to-Severe Anxiety Anxiety at the moderate-to-severe level that remains unresolved over an extended period of time can contribute to a number of physiological disorders. The DSM-5 (APA, 2013) describes these disorders under the category “Psychological Factors Affecting Other Medical Conditions.” The psychological factors may exacerbate symptoms of, delay recovery from, or interfere with treatment of the medical condition. The condition may be initiated or exacerbated by an environmental situation that the individual per- ceives as stressful. Measurable pathophysiology can be demonstrated. It is thought that psychological and behavioral factors may affect the course of almost every major category of disease, including but not limited to cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, neoplastic, neurological, and pulmonary conditions.

Severe Anxiety Extended periods of repressed severe anxiety can re- sult in psychoneurotic behavior patterns. Neurosis is no longer considered a separate category of mental disorder. However, the term is still used in the literature to further describe the symptomatology of certain disorders and to differentiate from behaviors that occur at the more serious level of psychosis. Neuroses are psychiatric disturbances characterized by excessive anxiety that is expressed directly or altered through de- fense mechanisms. It appears as a symptom such as an obsession, a compulsion, a phobia, or a sexual dysfunc- tion (Sadock, Sadock, & Ruiz, 2015). The following are common characteristics of people with neuroses:

■ They are aware that they are experiencing distress. ■ They are aware that their behaviors are maladaptive. ■ They are unaware of any possible psychological

causes of the distress. ■ They feel helpless to change their situation. ■ They experience no loss of contact with reality.

The following disorders are examples of psychoneu- rotic responses to anxiety as they appear in the DSM-5:

■ Anxiety disorders: Disorders in which the character- istic features are symptoms of anxiety and avoidance behavior (e.g., phobias, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and separation anxiety disorder).

■ Somatic symptom disorders: Disorders in which the characteristic features are physical symptoms for which there is no demonstrable organic pathology. Psychological factors are judged to play a significant role in the onset, severity, exacerbation, or mainte- nance of the symptoms (e.g., somatic symptom dis- order, illness anxiety disorder, conversion disorder, and factitious disorder).

■ Dissociative disorders: Disorders in which the characteristic feature is a disruption in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory,

identity, or perception of the environment (e.g., dissociative amnesia, dissociative identity disorder, and depersonalization-derealization disorder).

Panic Anxiety At this extreme level of anxiety, an individual is not capable of processing what is happening in the envi- ronment and may lose contact with reality. Psychosis is defined as a significant thought disturbance in which reality testing is impaired, resulting in delu- sions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, or catatonic behavior (Black & Andreasen, 2014). The following are common characteristics of people with psychoses:

■ They exhibit minimal distress (emotional tone is flat, bland, or inappropriate).

■ They are unaware that their behavior is maladaptive. ■ They are unaware of any psychological problems

(anosognosia). ■ They are exhibiting a flight from reality into a less

stressful world or one in which they are attempting to adapt.

Examples of psychotic responses to anxiety include schizophrenic, schizoaffective, and delusional disorders.

20 U N I T 1 ■ Basic Concepts in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

CORE CONCEPT Grief Grief is a subjective state of emotional, physical, and social responses to the loss of a valued entity.

Grief Most individuals experience intense emotional an- guish in response to a significant personal loss. A loss is anything that is perceived as such by the individual. Losses may be real, in which case they can be substan- tiated by others (e.g., death of a loved one, loss of per- sonal possessions), or they may be perceived by the individual alone, unable to be shared or identified by others (e.g., loss of the feeling of femininity following mastectomy). Any situation that creates change for an individual can be identified as a loss. Failure (either real or perceived) also can be viewed as a loss.

The loss or anticipated loss of anything of value to an individual can trigger the grief response. This period of characteristic emotions and behaviors is called mourning. The “normal” mourning process is adaptive and is characterized by feelings of sadness, guilt, anger, helplessness, hopelessness, and despair. An absence of mourning after a loss may be consid- ered maladaptive.

Stages of Grief Kübler-Ross (1969), in extensive research with termi- nally ill patients, identified five stages of feelings and

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C H A P T E R 2 ■ Mental Health and Mental Illness: Historical and Theoretical Concepts 21

behaviors that individuals experience in response to a real, perceived, or anticipated loss:

Stage 1—Denial: This is a stage of shock and dis - belief. The response may be one of “No, it can’t be true!” The reality of the loss is not acknowl- edged. Denial is a protective mechanism that al- lows the individual to cope in an immediate time frame while organizing more effective defense strategies.

Stage 2—Anger: “Why me?” and “It’s not fair!” are comments often expressed during the anger stage. Envy and resentment toward individuals not affected by the loss are common. Anger may be directed at the self or displaced on loved ones, caregivers, and even God. There may be a pre - occupation with an idealized image of the lost entity.

Stage 3—Bargaining: During this stage, which is usu- ally not visible or evident to others, a “bargain” is made with God in an attempt to reverse or post- pone the loss: “If God will help me through this, I promise I will go to church every Sunday and volunteer my time to help others.” Sometimes the promise is associated with feelings of guilt for not having performed satisfactorily, appropriately, or sufficiently.

Stage 4—Depression: During this stage, the full im- pact of the loss is experienced. The sense of loss is intense, and feelings of sadness and depression prevail. This is a time of quiet desperation and disengagement from all association with the lost entity. It differs from pathological depression, which occurs when an individual becomes fixed in an earlier stage of the grief process. Rather, stage 4 of the grief response represents advancement toward resolution.

Stage 5—Acceptance: The final stage brings a feeling of peace regarding the loss that has occurred. It is a time of quiet expectation and resignation. The focus is on the reality of the loss and its meaning for the individuals affected by it.

Not all individuals experience each of these stages in response to a loss, nor do they necessarily experi- ence them in this order. Some individuals’ grieving behaviors may fluctuate and even overlap between stages.

Anticipatory Grief When a loss is anticipated, individuals often begin the work of grieving before the actual loss occurs. Most people reexperience the grieving behaviors once the loss occurs, but preparing for the loss in advance can facilitate the process of mourning, actually decreasing the length and intensity of the response. Problems arise, particularly in anticipating

the death of a loved one, when family members experience anticipatory grieving and complete the mourning process prematurely. They disengage emotionally from the dying person, who may then experience feelings of rejection by loved ones at a time when this psychological support is so necessary.

Resolution The grief response can last from weeks to years. It cannot be hurried, and individuals must be allowed to progress at their own pace. In the loss of a loved one, grief work usually lasts for at least a year, during which the grieving person experiences each signifi- cant anniversary or holiday for the first time without the loved one present.

Length of the grief process may be prolonged by a number of factors. If the relationship with the lost entity was marked by ambivalence or if there had been an enduring love–hate association, reaction to the loss may be burdened with guilt. Guilt lengthens the grief reaction by promoting feelings of anger toward oneself for having committed a wrongdoing or behaved in an unacceptable manner toward a lost loved one. He or she may even feel that the negative behavior contributed to the loss.

Anticipatory grieving may shorten the grief response in individuals who are able to work through some of the feelings before the loss occurs. If the loss is sudden and unexpected, mourning may take longer than it would if individuals were able to grieve in anticipation of the loss.

Length of the grieving process is also affected by the number of recent losses experienced by an individual and whether he or she is able to complete one grieving process before another loss occurs. This is particularly true for elderly indi- viduals who may experience numerous losses in a span of a few years, including spouse, friends, other relatives, independent functioning, home, personal possessions, and pets. Grief accumulates into a bereavement overload, which for some indi- viduals is perceived as difficult or even impossible to overcome.

The process of mourning may be considered resolved when an individual is able to regain a sense of organization, redefine his or her life in the ab- sence of the lost person or object, and pursue new interests and relationships. Disorganization and emotional pain have been experienced and toler- ated. Preoccupation with the lost entity has been replaced with a renewed energy and new resolve about ways to keep the memory of the lost one alive. Most grief, however, does not permanently disap- pear but will reemerge from time to time in re- sponse to triggers such as anniversary dates (Sadock et al., 2015).

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Maladaptive Grief Responses Maladaptive responses to loss occur when an individual is not able to satisfactorily progress through the stages of grieving to achieve resolution. These responses usually occur when an individual becomes fixed in the denial or anger stage of the grief process. Several types of grief responses have been identified as pathological, including those that are prolonged, delayed, inhibited, or distorted. The prolonged response is characterized by an intense preoccupation with memories of the lost entity for many years after the loss has occurred. Behaviors associated with the stages of denial or anger are mani- fested, and disorganization of functioning and intense emotional pain related to the lost entity are evidenced.

In the delayed or inhibited response, the individual becomes fixed in the denial stage of the grieving process. The emotional pain associated with the loss is not experienced, but anxiety disorders (e.g., pho- bias, somatic symptom disorders) or sleeping and eating disorders (e.g., insomnia, anorexia) may be

evident. The individual may remain in denial for many years until the grief response is triggered by a reminder of the loss or even by an unrelated loss.

The individual who experiences a distorted response is fixed in the anger stage of grieving. In the distorted response, all the normal behaviors associated with griev- ing, such as helplessness, hopelessness, sadness, anger, and guilt, are exaggerated out of proportion to the situation. The individual turns the anger inward on the self, is consumed with overwhelming despair, and is unable to function in normal activities of daily living. Pathological depression is a distorted grief response.

Mental Health/Mental Illness Continuum

Anxiety and grief have been described as two primary responses to stress. In Figure 2–3, both of these re- sponses are presented on a continuum according to degree of symptom severity. Disorders as they appear in the DSM-5 are identified at their appropriate place- ment along the continuum.

22 U N I T 1 ■ Basic Concepts in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Feelings of Sadness

Dysthymia Cyclothymic Disorder

Major Depression Bipolar Disorder

Life's Everyday Disappointments

Neurotic Responses

Psychotic Responses

Mild Moderate Severe

Grief Grief

Anxiety Anxiety

Panic

Coping Mechanisms

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Psychoneurotic Responses

Psychotic Responses

Sleeping Eating Yawning Drinking Exercise Smoking Crying Pacing Laughing Talking it out with someone

Compensation Denial Displacement Identification Isolation Projection Rationalization Regression Repression Sublimation Suppression Undoing

Headaches Anorexia Arthritis Colitis Ulcers Asthma Pain Cancer CHD Sexual dysfunction

Phobias Obsessions Compulsions Hypochondriasis Conversion disorder Multiple personalities Amnesia Fugue

Schizophrenia Schizoaffective disorder Delusional disorders

Mild Moderate Severe

Mental Health

Mental Illness

Psychophysiological Responses

FIGURE 2–3 Conceptualization of anxiety and grief responses along the mental health/mental illness continuum.

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C H A P T E R 2 ■ Mental Health and Mental Illness: Historical and Theoretical Concepts 23

Summary and Key Points

■ Psychiatric care has its roots in ancient times, when etiology was based in superstition and ideas related to the supernatural.

■ Treatments were often inhumane and included brutal beatings, starvation, or torture.

■ Hippocrates associated insanity and mental illness with an irregularity in the interaction of the four body fluids (humors): blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm.

■ Conditions for care of the mentally ill have im- proved, largely because of the influence of leaders such as Benjamin Rush, Dorothea Dix, and Linda Richards, whose endeavors provided a model for more humanistic treatment.

■ Maslow identified a hierarchy of needs that individ- uals seek to fulfill in their quest to self-actualization (one’s highest potential).

■ For purposes of this text, the definition of mental health is “the successful adaptation to stressors from the internal or external environment, evidenced by thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are age- appropriate and congruent with local and cultural norms.”

■ Most cultures label behavior as mental illness on the basis of incomprehensibility and cultural relativity.

■ When observers are unable to find meaning or comprehensibility in behavior, they are likely to label that behavior as mental illness. The meaning of behaviors is determined within individual cul- tures. For purposes of this text, the definition of mental illness is viewed as “maladaptive responses to stressors from the internal or external environment,

evidenced by thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are incongruent with the local and cultural norms, and that interfere with the individual’s social, occu- pational, and/or physical functioning.”

■ Anxiety and grief have been described as two pri- mary psychological response patterns to stress.

■ Peplau defined anxiety by levels of symptom sever- ity: mild, moderate, severe, and panic.

■ Behaviors associated with levels of anxiety include coping mechanisms, ego defense mechanisms, psychophysiological responses, psychoneurotic responses, and psychotic responses.

■ Grief is described as a response to loss of a valued entity. Loss is anything that is perceived as such by the individual.

■ Kübler-Ross, in extensive research with terminally ill patients, identified five stages of feelings and behaviors that individuals experience in response to a real, perceived, or anticipated loss: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

■ Anticipatory grief is grief work that begins and sometimes ends before the loss occurs.

■ Resolution is thought to occur when an individual is able to remember and accept both the positive and negative aspects associated with the lost entity.

■ Grieving is thought to be maladaptive when the mourning process is prolonged, delayed or inhib- ited, or becomes distorted and exaggerated out of proportion to the situation. Pathological depres- sion is considered to be a distorted reaction.

Additional info available at www.davisplus.com

Review Questions Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

Select the answer that is most appropriate for each of the following questions.

1. Anna’s dog, Lucky, her pet for 16 years, was killed by a car 3 years ago. Since that time, Anna has lost weight, rarely leaves her home, and talks excessively about Lucky. Why would Anna’s behavior be considered maladaptive? a. It has been more than 3 years since Lucky died. b. Her grief is too intense over the loss of a dog. c. Her grief is interfering with her functioning. d. Cultural norms typically do not comprehend grief over the loss of a pet.

Continued

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24 U N I T 1 ■ Basic Concepts in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

2. Anna states that Lucky was her closest friend, and since his death, there is no one who could ever replace the relationship they had. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which level of need is not being met? a. Physiological needs b. Self-esteem needs c. Safety and security needs d. Love and belonging needs

3. Anna’s daughter notices that Anna appears to be listening to another voice when just the two of them are in a room together. When questioned, Anna admits that she hears someone telling her that she was a horrible caretaker for Lucky and did not deserve to ever have a pet. Which of the following best describes what Anna is experiencing? a. Neurosis b. Psychosis c. Depression d. Bereavement

4. Anna, who is 72 years old, is of the age when she may have experienced several losses in a short time. What is this called? a. Bereavement overload b. Normal mourning c. Isolation d. Cultural relativity

5. Anna has been grieving the death of Lucky for 3 years. She is unable to take care of her normal activities because she insists on visiting Lucky’s grave daily. What is the most likely reason that Anna’s daughter has put off seeking help for Anna? a. Women are less likely than men to seek help for emotional problems. b. Relatives often try to normalize behavior rather than label it mental illness. c. She knows that all older people are expected to be a little depressed. d. She is afraid that the neighbors will think her mother is “crazy.”

6. Lucky’s accident occurred when he got away from Anna while they were taking a walk. He ran into the street and was hit by a car. Anna cannot remember the circumstances of his death. This is an example of what defense mechanism? a. Rationalization b. Suppression c. Denial d. Repression

7. Lucky sometimes refused to obey Anna’s commands to come back to her, including when he ran into the street on the day of the accident. But Anna continues to insist, “He was the very best dog. He always minded me. He always did everything I told him to do.” Which defense mechanism is Anna exhibiting? a. Sublimation b. Compensation c. Reaction formation d. Undoing

8. Anna has been a widow for 20 years. Her maladaptive grief response to the loss of her dog may be attributed to which of the following? (Select all that apply.) a. Unresolved grief over loss of her husband b. Loss of several relatives and friends over the last few years c. Repressed feelings of guilt over the way Lucky died d. Inability to prepare in advance for the loss

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C H A P T E R 2 ■ Mental Health and Mental Illness: Historical and Theoretical Concepts 25

Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

9. For what reason would Anna’s illness be considered a neurosis rather than a psychosis? a. She is unaware that her behavior is maladaptive. b. She exhibits inappropriate affect (emotional tone). c. She experiences no loss of contact with reality. d. She tells the nurse, “There is nothing wrong with me!”

10. Which of the following statements by Anna might suggest that she is achieving resolution of her grief over Lucky’s death? a. “I don’t cry anymore when I think about Lucky.” b. “It’s true. Lucky didn’t always mind me. Sometimes he ignored my commands.” c. “I remember how it happened now. I should have held tighter to his leash!” d. “I won’t ever have another dog. It’s just too painful to lose them.”

References American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical

manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Black, D.W., & Andreasen, N.C. (2014). Introductory textbook of psychiatry (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Horwitz, A.V. (2010). The social control of mental illness. Clinton Corners, NY: Percheron Press.

Sadock, B.J., Sadock, V.A., & Ruiz, P. (2015). Synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry (11th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Classical References Freud, A. (1953). The ego and mechanisms of defense. New York:

International Universities Press.

Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In Standard edition of the complete psychological works of Freud (Vol. XIX). London: Hogarth Press.

Jahoda, M. (1958). Current concepts of positive mental health. New York: Basic Books.

Kübler-Ross, E. (1969). On death and dying. New York: Macmillan. Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York:

Harper & Row. Menninger, K. (1963). The vital balance. New York: Viking Press. Peplau, H. (1963). A working definition of anxiety. In S. Burd &

M. Marshall (Eds.), Some clinical approaches to psychiatric nursing. New York: Macmillan.

Robinson, L. (1983). Psychiatric nursing as a human experience (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: WB Saunders.

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U N I T 2 Foundations for

Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

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3 Concepts of Psychobiology C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Objectives

Homework Assignment

The Nervous System: An Anatomical Review

Neuroendocrinology

Genetics

Psychoneuroimmunology

Psychopharmacology and the Brain

Implications for Nursing

Summary and Key Points

Review Questions

K EY T E R M S

axon

cell body

circadian rhythms

dendrites

genotype

limbic system

neuron

neurotransmitter

phenotype

receptor sites

synapse

O B J EC T I V E S After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Identify gross anatomical structures of the brain and describe their functions.

2. Discuss the physiology of neurotransmission in the central nervous system.

3. Describe the role of neurotransmitters in human behavior.

4. Discuss the association of endocrine func- tioning to the development of psychiatric disorders.

5. Describe the role of genetics in the develop- ment of psychiatric disorders.

6. Discuss the correlation of altered brain function to various psychiatric disorders.

7. Identify diagnostic procedures used to detect alteration in biological functioning that may contribute to psychiatric disorders.

8. Discuss the influence of psychological factors on the immune system.

9. Describe the biological mechanisms of psychoactive drugs at neural synapses.

10. Recognize theorized influences in the devel- opment of psychiatric disorders, including brain physiology, genetics, endocrine func- tion, immune system, and psychosocial and environmental factors.

11. Discuss the implications of psychobiological concepts for the practice of psychiatric- mental health nursing.

H O M E W O R K A S S I G N M E N T Please read the chapter and answer the following questions:

1. A dramatic reduction in which neurotransmit- ter is most closely associated with Alzheimer’s disease?

2. Anorexia nervosa has been associated with a primary dysfunction of which structure of the brain?

3. Many psychotropic medications work by blocking the reuptake of neurotransmitters. Describe the process of reuptake.

4. What psychiatric disorder may be linked to chronic hypothyroidism?

CORE CONCEPTS Genetics Neuroendocrinology Psychobiology Psychoneuroimmunology Psychopharmacology

28

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In recent years, increased emphasis has been placed on the organic basis for psychiatric illness. This “neu- roscientific revolution” studies the biological basis of behavior, and several mental illnesses are now consid- ered physical disorders resulting from malfunctions and/or malformations of the brain. That some psychi- atric illnesses and associated behaviors can be traced to biological factors does not imply that psychosocial and sociocultural influences are totally discounted. For example, there is evidence that psychological inter- ventions have an influence on brain activity that is similar to that of psychopharmacological intervention (Flor, 2014; Furmark et al., 2002). Other evidence in- dicates that lifestyle choices such as marijuana use can precipitate mental illness (psychosis) in individuals with genetic vulnerability (National Institutes of Health, 2017). Ongoing research will build a better understanding of the complex interplay of neural activities within the brain and interaction with one’s environment.

The systems of biology, psychology, and sociology are not mutually exclusive—they are interacting sys- tems. This interaction is clearly indicated by the fact that individuals experience biological changes in response to environmental events. One or several of these systems may at various times explain behavioral phenomena.

This chapter focuses on the role of neurophysiolog- ical, neurochemical, genetic, and endocrine influences on psychiatric illness. An introduction to psychophar- macology is included (discussed in more detail in Chapter 4, Psychopharmacology), and various diagnos- tic procedures used to detect alteration in biological function that may contribute to psychiatric illness are

identified. The implications for psychiatric-mental health nursing are discussed.

The Nervous System: An Anatomical Review

The Brain The brain has three major divisions, subdivided into six major parts:

l. Forebrain a. Cerebrum b. Diencephalon

2. Midbrain a. Mesencephalon

3. Hindbrain a. Pons b. Medulla c. Cerebellum Each of these structures is discussed individually.

A summary is presented in Table 3–1.

Cerebrum The cerebrum consists of a right and left hemisphere and constitutes the largest part of the human brain. The two hemispheres are separated by a deep groove and connected to each other by a band of 200 million axons (nerve fibers) called the corpus callosum. Because

C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 29

CORE CONCEPT Psychobiology The study of the biological foundations of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes.

TA B L E 3 – 1 Structure and Function of the Brain STRUCTURE PRIMARY FUNCTION

I. FOREBRAIN A. Cerebrum

1. Frontal lobes

2. Parietal lobes

3. Temporal lobes

4. Occipital lobes

Composed of two hemispheres connected by a band of nerve tissue that houses a band of 200 million axons called the corpus callosum. The outer layer is called the cerebral cortex. It is extensively folded and consists of billions of neurons. The left hemisphere appears to deal with logic and solving problems. The right hemisphere may be called the “creative” brain and is associated with affect, behavior, and spatial-perceptual functions. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes

Voluntary body movement, including movements that permit speaking, thinking and judgment formation, and expression of feelings

Perception and interpretation of most sensory information (including touch, pain, taste, and body position)

Hearing, short-term memory, and sense of smell; expression of emotions through connection with limbic system

Visual reception and interpretation Continued

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each hemisphere controls different functions, infor- mation is processed through the corpus callosum so that each hemisphere is aware of the activity of the other.

The surface of the cerebrum consists of gray matter and is called the cerebral cortex. The gray matter is com- posed of neuron cell bodies that appear gray to the eye. These cell bodies are thought to be the actual “thinking” structures of the brain. The basal ganglia, four subcortical nuclei of gray matter (the striatum, the pallidum, the substantia nigra, and the subthalamic nucleus), are found deep within the cerebral hemi- spheres. They are responsible for certain subconscious aspects of voluntary movement, such as swinging the arms when walking, gesturing while speaking, and reg- ulating muscle tone (Scanlon & Sanders, 2015).

The cerebral cortex is identified by numerous folds called gyri and deep grooves between the folds called sulci. This extensive folding extends the surface area of the cerebral cortex to permit the presence of mil- lions more neurons than could not be accommodated without the folds (as is the case in the brains of some animals, such as dogs and cats). Each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is divided into the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe. These lobes, which are named for the overlying bones in the cranium, are identified in Figure 3–1.

The Frontal Lobes Voluntary body movement is controlled by impulses through the frontal lobes. The right frontal lobe

controls motor activity on the left side of the body, and the left frontal lobe controls motor activity on the right side of the body. The frontal lobe may also play a role in the emotional experience, as evidenced by changes in mood and character after damage to this area. The prefrontal cortex (the front part of the frontal lobe) plays an essential role in the regu- lation and adaptation of our emotions to new situa- tions and may have implications for moral and spiritual responses (Sadock, Sadock, & Ruiz, 2015). Neuroimaging tests suggest there may be decreased activity in the frontal lobes of people with schizo- phrenia (Butler et al., 2012).

The Parietal Lobes The parietal lobes manage somatosensory input, including touch, pain, pressure, taste, temperature, perception of joint and body position, and visceral sensations. The parietal lobes also contain association fibers linked to the primary sensory areas through which interpretation of sensory-perceptual informa- tion is made. Language interpretation is associated with the left hemisphere of the parietal lobe.

The Temporal Lobes The upper anterior temporal lobe is concerned with auditory functions, and the lower part is dedicated to short-term memory. The sense of smell has a connec- tion to the temporal lobes, as the impulses carried by the olfactory nerves end in this area of the brain. The temporal lobes also play a role in the expression of

30 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 3 – 1 Structure and Function of the Brain—cont’d STRUCTURE PRIMARY FUNCTION

B. Diencephalon 1. Thalamus

2. Hypothalamus

3. Limbic system

II. MIDBRAIN A. Mesencephalon

III. HINDBRAIN A. Pons

B. Medulla

C. Cerebellum

Connects cerebrum with lower brain structures Integrates all sensory input (except smell) on way to cortex; some involvement with emotions and mood

Regulates anterior and posterior lobes of pituitary gland; exerts control over actions of the auto- nomic nervous system; regulates appetite and temperature

Consists of medially placed cortical and subcortical structures and the fiber tracts connecting them with one another and with the hypothalamus. It is sometimes called the “emotional brain”—associated with feelings of fear and anxiety; anger and aggression; love, joy, and hope; and with sexuality and social behavior

Responsible for visual, auditory, and balance (“righting”) reflexes

Regulation of respiration and skeletal muscle tone; ascending and descending tracts connect brainstem with cerebellum and cortex

Pathway for all ascending and descending fiber tracts; contains vital centers that regulate heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration; reflex centers for swallowing, sneezing, coughing, and vomiting

Regulates muscle tone and coordination and maintains posture and equilibrium

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emotions through an interconnection with the limbic system. The left temporal lobe and the left parietal lobe are involved in language interpretation.

The Occipital Lobes The occipital lobes are the primary area of visual reception and interpretation. Visual perception, the ability to judge spatial relationships such as distance and to see in three dimensions, is also processed in this area. Language interpretation is affected by the visual processing that occurs in the occipital lobes.

Diencephalon The second part of the forebrain is the diencephalon, which connects the cerebrum with lower structures of the brain. The major components of the diencephalon include the thalamus and the hypothalamus, which are part of a neuroanatomical loop of structures known as the limbic system. These structures are identified in Figures 3–1 and 3–2.

Thalamus The thalamus integrates all sensory input (except smell) on its way to the cortex. This integration al- lows for rapid interpretation of the whole rather than individual perception of each sensation. The thala- mus is also involved in temporarily blocking minor sensations so that an individual can concentrate on

one important event when necessary. For example, an individual who is studying for an examination may be unaware of the clock ticking in the room or another person entering because the thalamus has temporarily blocked these incoming sensations from the cortex. The impact of dopamine in the thalamus is associ- ated with several neuropsychiatric disorders.

Hypothalamus The hypothalamus is located just below the thalamus and just above the pituitary gland. It has a number of diverse functions.

1. Regulation of the pituitary gland: The pituitary gland consists of two lobes—the posterior lobe and the anterior lobe. a. The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland is actually

extended tissue from the hypothalamus. The posterior lobe stores antidiuretic hormone (which helps to maintain blood pressure through regu- lation of water retention) and oxytocin (the hormone responsible for stimulation of the uterus during labor and the release of milk from the mammary glands). Both of these hormones are produced in the hypothalamus. When the hypothalamus detects the body’s need for these hormones, it sends nerve impulses to the poste- rior pituitary for their release.

C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 31

Frontal lobe

Premotor area Motor area

General sensory area

Sensory association area

Parietal lobe

Occipital lobe

Visual area

Auditory area

Temporal lobe

Auditory association area

Visual association area

Motor speech area

Cerebellum

Pons Medulla

FIGURE 3–1 Left cerebral hemisphere showing some of the functional areas that have been mapped. (Adapted from Scanlon, V.C., & Sanders, T. [2015]. Essentials of anatomy and physiology [7th ed.]. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company, with permission.)

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b. The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland consists of glandular tissue that produces a number of hormones used by the body. These hormones are regulated by releasing factors from the hypo- thalamus. When the hormones are required by the body, the releasing factors stimulate the re- lease of the hormone from the anterior pitu- itary, and the hormone in turn stimulates its target organ to carry out its specific functions.

2. Direct neural control over the actions of the auto- nomic nervous system: The hypothalamus regulates the appropriate visceral responses during various emotional states. The actions of the autonomic nervous system are described later in this chapter.

3. Regulation of appetite, temperature, blood pres- sure, thirst, and circadian rhythms: Appetite is reg- ulated through response to blood nutrient levels.

4. Regulation of temperature: The hypothalamus senses internal temperature changes in the blood that flows through the brain. It receives information

through sensory input from the skin about external temperature changes and uses this information to promote certain types of responses (e.g., sweating or shivering) that help maintain body temperature within the normal range.

Limbic System The part of the brain known as the limbic system con- sists of portions of the cerebrum and the dien- cephalon. Its major components include the medially placed cortical and subcortical structures and the fiber tracts connecting them with one another and with the hypothalamus. The limbic system is a group of structures including the amygdala, mammillary body, olfactory tract, hypothalamus, cingulate gyrus, septum pellucidum, thalamus, hippocampus, and fornix. This system has been called the “emotional brain” and is associated with feelings of fear and anxiety; anger, rage, and aggression; love, joy, and hope; and sexuality and social behavior. The amygdala seems

32 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Septum pellucidum

Thalamus Fornix

HippocampusMammillary body Pituitary gland

Amygdala

Olfactory tract

Hypothalamus

Cingulate gyrus

FIGURE 3–2 Structures of the limbic system. (From Scanlon, V.C., & Sanders, T. [2011]. Essentials of anatomy and physiology [6th ed.]. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company, with permission.)

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to be a primary gateway for processing emotional stimuli, particularly responses to fear, anxiety, and panic.

Mesencephalon Structures of major importance in the mesencephalon, or midbrain, include nuclei and fiber tracts. The mesencephalon extends from the pons to the hypo- thalamus and is responsible for integration of various reflexes, including visual reflexes (e.g., automatically turning away from a dangerous object when it comes into view), auditory reflexes (e.g., automatically turn- ing toward a sound that is heard), and righting reflexes (e.g., automatically keeping the head upright and maintaining balance).

Pons The pons is a bulbous structure that lies between the midbrain and the medulla as part of the brainstem (Fig. 3–1). It is composed of large bundles of fibers and forms a major connection between the cerebel- lum and the brainstem. The pons is a relay station that transmits messages between various parts of the nervous system, including the cerebrum and cerebel- lum. It contains the central connections of cranial nerves V through VIII and centers for respiration and skeletal muscle tone. The pons is also associated with sleep and dreaming.

Medulla The medulla is the connecting structure between the spinal cord and the pons, and all of the ascending and descending fiber tracts pass through it. The vital centers are contained in the medulla, and it is respon- sible for regulation of heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration. The medulla contains reflex centers for swallowing, sneezing, coughing, and vomiting, as well as nuclei for cranial nerves IX through XII. The medulla, pons, and midbrain form the structure known as the brainstem.

Cerebellum The cerebellum is separated from the brainstem by the fourth ventricle but is connected to it through bundles of fiber tracts (Fig. 3–1). The cerebellum is associated with involuntary aspects of movement such as coordination, muscle tone, and the maintenance of posture and equilibrium.

Nerve Tissue The tissue of the central nervous system (CNS) con- sists of nerve cells called neurons that generate and transmit electrochemical impulses. The structure of a neuron is composed of a cell body, an axon, and dendrites. The cell body contains the nucleus and is essential for the continued life of the neuron. The

dendrites are processes that transmit impulses toward the cell body, and the axon transmits impulses away from the cell body. The axons and dendrites are cov- ered by layers of cells called neuroglia that form a coat- ing, or “sheath,” of myelin. Myelin is a phospholipid that provides insulation against short-circuiting of the neurons during their electrical activity and increases the velocity of the impulse. The white matter of the brain and spinal cord is so called because of the whitish appearance of the myelin sheath over the axons and dendrites. The gray matter is composed of cell bodies that contain no myelin.

The three classes of neurons include afferent (sen- sory), efferent (motor), and interneurons. The affer- ent neurons carry impulses from receptors in the internal and external periphery to the CNS, where they are then interpreted into various sensations. The efferent neurons carry impulses from the CNS to effectors in the periphery, such as muscles (that respond by contracting) and glands (that respond by secreting).

Interneurons exist entirely within the CNS, and 99 percent of all nerve cells belong to this group. They may carry only sensory or motor impulses, or they may serve as integrators in the pathways between afferent and efferent neurons. They account in large part for thinking, feelings, learning, language, and memory.

Synapses Information is transmitted through the body from one neuron to another. Some messages may be processed through only a few neurons, whereas others may require thousands of neuronal connec- tions. The neurons that transmit the impulses do not actually touch each other. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse. The small space between the axon terminals of one neuron and the cell body or dendrites of another is called the synaptic cleft. Neurons conducting impulses toward the synapse are called presynaptic neurons, and those conducting impulses away are called postsynaptic neurons.

Chemicals that act as neurotransmitters are stored in the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron. An electrical impulse through the neuron causes the release of this neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter then diffuses across the synap- tic cleft and combines with receptor sites that are situated on the cell membrane of the postsynaptic neuron. The type of combination determines whether or not another electrical impulse is generated. If an electrical impulse is generated, the result is called an excitatory response and the electrical impulse moves on to the next synapse, where the same process recurs. If an electrical impulse is not generated by the neu- rotransmitter-receptor site combination, the result is called an inhibitory response, and synaptic transmission

C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 33

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is terminated. Activity at the neural synapse is relevant in the study of psychiatric disorders because excessive or deficient activity of neurotransmitters influences a variety of cognitive and emotional symptoms. The synapse is also believed to be the primary site of activ- ity for psychotropic drugs.

The cell body of the postsynaptic neuron also con- tains a chemical inactivator that is specific to the neuro- transmitter released by the presynaptic neuron. When the synaptic transmission has been completed, the chemical inactivator quickly inactivates the neurotrans- mitter to prevent unwanted, continuous impulses until a new impulse from the presynaptic neuron releases more of the neurotransmitter. Continuous impulses can result in excessive activity of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, which is believed to be responsible for symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions seen in people with schizophrenia. A schematic repre- sentation of a synapse is presented in Figure 3–3.

Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is considered part of the peripheral nervous system. Its regulation is modulated by the hypothalamus, and emotions exert a great deal of influence over its functioning. For

this reason, the ANS has been implicated in the etiol- ogy of a number of psychophysiological disorders.

The ANS has two divisions: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic. The sympathetic division is dominant in stressful situations and prepares the body for the fight-or-flight response (discussed in Chapter 1, The Concept of Stress Adaptation). The neuronal cell bodies of the sympathetic division orig- inate in the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord. Their axons extend to the chains of sympathetic ganglia where they synapse with other neurons that subsequently innervate the visceral effectors. This results in an increase in heart rate and respiration and a decrease in digestive secretions and peristalsis. Blood is shunted to the vital organs and skeletal mus- cles to ensure adequate oxygenation.

The neuronal cell bodies of the parasympathetic division originate in the brainstem and the sacral segments of the spinal cord and extend to the parasympathetic ganglia where the synapse takes place either very close to or actually in the visceral organ being innervated. In this way, a very localized response is possible. The parasympathetic division dominates when an individual is in a relaxed, non- stressful condition. The heart and respirations are

34 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Na+

Na+

Na+

Axon of presynaptic neuron

Vesicles of neurotransmitter Receptor site

Inactivator (cholinesterase)

Dendrite of postsynaptic

neuron

Inactivated neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter (acetylcholine)

Mitochondrion

FIGURE 3–3 Impulse transmission at a synapse. The arrow indicates the direction of electrical impulses. (From Scanlon, V.C., & Sanders, T. [2015]. Essentials of anatomy and physiology [7th ed.]. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company, with permission.)

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maintained at a normal rate, and secretions and peristalsis increase for normal digestion. Elimination functions are promoted. A schematic representation of the ANS is presented in Figure 3–4.

Neurotransmitters Although neurotransmitters were described during the explanation of synaptic activity, they are discussed here separately and in detail because of the essential function they perform in the role of human emotion

and behavior. Neurotransmitters are also central to the therapeutic action of many psychotropic medications.

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that convey infor- mation across synaptic clefts to neighboring target cells. They are stored in small vesicles in the axon terminals of neurons. When the action potential, or electrical impulse, reaches this point, the neurotransmitters are released from the vesicles. They cross the synaptic cleft and bind with receptor sites on the cell body or dendrites of the adjacent neuron to allow the impulse

C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 35

FIGURE 3–4 The autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic division is shown on the left, and the parasympathetic division is shown on the right (both divisions are bilateral). (From Scanlon, V.C., & Sanders, T. [2015]. Essentials of anatomy and physiology [7th ed.]. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Com- pany, with permission.)

Sympathetic Eye Ciliary ganglion

Parasympathetic

Salivary glands

Pons

Otic ganglion

Vagus nerve

Pterygopalatine ganglion

Submandibular ganglion

Midbrain III

Medulla

VII

IX

Trachea

Preganglionic neuron

Preganglionic neurons

Postganglionic neuron

Postganglionic neurons

Celiac ganglion

Adrenal gland

Chain of sympathetic ganglia

Inferior mesenteric ganglion

Kidney

Pancreas

Superior mesenteric ganglion

Large intestine

Lung

Heart

Stomach

Small intestine

Colon

Rectum

Reproductive organs

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

T9 T10

T11

T12

L1

L2

S2 S3 S4

X

Bladder

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to continue its course or to prevent the impulse from continuing. After the neurotransmitter has performed its function in the synapse, it either returns to the vesi- cles to be stored and used again or is inactivated and dissolved by enzymes. The process of being stored for reuse is called reuptake, a function that holds signifi- cance for understanding the mechanism of action of certain psychotropic medications.

Many neurotransmitters exist in the central and peripheral nervous systems, but only a limited number

have implications for psychiatry. Major categories include cholinergics, monoamines, amino acids, and neuropeptides. Each of these is discussed separately and summarized in Table 3–2.

Cholinergics Acetylcholine Acetylcholine was the first chemical to be identified as and proven to be a neurotransmitter. It is a major effector chemical in the ANS, producing activity

36 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 3 – 2 Neurotransmitters in the Central Nervous System POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS FOR MENTAL

NEUROTRANSMITTER LOCATION AND FUNCTION ILLNESS

I. CHOLINERGICS A. Acetylcholine

II. MONOAMINES A. Norepinephrine

B. Dopamine

C. Serotonin

D. Histamine

III. AMINO ACIDS A. Gamma-aminobutyric

acid

B. Glycine

C. Glutamate and aspartate

ANS: Sympathetic and parasympathetic presynaptic nerve terminals; parasympathetic postsynaptic nerve terminals

CNS: Cerebral cortex, hippocampus, limbic structures, and basal ganglia

Functions: Sleep, arousal, pain perception, movement, memory

ANS: Sympathetic postsynaptic nerve terminals CNS: Thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system,

hippocampus, cerebellum, cerebral cortex Functions: Mood, cognition, perception, locomotion,

cardiovascular functioning, and sleep and arousal

Frontal cortex, limbic system, basal ganglia, thalamus, posterior pituitary, spinal cord

Functions: Movement and coordination, emotions, voluntary judgment, release of prolactin

Hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic system, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, spinal cord

Functions: Sleep and arousal, libido, appetite, mood, aggression, pain perception, coordination, judgment

Hypothalamus Functions: Wakefulness; pain sensation, inflammatory

response

Hypothalamus, hippocampus, cortex, cerebellum, basal ganglia, spinal cord, retina

Functions: Slowdown of body activity

Spinal cord, brainstem Functions: Recurrent inhibition of motor neurons

Pyramidal cells of the cortex, cerebellum, and the primary sensory afferent systems; hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, spinal cord

Functions: Relay of sensory information and in the regulation of various motor and spinal reflexes

Glutamate also has a role in memory and learning.

Increased levels: Depression Decreased levels: Alzheimer’s

disease, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease

Decreased levels: Depression Increased levels: Mania, anxiety

states, schizophrenia

Decreased levels: Parkinson’s disease and depression

Increased levels: Mania and schizophrenia

Decreased levels: Depression Increased levels: Anxiety states

Decreased levels: Depression

Decreased levels: Huntington’s disease, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and various forms of epilepsy

Toxic levels: Glycine encephalopathy

Decreased levels: Correlated with spastic motor movements

Increased levels: Huntington’s disease, temporal lobe epilepsy, spinal cerebellar degeneration, anxiety disorders, depressive disorders

Decreased levels: Schizophrenia

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C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 37

TA B L E 3 – 2 Neurotransmitters in the Central Nervous System—cont’d POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS FOR MENTAL

NEUROTRANSMITTER LOCATION AND FUNCTION ILLNESS

D. D-Serine

IV. NEUROPEPTIDES A. Endorphins and

enkephalins

B. Substance P

C. Somatostatin

ANS, autonomic nervous system, CNS, central nervous system, NMDA, N-methyl D-aspartate.

Cerebral cortex, forebrain, hippocampus, cerebellum striatum, thalamus

Functions: Binds at NMDA receptors and, with glutamate, is a coagonist whose functions include mediating NMDA receptor transmission, synaptic plasticity, neurotoxicity

Hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic structures, midbrain, brainstem; enkephalins are also found in the gastrointestinal tract

Functions: Modulation of pain and reduced peristalsis (enkephalins)

Hypothalamus, limbic structures, midbrain, brain- stem, thalamus, basal ganglia, spinal cord; also found in gastrointestinal tract and salivary glands

Function: Regulation of pain

Cerebral cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, basal ganglia, brainstem, spinal cord

Function: Depending on part of the brain affected, stimulates release of dopamine, serotonin, norep- inephrine, and acetylcholine, and inhibits release of norepinephrine, histamine, and glutamate; also acts as a neuromodulator for serotonin in the hypothalamus

Decreased levels: Schizophrenia

Modulation of dopamine activity by opioid peptides may indicate some link to the symptoms of schizophrenia

Decreased levels: Huntington’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease

Increased levels: Depression

Decreased levels: Alzheimer’s disease

Increased levels: Huntington’s disease

at all sympathetic and parasympathetic presynaptic nerve terminals and all parasympathetic postsynap- tic nerve terminals. It is highly significant in the neurotransmission that occurs at the junctions of nerves and muscles. Acetylcholinesterase is the enzyme that destroys acetylcholine or inhibits its activity.

In the CNS, acetylcholine neurons innervate the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and limbic structures. The pathways are especially dense through the area of the basal ganglia in the brain.

Functions of acetylcholine are manifold and include sleep, arousal, pain perception, the modulation and coordination of movement, and memory acquisition and retention. Cholinergic mechanisms may have some role in certain disorders of motor behavior and memory, such as Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease.

Monoamines Norepinephrine Norepinephrine is the neurotransmitter that produces activity at the sympathetic postsynaptic nerve terminals in the ANS, resulting in fight-or-flight responses in the effector organs. In the CNS, norepinephrine pathways originate in the pons and medulla and innervate the

thalamus, dorsal hypothalamus, limbic system, hip- pocampus, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex. When norepinephrine is not returned for storage in the vesicles of the axon terminals, it is metabolized and in- activated by the enzymes monoamine oxidase (MAO) and catechol-O-methyl-transferase (COMT).

The functions of norepinephrine include the regu- lation of mood, cognition, perception, locomotion, cardiovascular functioning, and sleep and arousal. The activity of norepinephrine also has been implicated in certain mood disorders such as depression and mania, in anxiety states, and in schizophrenia (Sadock et al., 2015).

Dopamine Dopamine pathways arise from the midbrain and hypo- thalamus and terminate in the frontal cortex, limbic system, basal ganglia, and thalamus. As with norepi- nephrine, the inactivating enzymes for dopamine are MAO and COMT.

Dopamine functions include regulation of move- ments and coordination, emotions, and voluntary decision-making ability. Because of its influence on the pituitary gland, it inhibits the release of prolactin (Sadock et al., 2015). Increased levels of dopamine are associated with mania and schizophrenia.

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Serotonin Serotonin pathways originate from cell bodies located in the pons and medulla and project to areas includ- ing the hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic system, cere- bral cortex, cerebellum, and spinal cord. Serotonin that is not returned to be stored in the axon terminal vesicles is catabolized by the enzyme MAO.

Serotonin may play a role in sleep and arousal, libido, appetite, mood, aggression, and pain percep- tion. The serotoninergic system has been implicated in the etiology of certain psychopathological condi- tions including anxiety states, mood disorders, and schizophrenia (Sadock et al., 2015).

Histamine The role of histamine in mediating allergic and inflam- matory reactions has been well documented. Its role in the CNS as a neurotransmitter has only recently been confirmed, and the availability of information on this function is limited. The highest concentrations of histamine are found within various regions of the hypothalamus. Histaminic neurons in the posterior hypothalamus are associated with sustaining wakeful- ness. The enzyme that catabolizes histamine is MAO. Although the exact processes mediated by histamine in the CNS are uncertain, some data suggest that his- tamine may play a role in depressive illness.

Amino Acids Inhibitory Amino Acids Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) has a widespread distribution in the CNS, with high concentrations in the hypothalamus, hip- pocampus, cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia of the brain; in the gray matter of the dorsal horn of the spinal cord; and in the retina. GABA is catabolized by the enzyme GABA transaminase.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters such as GABA prevent postsynaptic excitation, interrupting the progression of the electrical impulse at the synaptic junction. This function is significant when slowdown of body activity is advantageous. Enhancement of the GABA system is the mechanism of action by which the benzodiazepines produce their calming effect.

Alterations in the GABA system have been impli- cated in the etiology of anxiety disorders, movement disorders (e.g., Huntington’s disease), and various forms of epilepsy.

Glycine The highest concentrations of glycine in the CNS are found in the spinal cord and brainstem. Little is known about the possible enzymatic metabolism of glycine.

Glycine appears to be the neurotransmitter of recurrent inhibition of motor neurons within the spinal cord and is possibly involved in the regulation

of spinal and brainstem reflexes. It has been impli- cated in the pathogenesis of certain types of spastic disorders and in glycine encephalopathy, which is known to occur with toxic accumulation of the neurotrans- mitter in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid (Van Hove, Coughlin, & Sharer, 2013).

Excitatory Amino Acids Glutamate and Aspartate Glutamate and aspartate appear to be primary excitatory neurotransmitters in the pyramidal cells of the cortex, the cerebellum, and the primary sensory afferent systems. They are also found in the hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and spinal cord. Glutamate and aspartate are inacti- vated by uptake into the tissues and through assimi- lation in various metabolic pathways.

Glutamate and aspartate function in the relay of sensory information and in the regulation of various motor and spinal reflexes. Alteration in these systems has been implicated in the etiology of certain neurodegenerative disorders, such as Hunting- ton’s disease, temporal lobe epilepsy, and spinal cere- bellar degeneration. Recent studies have implicated increased levels of glutamate in anxiety and depres- sive disorders and decreased levels in schizophrenia (Ouellet-Plamondon & George, 2012). Glutamate also plays a role in memory and learning. Another amino acid, D-serine, has been identified as a neurotrans- mitter that, with glutamate, may act as a coagonist at NMDA (N-methyl D-aspartate) receptors. Hypofunc- tion of these neurotransmitters may be associated with schizophrenia (Balu et al., 2013; Wolosker et al., 2008).

Neuropeptides Neuropeptides act as signaling molecules in the CNS. Their activities include regulating processes related to sex, sleep, stress and pain, emotion, and social cogni- tion. They may contribute to symptoms and behaviors associated with psychosis, mood disorders, dementia, and autism spectrum disorders (Sadock et al., 2015). Hormonal neuropeptides are discussed in the section of this chapter on neuroendocrinology.

Opioid Peptides Opioid peptides, which include the endorphins and enkephalins, have been widely studied. They are found in various concentrations in the hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic structures, midbrain, and brainstem. Enkephalins are also found in the gastrointestinal tract. Opioid peptides have natural morphine-like properties and are thought to have a role in pain modulation. Released in response to painful stimuli, they may be responsible for producing the analgesic effect that results from acupuncture. Opioid peptides alter the release of dopamine and affect the spontaneous activ- ity of the dopaminergic neurons. These findings may

38 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

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have some implication for opioid peptide-dopamine interaction in the etiology of schizophrenia.

Substance P Substance P, the first neuropeptide to be discovered, is present in high concentrations in the hypothalamus, limbic structures, midbrain, and brainstem. It is also found in the thalamus, basal ganglia, and spinal cord. Substance P plays a role in sensory transmission, partic- ularly in the regulation of pain. Recent studies demon- strated that people with depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) had elevated levels of substance P in cerebral spinal fluid (Sadock et al., 2015).

Somatostatin Somatostatin (also called growth hormone–inhibiting hormone [GHIH]) is found in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, basal ganglia, brainstem, and spinal cord, and has multiple effects on the CNS. In its function as a neurotransmitter, somato- statin exerts both stimulatory and inhibitory effects. Depending on the part of the brain affected, it has been shown to stimulate dopamine, serotonin, nor- epinephrine, and acetylcholine and to inhibit norep- inephrine, histamine, and glutamate. It also acts as a neuromodulator for serotonin in the hypothalamus, thereby regulating its release. Somatostatin may serve this function for other neurotransmitters as well. High concentrations of somatostatin have been reported in brain specimens of clients with Huntington’s disease, and low concentrations have been found in those with Alzheimer’s disease.

the hormones subject to hypothalamus-pituitary reg- ulation may have implications for behavioral function- ing. Discussion of these hormones is summarized in Table 3–3.

Pituitary Gland The Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis) The hypothalamus has direct control over the poste- rior pituitary through efferent neural pathways. Two hormones are found in the posterior pituitary: vaso- pressin (antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin. They are actually produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary. Their release is mediated by neural impulses from the hypothalamus (Fig. 3–6).

Antidiuretic Hormone The main function of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is to conserve body water and maintain normal blood pressure. The release of ADH is stimulated by pain, emotional stress, dehydration, increased plasma con- centration, and decreases in blood volume. An alter- ation in the secretion of this hormone is related to the polydipsia seen in patients with diabetes. This may be one of many factors contributing to the polydipsia and water intoxication (a state of hyperhydration re- lated to excessive consumption of water) observed in about 10 to 20 percent of patients with severe mental illness, particularly those with schizophrenia. Other factors correlated with this behavior include adverse effects of psychotropic medications and features of the behavioral disorder itself. Many factors may influ- ence excessive intake of water in patients with severe psychiatric illness. Severe water intoxication can result in electrolyte imbalance and death (Kohli, Shishir, & Sharma, 2011). ADH also may play a role in learning and memory, alteration of the pain response, and modification of sleep patterns.

Oxytocin Oxytocin causes contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy and stimulates release of milk from the mammary glands (Scanlon & Sanders, 2015). It is also released in response to stress and during sexual arousal. Oxytocin may promote bonding between sexes and has been used experimentally with autistic children to increase socialization (Sadock et al., 2015). Its role in behavioral functioning is unclear, although it is possible that oxytocin may stimulate the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in certain situations, thereby playing a key role in the overall hormonal response to stress.

The Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis) The hypothalamus produces releasing hormones that pass through capillaries and veins of the hy- pophyseal portal system to capillaries in the anterior

C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 39

CORE CONCEPTS Neuroendocrinology The study of the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system and the effects of various hormones on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning.

Neuroendocrinology

Human endocrine functioning has a strong founda- tion in the CNS under the direction of the hypothala- mus, which has direct control over the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland has two major lobes—the interior lobe (also called the adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (also called the neurohypophysis). The pituitary gland is only about the size of a pea, but despite its size and because of the powerful control it exerts over en- docrine functioning in humans, it is sometimes called the “master gland.” Figure 3–5 shows the hormones of the pituitary gland and their target organs. Many of

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40 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Hypothalamus

Kidneys

Posterior pituitary

Uterus

Ovaries Testes

Thyroid

Breasts

Adrenal cortex

Bones, organs

Anterior pituitary hormones

Anterior pituitary

Posterior pituitary hormones

A D

H

Oxytocin

Prolactin

LHFSH

TSH

ACTH G

H

FIGURE 3–5 Hormones of the pituitary gland and their target organs. (From Scanlon, V.C., & Sanders, T. [2015]. Essentials of anatomy and physiology [7th ed.]. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company, with permission.)

TA B L E 3 – 3 Hormones of the Neuroendocrine System POSSIBLE BEHAVIORAL

LOCATION AND CORRELATION TO ALTERED HORMONE STIMULATION OF RELEASE TARGET ORGAN FUNCTION SECRETION

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Oxytocin

Posterior pituitary; release stimulated by dehydration, pain, stress

Posterior pituitary; release stimulated by end of preg- nancy; stress; during sexual arousal

Kidney (causes increased reabsorption)

Uterus; breasts

Conservation of body water; maintenance of blood pressure

Contraction of the uterus for labor; re- lease of breast milk

Polydipsia; altered pain response; modified sleep pattern

May perform role in stress response by stimulation of ACTH

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C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 41

TA B L E 3 – 3 Hormones of the Neuroendocrine System—cont’d POSSIBLE BEHAVIORAL

LOCATION AND CORRELATION TO ALTERED HORMONE STIMULATION OF RELEASE TARGET ORGAN FUNCTION SECRETION

Growth hormone (GH)

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Prolactin

Gonadotropic hormones

Melanocyte- stimulating hormone (MSH)

Anterior pituitary; release stimulated by growth hormone–releasing hor- mone from hypothalamus

Anterior pituitary; release stimulated by thyrotropin- releasing hormone from hypothalamus

Anterior pituitary; release stimulated by corticotropin- releasing hormone from hypothalamus

Anterior pituitary; release stimulated by prolactin- releasing hormone from hypothalamus

Anterior pituitary; release stimulated by gonadotropin- releasing hormone from hypothalamus

Anterior pituitary; release stimulated by onset of darkness

Bones and tissues

Thyroid gland

Adrenal cortex

Breasts

Ovaries and testes

Pineal gland

Growth in children; protein synthesis in adults

Stimulation of secretion of needed thyroid hormones for metabolism of food and regulation of temperature

Stimulation of secre- tion of cortisol, which performs a role in response to stress

Stimulation of milk production

Stimulation of secretion of estro- gen, progesterone, and testosterone; role in ovulation and sperm production

Stimulation of secre- tion of melatonin

Anorexia nervosa

Increased levels of thyroid hormones (decreased secretion of TSH): Insomnia, anxiety, emotional lability

Decreased levels of thyroid hormones (increased secretion of TSH): Fatigue, depression

Increased levels: Mood disorders, psychosis

Decreased levels: Depression, apathy, fatigue

Increased levels: Depression, anxiety, decreased libido, irritability

Decreased levels: Depression, anorexia nervosa

Increased testosterone: Increased sexual behavior and aggressiveness

Increased levels: Depression

pituitary, where they stimulate secretion of special- ized hormones. The hormones of the anterior pituitary gland regulate multiple body functions and include growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, ACTH, prolactin, gonadotropin-stimulating hormone, and melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Most of these hor- mones are regulated by a negative feedback mechanism. Once the hormone has exerted its effects, the infor- mation is “fed back” to the anterior pituitary, which inhibits the release and ultimately decreases the effects of the stimulating hormones.

Growth Hormone The release of growth hormone (GH), also called soma- totropin, is stimulated by growth hormone–releasing

hormone (GHRH) from the hypothalamus. Its release is inhibited by GHIH, or somatostatin, also from the hypothalamus. It is responsible for growth in children and continued protein synthesis throughout life. Dur- ing periods of fasting, it stimulates the release of fat from the adipose tissue to increase energy. The release of GHIH is stimulated in response to periods of hyper- glycemia. GHRH is stimulated in response to hypo- glycemia and to stressful situations. During prolonged stress, GH has a direct effect on protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism, resulting in increased serum glu- cose and free fatty acids to be used for increased energy. GH deficiency has been noted in many patients with major depressive disorder, and several GH abnormali- ties have been noted in patients with anorexia nervosa.

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Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypo- thalamus stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), or thyrotropin, from the anterior pituitary. TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). Thyroid hormones are integral to the metabolism of food and the regulation of temperature.

A correlation between thyroid dysfunction and altered behavioral functioning has been well docu- mented. Common symptoms of hyperthyroidism include irritability, insomnia, anxiety, restlessness, weight loss, and emotional lability, in some instances progressing to delirium or psychosis. Symptoms of fatigue, decreased libido, memory impairment, depres- sion, and suicidal ideation have been associated with chronic hypothyroidism. Studies have correlated vari- ous forms of thyroid dysfunction with mood disorders, anxiety, eating disorders, schizophrenia, and dementia.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary. ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol. CRH, ACTH, and cortisol levels all rise in response to stress. Disorders of the adrenal cor- tex have been associated with mood disorders, PTSD, Alzheimer’s dementia, and substance use disorders.

Addison’s disease is the result of hyposecretion of the hormones of the adrenal cortex. Behavioral symptoms of hyposecretion include mood changes with apathy, social withdrawal, impaired sleep, decreased

concentration, and fatigue. Hypersecretion of cortisol results in Cushing’s disease and is associated with behaviors that include depression, mania, psychosis, and suicidal ideation. Cognitive impairments also have been observed.

Prolactin Prolactin is mainly involved in reproductive functions and milk production in the mammary glands during pregnancy. First-generation antipsychotic medications increase prolactin levels and may be responsible for the undesired side effect of lactation. High prolactin levels are also associated with depression, decreased libido, anxiety, irritability, and the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Prolactin levels in psychotic patients have been positively correlated with severity of tardive dyskinesia (Sadock et al., 2015).

Gonadotropic Hormones The gonadotropic hormones are so called because they produce an effect on the gonads—the ovaries and the testes. The gonadotropins include follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). In women, FSH initiates maturation of ovarian follicles into ova and stimulates their secretion of estrogen. LH is responsible for ovulation and the secretion of pro - gesterone from the corpus luteum. In men, FSH initi- ates sperm production in the testes, and LH increases secretion of testosterone by the interstitial cells of the testes (Scanlon & Sanders, 2015).

Limited evidence exists to correlate gonadotropins to behavioral functioning, although some observations

42 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Hypothalamus

Hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract

Posterior pituitary

Inferior hypophyseal artery

Hormones of posterior pituitary

Posterior lobe vein

Optic chiasma

Hypothalamus

Releasing hormones

Capillaries in hypothalamus

Hypophyseal portal veins

Capillaries in anterior pituitary

Hormones of anterior pituitary

Lateral hypophyseal vein

Superior hypophyseal arteries

Optic chiasma

FIGURE 3–6 Structural relationships of hypothalamus and pituitary gland. (A) Posterior pituitary stores hormones produced in the hypothalamus. (B) Releasing hormones of the hypothalamus circulate directly to the anterior pituitary and influence its secretions. Notice the two networks of capillaries. (From Scanlon, V.C., & Sanders, T. [2015]. Essentials of anatomy and physiology [7th ed.]. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company, with permission.)

A B

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have been made that warrant hypothetical considera- tion. Studies have indicated decreased levels of testos- terone, LH, and FSH in men who have depression. Increased sexual behavior and aggressiveness have been linked to elevated testosterone levels in both men and women. Decreased plasma levels of LH and FSH com- monly occur in patients with anorexia nervosa. Supple- mental estrogen therapy has resulted in improved mentation and mood in some depressed women.

Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) from the hypothalamus stimulates the pineal gland to secrete melatonin. The release of melatonin appears to depend on the onset of darkness and is suppressed by light. Studies of this hormone have indicated that environmental light can affect neuronal activity and influence circadian rhythms. Correlation between abnormal secretion of melatonin and symptoms of depression has led to the implication of melatonin in the etiology of seasonal affective disorder, in which individuals become depressed only during the fall and winter months when the amount of daylight decreases.

Circadian Rhythms Human biological rhythms are largely determined by genetic coding, with input from the external environ- ment influencing the cyclic effects. Circadian rhythms in humans follow a near-24-hour cycle and may influ- ence a variety of regulatory functions, including the sleep–wakefulness cycle, body temperature regulation, patterns of activity such as eating and drinking, and hormone secretion. The 24-hour rhythms in humans are affected to a large degree by the cycles of lightness and darkness. This occurs because of a “pacemaker” in the brain that sends messages to other systems in the body and maintains the 24-hour rhythm. This endogenous pacemaker appears to be the suprachias- matic nuclei of the hypothalamus. These nuclei receive projections of light through the retina and in turn stimulate electrical impulses to various other systems in the body, mediating the release of neurotransmit- ters or hormones that regulate bodily functioning.

Most of the biological rhythms of the body operate over a period of about 24 hours, but cycles of longer lengths have been studied. For example, women of menstruating age show monthly cycles of proges- terone levels in the saliva, of skin temperature over the breasts, and of prolactin levels in the plasma of the blood (Hughes, 1993).

Some rhythms may even last as long as a year. These circannual rhythms are particularly relevant to certain medications, such as cyclosporine, which appears to be more effective at some times than others during a period of about 12 months (Hughes, 1993). Clinical studies have shown that administration of

chemotherapy during the appropriate circadian phase and at the appropriate time of day can significantly increase the efficacy and decrease the toxic effects of certain cytotoxic agents (Garlapow, 2016; Lis et al., 2003).

The Role of Circadian Rhythms in Psychopathology Circadian rhythms may play a role in psychopathology. Abnormal circadian rhythms have been associated with a variety of mental illnesses including depres- sion, bipolar disorder, and seasonal affective disorder. Because many hormones have been implicated in behavioral functioning, it is reasonable to believe that peak secretion times could be influential in predicting certain behaviors. The association of depression with increased secretion of melatonin during darkness hours has already been discussed. External manipulation of the light–dark cycle and removal of external time cues often have beneficial effects on mood disorders.

Symptoms that occur in the premenstrual cycle have been linked to disruptions in biological rhythms. A number of the symptoms associated with premen- strual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) strongly resemble those attributed to depression, and hormonal changes have been implicated in the etiology. Some of these changes include progesterone–estrogen imbalance, increase in prolactin and mineralocorticoids, high level of prostaglandins, decrease in endogenous opiates, changes in metabolism of biogenic amines (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine), and varia- tions in secretion of glucocorticoids or melatonin.

Because the sleep–wakefulness cycle is probably the most fundamental of biological rhythms, and sleep disturbances are common in both depression and PMDD, it will be discussed in greater detail. A rep- resentation of bodily functions affected by 24-hour biological rhythms is presented in Figure 3–7.

Sleep The sleep–wakefulness cycle is genetically determined rather than learned and is established some time after birth. Even when environmental cues such as the abil- ity to detect light and darkness are removed, the human sleep–wakefulness cycle generally develops about a 25-hour periodicity, which is close to the 24-hour normal circadian rhythm.

Sleep can be measured by the types of brain waves that occur during various stages of sleep activity. Dreaming episodes are characterized by rapid eye movement (REM) and are called REM sleep. The sleep–wakefulness cycle is represented by six distinct stages.

Stage 0—Alpha rhythm: This stage of the sleep– wakefulness cycle is characterized by a relaxed, waking state with eyes closed. The alpha brain wave rhythm has a frequency of 8 to 12 cycles per second.

C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 43

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Stage 1—Beta rhythm: Stage 1 characterizes the transi- tion into sleep, a period of dozing in which thoughts wander and the person drifts in and out of sleep. Beta brain wave rhythm has a frequency of 18 to 25 cycles per second.

Stage 2—Theta rhythm: This stage comprises about half of time spent sleeping. Eye movement and muscular activity are minimal. Theta brain wave rhythm has a frequency of 4 to 7 cycles per second.

Stage 3—Delta rhythm: This is a period of deep and restful sleep. Muscles are relaxed, heart rate and

blood pressure fall, and breathing slows. No eye movement occurs. Delta brain wave rhythm has a frequency of 1.5 to 3 cycles per second.

Stage 4—Delta rhythm: This is the stage of deepest sleep. Individuals who suffer from insomnia or other sleep disorders often do not experience this stage of sleep. Eye movement and muscular activity are minimal. Delta waves predominate.

REM sleep—Beta rhythm: The dream cycle occurs during REM sleep. Eyes dart about beneath closed eyelids, moving more rapidly than when awake.

44 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 0200 0400 0600

(Darkness)

Body temperature

Pulse rate

Blood pressure

Growth hormone

Cortisol

Thyroid hormones

Prolactin

Melatonin

Testosterone (males)

Progesterone (females)** Estrogen

(Daylight)

▼

▲

▼

▲

▲

▼ ▲

▼ ▲

▼ ▲

▼ ▲

▼ ▲

▼

▼

▲

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

▼

▼ ▲

▲

Days

(Clock Hours)

* ▼ indicates low point and ▲ indicates peak time of these biological factors within a 24-hour circadian rhythm. ** The female hormones are presented on a monthly rhythm because of their influence on the reproductive cycle. Daily rhythms of female gonadotropins are difficult to assay and are probably less significant than monthly.

FIGURE 3–7 Circadian biological rhythms.

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The brain wave pattern is similar to that of stage 1 sleep. Heart and respiration rates increase, and blood pressure may increase or decrease. Muscles are hypotonic during REM sleep.

Stages 2 through REM repeat themselves through- out the cycle of sleep. One is more likely to experience longer periods of stages 3 and 4 sleep early in the cycle and longer periods of REM sleep later in the sleep cycle. Most people experience REM sleep about four to five times during the night. The amount of REM sleep and deep sleep decreases with age, and the time spent in drowsy wakefulness and dozing increases.

Neurochemical Influences A number of neurochemicals have been shown to influence the sleep–wakefulness cycle. Several studies have revealed information about the sleep-inducing characteristics of serotonin. L-Tryptophan, the amino acid precursor to serotonin, has been used for many years as an effective sedative-hypnotic to induce sleep in individuals with sleep-onset disorder. Serotonin and norepinephrine both appear to be most active during non-REM sleep, whereas the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is activated during REM sleep (Skudaev, 2009). The exact role of GABA in sleep facilitation is unclear, although the sedative effects of drugs that enhance GABA transmission, such as benzodiazepines, suggest that this neurotransmitter plays an important role in regulation of sleep and arousal. Some studies have suggested that acetylcholine induces and pro- longs REM sleep, whereas histamine appears to have an inhibitory effect. Neuroendocrine mechanisms seem to be more closely tied to circadian rhythms than to the sleep–wakefulness cycle. One exception is growth hormone secretion, which increases during the stage 3 sleep period and may be associated with slow-wave sleep (Van Cauter & Plat, 1996).

particular genotype are designated by characteristics that specify a phenotype. Examples of phenotypes include eye color, height, blood type, sound of voice, and hair type. As evident by the examples presented, phenotypes are not only genetic but may also be acquired (i.e., influenced by the environment) or a combination of both. It is likely that many psychiatric disorders are the result of a combination of genetics and environmental influences.

Investigators who study the etiological implications for psychiatric illness may explore several risk factors. Studies to determine if an illness is familial compare the percentage of family members with the illness to those in the general population or within a control group of unrelated individuals. These studies estimate the prevalence of psychopathology among relatives and make predictions about the predisposition to an illness based on familial risk factors. Schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, anorexia nervosa, panic disorder, somatic symptom disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and alcoholism are examples of psychiatric illness in which familial ten- dencies have been indicated.

Studies that are purely genetic search for a specific gene that causes a particular illness. A number of dis- orders exist in which the mutation of a specific gene or change in the number or structure of chromosomes has been associated with the etiology. Examples include Huntington’s disease, cystic fibrosis, phenylketonuria, Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy, and Down syndrome.

The search for pure genetic links to certain psychi- atric disorders continues. Risk factors for early-onset Alzheimer’s disease have been linked to mutations on chromosomes 21, 14, and 1 (National Institute on Aging, 2015). Other studies have linked a gene in the region of chromosome 19 that produces apolipoprotein E (ApoE) with late-onset Alzheimer’s disease. One large study (National Institute of Mental Health, 2013) found similar genetic variations in pa- tients with five mental disorders that were previously considered completely distinct. Autism, attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disor- der, major depression, and schizophrenia all showed some common gene variations, including differences in two genes that regulate the flow of calcium into cells. Although these findings are intriguing, they do not clearly explain all the genetic risks for mental illness, the nongenetic risks, or the interaction between the two. Future research will continue to search for an- swers with the ultimate goal of improving diagnosis and treatment and perhaps uncovering keys to pre- vention of mental illness. In addition to familial and purely genetic investigations, other types of studies have been conducted to estimate the existence and degree of genetic and environmental contributions to the etiology of certain psychiatric disorders. Twin

C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 45

CORE CONCEPT Genetics The study of the biological transmission of certain physical and/or behavioral characteristics from parent to offspring.

Genetics

Human behavioral genetics seeks to understand both the genetic and environmental contributions to indi- vidual variations in human behavior. This type of study is complicated by the fact that behaviors, like all complex traits, involve multiple genes.

The term genotype refers to the total set of genes present in an individual and coded in the DNA at the time of conception. The physical manifestations of a

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studies and adoption studies have been successfully employed for this purpose.

Twin studies examine the frequency of a disorder in monozygotic (genetically identical) and dizygotic (not genetically identical) twins. Twins are called concordant when both members suffer from the disorder in ques- tion. Concordance in monozygotic twins is considered stronger evidence of genetic involvement than it is in dizygotic (fraternal) twins. Twin studies have supported genetic vulnerability in the etiology of several mental illnesses, including adjustment disorders, PTSD, sub- stance abuse, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, risk for suicide, and others (Sadock et al., 2015).

Adoption studies allow researchers to compare the influence of genetics versus environment on the de- velopment of a psychiatric disorder. Knowles (2003) describes the four types of adoption studies that have been conducted:

1. The study of adopted children whose biological parent(s) had a psychiatric disorder but whose adoptive parent(s) did not.

2. The study of adopted children whose adoptive parent(s) had a psychiatric disorder but whose biological parent(s) did not.

3. The study of adoptive and biological relatives of adopted children who developed a psychiatric disorder.

4. The study of monozygotic twins reared apart by different adoptive parents.

Disorders in which adoption studies have suggested a possible genetic link include alcoholism, schizophre- nia, major depression, bipolar disorder, suicide risk, ADHD, and antisocial personality disorder (Sadock et al., 2015).

A summary of various psychiatric disorders and the possible biological influences discussed in this chapter is presented in Table 3–4. Various diagnostic proce- dures used to detect alteration in biological function- ing that may contribute to psychiatric disorders are presented in Table 3–5.

46 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

CORE CONCEPT Psychoneuroimmunology The study of the relationship between the immune sys- tem, the nervous system, and psychological processes such as thinking and behavior.

TA B L E 3 – 4 Biological Implications of Psychiatric Disorders ANATOMICAL BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTER POSSIBLE ENDOCRINE IMPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURES INVOLVED HYPOTHESIS CORRELATION CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS POSSIBLE GENETIC LINK

SCHIZOPHRENIA Frontal cortex, temporal lobes, limbic system

DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS Frontal lobes, limbic system, temporal lobes

BIPOLAR DISORDER Frontal lobes, limbic system, temporal lobes

PANIC DISORDER Limbic system, midbrain

Dopamine hyperac- tivity; decreased glutamate

Decreased levels of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin; increased glutamate

Increased levels of norepinephrine and dopamine in acute mania

Increased levels of norepinephrine; decreased GABA activity

Decreased prolactin levels

Increased cortisol levels; thyroid hor- mone hyposecre- tion; increased melatonin

Some indication of elevated thyroid hormones in acute mania

Elevated levels of thyroid hormones

May correlate antipsychotic medication adminis- tration to times of lowest level

DST* used to predict effectiveness of antidepressants; melatonin linked to depression during periods of darkness

Abnormal circadian rhythms have been associated with bipolar disorder

May have some application for times of medication administration

Twin, familial, and adoption studies suggest genetic link

Twin, familial, and adoption studies suggest a genetic link

Twin, familial, and adoption studies suggest a genetic link

Twin and familial studies suggest a genetic link

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C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 47

TA B L E 3 – 4 Biological Implications of Psychiatric Disorders—cont’d ANATOMICAL BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTER POSSIBLE ENDOCRINE IMPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURES INVOLVED HYPOTHESIS CORRELATION CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS POSSIBLE GENETIC LINK

ANOREXIA NERVOSA Limbic system, particularly the hypothalamus

OBSESSIVE- COMPULSIVE DISORDER Limbic system, basal ganglia (specifically caudate nucleus)

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE Temporal, parietal,

and occipital regions of cerebral cortex; hippocampus

*DST, dexamethasone suppression test. Dexamethasone is a synthetic glucocorticoid that suppresses cortisol secretion via the feed- back mechanism. In this test, 1 mg of dexamethasone is administered at 11:30 p.m., and blood samples are drawn at 8:00 a.m., 4:00 p.m., and 11:00 p.m. on the following day. A plasma value greater than 5 mcg/dL suggests that the individual is not suppressing cortisol in response to the dose of dexamethasone. This is a positive result for depression and may have implications for other disor- ders as well. GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid.

Decreased levels of norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine

Decreased levels of serotonin

Decreased levels of acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and somatostatin

Decreased levels of gonadotropins and growth hormone; increased cortisol levels

Increased cortisol levels

Decreased corticotropin- releasing hormone

DST often shows same results as in depression

DST often shows same results as in depression

Decreased levels of acetylcholine and serotonin may inhibit hypothalamic- pituitary axis and interfere with hor- monal releasing factors

Twin and familial studies suggest a genetic link

Twin studies suggest a possible genetic link

Familial studies suggest a genetic predisposition; late- onset disorder linked to marker on chromo- some 19; early-onset to chromosomes 21, 14, and 1

TA B L E 3 – 5 Diagnostic Procedures Used to Detect Altered Brain Functioning EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE USED PURPOSE AND POSSIBLE FINDINGS

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Computerized EEG mapping

Computed tomographic (CT) scan

Electrodes are placed on the scalp in a standardized position. Amplitude and frequency of beta, alpha, theta, and delta brain waves are graphically recorded on paper by ink markers for multiple areas of the brain surface.

EEG tracings are summarized by computer- assisted systems in which various regions of the brain are identified and functioning is interpreted by color coding or gray shading.

CT scan may be used with or without contrast medium. X-rays are taken of various transverse planes of the brain while a computerized analysis produces a precise reconstructed image of each segment.

Measures brain electrical activity; identifies dysrhythmias, asymmetries, or suppression of brain rhythms; used in the diagnosis of epilepsy, neoplasm, stroke, metabolic, or degenerative disease.

Measures brain electrical activity; used largely in research to represent statistical relationships between individuals and groups or between two populations of subjects (e.g., patients with schizophrenia vs. control subjects).

Measures accuracy of brain structure to detect possible lesions, abscesses, areas of infarction, or aneurysm. CT has also identified various anatomical differ- ences in patients with schizophrenia, organic mental disorders, and bipolar disorder.

Continued

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Psychoneuroimmunology

Normal Immune Response Cells responsible for nonspecific immune reactions include neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages. They work to destroy the invasive organism and initi- ate and facilitate the healing of damaged tissue. If these cells do not accomplish a satisfactory healing response, specific immune mechanisms take over.

Cytokines are one such mechanism. These mole- cules, which regulate immune and inflammatory re- sponses, become active when an individual is fighting an infection and the resultant inflammatory processes. Recent research has also demonstrated that cytokines are active in mood disorders such as depression and bipolar disorder. Current research focuses on the impact of cytokines as part of an essential and com- plex system of responses that are crucial for reducing inflammation and bolstering the immune response. Studies are also attempting to identify what happens when inflammation is not resolved and cytokines remain active or cross the blood-brain barrier. There is evidence that these maladaptations may be implicated in a multitude of illnesses (Ratnayake et al., 2013).

Implications of the Immune System in Psychiatric Illness Studies of the biological response to stress have hy- pothesized that individuals become more susceptible to physical illness following exposure to a stressful stimulus or life event (see Chapter 1). This response is thought to be caused by increased glucocorticoid

release from the adrenal cortex following stimulation from the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis during stressful situations. The result is a suppression in lymphocyte proliferation and function.

Studies have shown that nerve endings exist in tis- sues of the immune system. The CNS has connections in both bone marrow and the thymus, where immune system cells are produced, and in the spleen and lymph nodes, where those cells are stored.

GH, which may be released in response to certain stressors, may enhance immune functioning, whereas testosterone is thought to inhibit immune functioning. Increased production of epinephrine and norepineph- rine occurs in response to stress and may decrease immunity. Serotonin has been described as an im- munomodulator because it has demonstrated both enhancing and inhibitory effects on inflammation and immunity (Arreola et al., 2015).

Studies have correlated a decrease in lymphocyte function with periods of grief, bereavement, and depression, associating the degree of altered immu- nity with severity of the depression. A number of re- search studies have attempted to correlate the onset of schizophrenia to abnormalities of the immune system. These studies have considered autoimmune responses, viral infections, and immunogenetics (Sadock et al., 2015). The role of these factors in the onset and course of schizophrenia remains unclear. Attempts to identify a neurotoxic virus that triggers the manifestations of schizophrenia have not been successful; however, there is clear evidence of higher incidence of schizophrenia following viral epidemics.

48 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 3 – 5 Diagnostic Procedures Used to Detect Altered Brain Functioning—cont’d EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE USED PURPOSE AND POSSIBLE FINDINGS

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)

Within a strong magnetic field, the nuclei of hydrogen atoms absorb and reemit electromagnetic energy that is computer- ized and transformed into image informa- tion. No radiation or contrast medium is used.

The patient receives an intravenous (IV) injection of a radioactive substance (type depends on brain activity to be visualized). The head is surrounded by detectors that relay data to a computer that interprets the signals and produces the image.

The technique is similar to PET, but longer- acting radioactive substance must be used to allow time for a gamma-camera to rotate about the head and gather the data, which are then computer assembled into a brain image.

Measures anatomical and biochemical sta- tus of various segments of the brain; detects brain edema, ischemia, infection, neoplasm, trauma, and other changes such as demyeli- nation. Morphological differences have been noted in brains of patients with schizophre- nia as compared with control subjects.

Measures specific brain functioning, such as glucose metabolism, oxygen utilization, blood flow, and, of particular interest in psychiatry, neurotransmitter-receptor interaction.

Measures various aspects of brain function- ing, as with PET; has also been used to image activity of cerebrospinal fluid circulation.

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Immunological abnormalities have also been inves- tigated in a number of other psychiatric illnesses, including alcoholism, autism spectrum disorder, and neurocognitive disorder.

Evidence exists to support a correlation between psychosocial stress and the onset of illness. Research is still required to determine the specific processes involved in stress-induced modulation of the immune system.

Psychopharmacology and the Brain

Understanding the brain and the biological processes involved in thoughts, feelings, and behavior has pos- itive ramifications beyond better understanding of psychopharmacological treatment options. As men- tioned earlier, future research may continue to demon- strate the impact of psychological interventions on brain activity and neurotransmitters, which would open opportunities to hone psychological treatments and avoid the troubling side effects that accompany many medications. Furthermore, continued research in areas such as psychoneuroimmunology may reveal causes of mental illness, which would provide the opportunity for primary prevention.

In spite of these opportunities, psychopharmacol- ogy remains a primary treatment modality for mental disorders. Understanding, as best we can with cur- rent evidence, the biological mechanisms at work in psychoactive drugs is essential to nursing practice. Figure 3–8 shows the biological mechanism of psy- choactive drugs at the neural synapse. Psychophar- macology, the classes of psychoactive drugs, and relevant nursing implications are discussed in detail in Chapter 4.

Implications for Nursing

The discipline of psychiatric-mental health nursing has always championed its role in holistic health care, but historical review reveals that emphasis has been placed on treatment approaches that focus on psy- chological and social factors. Psychiatric nurses must integrate knowledge of the biological sciences into their practices if they are to ensure safe and effective care to people with mental illness. In the hallmark Surgeon General’s Report on Mental Health (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999), Dr. David Satcher wrote:

The mental health field is far from a complete un- derstanding of the biological, psychological, and so- ciocultural bases of development, but development clearly involves interplay among these influences. Understanding the process of development requires knowledge, ranging from the most fundamental

level—that of gene expression and interactions be- tween molecules and cells—all the way up to the highest levels of cognition, memory, emotion, and language. The challenge requires integration of concepts from many different disciplines. A fuller understanding of development is not only impor- tant in its own right, but it is expected to pave the way for our ultimate understanding of mental health and mental illness and how different factors shape their expression at different stages of the life span. (pp. 61–62)

To ensure a smooth transition from a strictly psy- chosocial focus to one of biopsychosocial emphasis, nurses must have a clear understanding of the following:

■ Neuroanatomy and neurophysiology: The struc- ture and functioning of the various parts of the brain and their correlation to human behavior and psychopathology

■ Neuronal processes: The various functions of the nerve cells, including the role of neurotransmit- ters, receptors, synaptic activity, and information pathways

■ Neuroendocrinology: The interaction of the en- docrine and nervous systems and the role that the endocrine glands and their respective hormones play in behavioral functioning

■ Circadian rhythms: The regulation of biochemical functioning over periods of rhythmic cycles and its influence in predicting certain behaviors

■ Genetic influences: The hereditary factors that pre- dispose individuals to certain psychiatric disorders

■ Psychoneuroimmunology: The influence of stress on the immune system and its role in the suscepti- bility to illness

■ Psychopharmacology: The increasing use of psy- chotropic drugs in the treatment of mental illness, demanding greater knowledge of psychopharma- cological principles and nursing interventions necessary for safe and effective management

■ Diagnostic technology: The importance of keeping informed about the latest in technological proce- dures for diagnosing alterations in brain structure and function

Why are these concepts important to the practice of psychiatric-mental health nursing? The interrela- tionship between psychosocial adaptation and phys- ical functioning has been established. Integrating biological and behavioral concepts into psychiatric nursing practice is essential for nurses to meet the complex needs of clients with mental illness. Psy- chobiological perspectives must be incorporated into nursing practice, education, and research to at- tain the evidence-based outcomes necessary for the delivery of competent care.

C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 49

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50 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Receptors

Neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitter in vesicles

Mitochondria

Neurotransmitter transporter

Neurotransmitter transporter

FIGURE 3–8 Area of synaptic transmission that is altered by drugs. The transmission of electrical impulses from the axon terminal of one neuron to the dendrite of another is achieved by the controlled release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters include serotonin, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, dopamine, glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and histamine, among others. Prior to its release, the neurotransmitter is concentrated into specialized synaptic vesicles. Once fired, the neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft where it encounters receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. Each neurotransmitter has receptors specific to it alone. Some neurotransmitters are considered to be excitatory, whereas others are inhibitory, a feature that determines whether another action potential will occur. In the synaptic cleft, the neurotransmitter rapidly diffuses, is catabolized by enzymatic action, or is taken up by the neurotransmitter transporters and returned to vesicles inside the axon terminal to await another action potential.

Psychotropic medications exert their effects in various ways in this area of synaptic transmission. Reuptake inhibitors block reuptake of the neurotransmitters by the transporter proteins, resulting in elevated levels of extracellular neurotransmitter. Drugs that inhibit catabolic enzymes promote excess buildup of the neurotransmitter at the synaptic site.

Some drugs cause receptor blockade, resulting in a reduction in transmission and decreased neurotransmitter activity. These drugs are called antagonists. Drugs that increase neurotransmitter activity by direct stimulation of the specific receptors are called agonists.

Summary and Key Points

■ It is important for nurses to understand the interac- tion between biological and behavioral factors in the development and management of mental illness.

■ Psychobiology is the study of the biological foun- dations of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes.

■ The limbic system has been called the “emotional brain.” It is associated with feelings of fear and anxiety; anger, rage, and aggression; love, joy, and hope; and with sexuality and social behavior.

■ The three classes of neurons include afferent (sensory), efferent (motor), and interneurons. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse.

■ Neurotransmitters are chemicals that convey infor- mation across synaptic clefts to neighboring target cells. Many neurotransmitters have implications in the etiology of emotional disorders and in the pharmacological treatment of those disorders.

■ Major categories of neurotransmitters include cholinergics, monoamines, amino acids, and neuropeptides.

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C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 51

Additional info available at www.davisplus.com

■ The endocrine system plays an important role in human behavior through the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.

■ Hormones and their circadian rhythms of regula- tion significantly influence a number of physiologi- cal and psychological life cycle phenomena, such as moods, sleep and arousal, stress response, appetite, libido, and fertility.

■ Research continues to validate the role of genetics in psychiatric illness.

■ Familial, twin, and adoption studies suggest that genetics may be implicated in the etiology of schiz- ophrenia, bipolar disorder, depressive disorder, panic disorder, anorexia nervosa, alcoholism, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Genetic studies, however, fail to entirely explain the complex fac- tors involved in the development of these illnesses.

■ Psychoneuroimmunology examines the relation- ship between psychological factors, the immune system, and the nervous system.

■ Evidence exists to support a link between psy- chosocial stressors and suppression of the immune response.

■ Technologies such as magnetic resonance imagery, computed tomographic scan, positron emission to- mography, and electroencephalography are used as diagnostic tools for detecting alterations in psy- chobiological functioning.

■ Psychotropic medications act at the neural synapse to affect neurotransmitter activity and have been associated with improvement in symptoms of many mental disorders.

■ Integrating knowledge of the expanding biological focus into psychiatric nursing is essential if nurses are to meet the changing needs of today’s psychiatric clients.

Review Questions Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

Select the answer that is most appropriate for each of the following questions:

1. Which of the following parts of the brain is associated with multiple feelings and behaviors and is sometimes referred to as the “emotional brain”? a. Frontal lobe b. Thalamus c. Hypothalamus d. Limbic system

2. Which of the following parts of the brain is concerned with visual reception and interpretation? a. Frontal lobe b. Parietal lobe c. Temporal lobe d. Occipital lobe

3. Which of the following parts of the brain is associated with voluntary body movement, thinking and judgment, and expression of feeling? a. Frontal lobe b. Parietal lobe c. Temporal lobe d. Occipital lobe

4. Which of the following parts of the brain integrates all sensory input (except smell) on the way to the cortex? a. Temporal lobe b. Thalamus c. Limbic system d. Hypothalamus

Continued

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52 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

5. Which of the following parts of the brain deals with sensory perception and interpretation? a. Hypothalamus b. Cerebellum c. Parietal lobe d. Hippocampus

6. Which of the following parts of the brain is concerned with hearing, short-term memory, and sense of smell? a. Temporal lobe b. Parietal lobe c. Cerebellum d. Hypothalamus

7. Which of the following parts of the brain has control over the pituitary gland and autonomic nervous system, as well as regulation of appetite and temperature? a. Temporal lobe b. Parietal lobe c. Cerebellum d. Hypothalamus

8. At a synapse, the determination of further impulse transmission is accomplished by means of which of the following? a. Potassium ions b. Interneurons c. Neurotransmitters d. The myelin sheath

9. A decrease in which of the following neurotransmitters has been implicated in depression? a. Gamma-aminobutyric acid, acetylcholine, and aspartate b. Norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine c. Somatostatin, substance P, and glycine d. Glutamate, histamine, and opioid peptides

10. Which of the following hormones has been implicated in the etiology of mood disorder with seasonal pattern? a. Increased levels of melatonin b. Decreased levels of oxytocin c. Decreased levels of prolactin d. Increased levels of thyrotropin

11. Psychotropic medications may act at the neural synapse to accomplish which of the following? (Select all that apply) a. Inhibit the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters, creating more availability b. Inhibit catabolic enzymes, promoting more availability of a neurotransmitter c. Block receptors, resulting in less neurotransmitter activity d. Add synthetic neurotransmitters found in the drug

12. Psychoneuroimmunology is a branch of science that involves which of the following? (Select all that apply.) a. The impact of psychoactive medications at the neural synapse b. The relationships between the immune system, the nervous system, and psychological processes

including mental illness c. The correlation between psychosocial stress and the onset of illness d. The potential role of viruses in the onset of schizophrenia e. The genetic factors that influence prevention of mental illness

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References Arreola, R., Becerril-Villanueva, E., Cruz-Fuentes, C., Velasco-

Velázquez, M.A., Garcés-Alvarez, M.E., Hurtado-Alvarado, G., . . . Pavón, L. (2015). Immunomodulatory effects mediated by serotonin. Journal of Immunology Research. doi:http://dx.doi .org/10.1155/2015/354957

Balu, D.T., Li, Y., Puhl, M.D., Benneyworth, M.A., Basu, A.C, Takagi, S., . . . Coyle, J.T. (2013). Multiple risk pathways for schizophrenia converge in serine racemase knockout mice, a mouse model of NMDA receptor hypofunction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(26), E2400-2409. doi:10.1073/pnas.1304308110

Butler, T., Weisholtz, D., Isenberg, N., Harding, E., Epstein, J., Stern, E., & Silbersweig, D. (2012). Neuroimaging of frontal- limbic dysfunction in schizophrenia and epilepsy-related psychosis: Toward a convergent neurobiology. Epilepsy Behavior, 23(2), 113-122. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2011.11.004

Flor, H. (2014). Psychological pain interventions and neurophysi- ology: Implications for a mechanism-based approach. American Psychologist, 69(2), 188-196. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0035254

Furmark, T., Tilfors, M., Martiensdottir, I., Fischer, H., Pissiota, A., Långström, B., & Fredrikson, M. (2002). Common changes in cerebral blood flow in patients with social phobia treated with citalopram or cognitive behavior therapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(5), 425-430. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.59.5.425

Garlapow, M. (2016). Timing chemotherapy administration to circadian rhythm improves drug effectiveness. Oncology Nurse Advisor. Retrieved from www.oncologynurseadvisor.com/ side-effect-management/chemotherapy-more-effective- when-synced-with-circadian-rhythm/article/504455

Hughes, M. (1993). Body clock: The effects of time on human health. New York: Facts on File.

Knowles, J.A. (2003). Genetics. In R.E. Hales & S.C. Yudofsky (Eds.), Textbook of psychiatry (2th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Kohli, A., Shishir, V., & Sharma, A. (2011). Psychogenic polydip- sia. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 53(2),166-167. doi:10.4103/ 0019-5545.82554

Lis, C.G., Grutsch, J.F., Wood, P., You, M., Rich, I., & Hrushesky, W.J. (2003). Circadian timing in cancer treatment: The biolog- ical foundation for an integrative approach. Integrative Cancer Therapies, 2(2), 105-111. doi:10.1177/1534735403253766

National Institutes of Health (NIH). (2017). Is there a link between marijuana use and mental illness? Retrieved from www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/ marijuana/there-link-between-marijuana-use-mental-illness

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2013). Five major mental disorders share genetic roots. Retrieved from www.nimh.nih.gov/news/science-news/2013/five-major- mental-disorders-share-genetic-roots.shtml

National Institute on Aging. (2015). Alzheimer’s disease genetics. The Alzheimer’s Disease Education and Referral Center. Retrieved from www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers/publication/ alzheimers-disease-genetics-fact-sheet

Ouellet-Plamondon, C., & George, T.P. (2012). Glutamate and psychiatry in 2012—Up, up and away! Psychiatric Times, 29(12), 1-5. doi:10.3389/fphar.2012.00195

Ratnayake, U., Quinn, T., Walker, D.W., & Dickinson, H. (2013). Cytokines and the neurodevelopmental basis of mental illness. Frontiers of Neuroscience, 7. doi:10.3389/fnins.2013.00180

Sadock, B.J., Sadock, V.A., & Ruiz, P.(2015). Synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry (11th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkens.

Scanlon, V.C., & Sanders, T. (2015). Essentials of anatomy and physiology (7th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

Skudaev, S. (2009). The neurophysiology and neurochemistry of sleep. Retrieved from www.healthstairs.com/sleep3.php

Van Cauter, E., & Plat, L. (1996). Physiology of growth hormone secretion during sleep. Journal of Pediatrics,128(5), 32-37. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(96)70008-2

Van Hove, J., Coughlin, C., & Sharer, G. (2013). Glycine en- cephalopathy. GeneReviews. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1357

Wolosker, H., Dumin, E., Balan, L., & Foltyn, V.N. (2008). D-Amino acids in the brain: D-serine in neurotransmission and neurode- generation. The FEBS Journal, 275(14), 3514-3526. doi:10.1111/ j.1742-4658.2008.06515.x

Classical References Sage, D.L. (Producer) (1984). The Brain: Madness. [Television

Broadcast] Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Company. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Mental

health: A report of the Surgeon General—Executive summary. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

C H A P T E R 3 ■ Concepts of Psychobiology 53

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4 Psychopharmacology C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Objectives

Homework Assignment

Historical Perspectives

The Role of the Nurse in Psychopharmacology

How Do Psychotropics Work?

Applying the Nursing Process in Psychopharmacological Therapy

Summary and Key Points

Review Questions

K EY T E R M S

agranulocytosis

akathisia

akinesia

amenorrhea

dystonia

extrapyramidal symptoms

gynecomastia

hypertensive crisis

neuroleptic malignant syndrome

oculogyric crisis

priapism

retrograde ejaculation

serotonin syndrome

tardive dyskinesia

O B J EC T I V E S After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Discuss historical perspectives related to psychopharmacology.

2. Describe indications, actions, contraindications, precautions, side effects, and nursing implica- tions for the following classifications of drugs: a. Antianxiety agents b. Antidepressants c. Mood-stabilizing agents

d. Antipsychotics e. Antiparkinsonian agents f. Sedative-hypnotics g. Agents for attention-deficit/hyperactivity

disorder 3. Apply the steps of the nursing process to the

administration of psychotropic medications.

H O M E W O R K A S S I G N M E N T Please read the chapter and answer the following questions:

1. Identify three priority safety concerns for each class of psychotropic medications.

2. Differentiate primary actions and side effects for traditional versus atypical antipsychotics.

3. Differentiate primary actions and side effects for tricyclic versus SSRI antidepressants.

CORE CONCEPTS Neurotransmitter Psychotropic

Medication Receptor

54

The middle of the 20th century identifies a pivotal period in the treatment of individuals with mental ill- ness with the introduction of the phenothiazine class of antipsychotics in the United States. They were pre- viously used in France as preoperative medications.

As Dr. Henri Laborit (1914–1995) of the Hospital Boucicaut in Paris stated,

It was our aim to decrease the anxiety of the patients to prepare them in advance for their postoperative recovery. With these new drugs, the phenothiazines,

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we were seeing a profound psychic and physical re- laxation . . . a real indifference to the environment and to the upcoming operation. It seemed to me these drugs must have an application in psychiatry. (Sage, 1984)

As Laborit foresaw, phenothiazines have had a sig- nificant application in psychiatry. Not only have they helped many individuals to function effectively, but they have also provided researchers and clinicians with information to study the origins and etiologies of mental illness. Knowledge gained from learning how these drugs work has promoted advancement in understanding how behavioral disorders develop. Dr. Arnold Scheibel, director of the UCLA Brain Research Institute, stated,

[When these drugs came out] there was a sense of disbelief that we could actually do something substan- tive for the patients . . . see them for the first time as sick individuals and not as something bizarre that we could literally not talk to. (Sage, 1984)

This chapter explores historical perspectives in the use of psychotropic medications in the treatment of mental illness. Seven classifications of medications are discussed, and their implications for psychiatric nurs- ing are presented in the context of the steps of the nursing process.

fulfill their needs, the likelihood of their return to the family or community diminished.

The early part of the 20th century saw the advent of the somatic therapies in psychiatry. Individuals with mental illness were treated with insulin shock therapy, wet sheet packs, ice baths, electroconvulsive therapy, and psychosurgery. Before 1950, sedatives and am- phetamines were the only significant psychotropic medications available. Even these drugs had limited use because of their toxicity and addictive effects. Since the 1950s, the development of psychopharma- cology has expanded to include widespread use of antipsychotic, antidepressant, antianxiety, and mood- stabilizer medications. Research into how these drugs work has provided an understanding of the biochem- ical influences in many psychiatric disorders.

Psychotropic medications are not a cure for mental illness. Most mental health practitioners who prescribe these medications for their clients use them as an ad- junct to individual or group psychotherapy. Although their contribution to psychiatric care cannot be mini- mized, it must be emphasized that psychotropic med- ications relieve some physical and behavioral symptoms. They do not eliminate mental disorders.

The Role of the Nurse in Psychopharmacology

Ethical and Legal Implications Nurses must understand the ethical and legal implica- tions associated with the administration of psychotropic medications. Laws differ from state to state, but most adhere to the client’s right to refuse treatment. Excep- tions exist in emergency situations when it has been determined that clients are likely to harm themselves or others. Many states have adopted laws that allow courts to order outpatient treatment, which may in- clude medication, in circumstances where an individual is not seeking treatment and has a history of violent, aggressive behavior. The original law, called Kendra’s law, was enacted after a young woman named Kendra Webdale was pushed in front of a New York City subway train by a man who lived in the community but was not seeking treatment for his mental illness (New York State Office of Mental Health, 2006). This law is perhaps more developed than those in other states but also includes a medication grant clause that provides uninterrupted medication for those transi- tioning from hospitals or correctional facilities. Some states do not have similar laws, so nurses must be informed about local, state, and federal laws when working in any health-care setting or correctional facility and providing care to a client with a psychi- atric disorder.

C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 55

CORE CONCEPT Psychotropic Medication Medication that affects psychic function, behavior, or experience.

Historical Perspectives

Historically, reaction to and treatment of individuals with mental illness ranged from benign involvement to interventions that some would consider inhumane. Individuals with mental illness were feared because of common beliefs associating them with demons or the supernatural. They were looked upon as loathsome and often were mistreated.

Beginning in the late 18th century, a type of moral reform in the treatment of persons with mental illness began to occur. Community and state hospitals con- cerned with the needs of persons with mental illness were established. Considered a breakthrough in the humanization of care, these institutions, however well intentioned, fostered the concept of custodial care. Clients were ensured food and shelter but received little or no hope of change for the future. As they became increasingly dependent on the institution to

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Assessment A thorough baseline assessment must be conducted before a client is placed on a regimen of psy- chopharmacological therapy. A nursing history and assessment (see Chapter 9, The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing), an ethnocul- tural assessment (see Table 4–1 for some ethnocul- tural considerations and Chapter 6, Cultural and Spiritual Concepts Relevant to Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing for detailed information), and a com- prehensive medication assessment (see Box 4–1) are all essential components of this database.

Medication Administration and Evaluation The nurse is the key health-care professional in direct contact with individuals receiving psychotropic med- ication in inpatient settings, in partial hospitalization programs, day treatment centers, home health care, and other settings. Medication administration is fol- lowed by a careful evaluation, which includes contin- uous monitoring for side effects and adverse reactions. The nurse also evaluates the therapeutic effectiveness of the medication. It is essential for the nurse to have a thorough knowledge of psychotropic medications to be able to anticipate potential problems and outcomes associated with their administration.

Client Education The information associated with psychotropic med- ications is copious and complex. An important role of the nurse is to translate that complex information into terms that can be easily understood by the client. Clients must understand why the medication has been prescribed, when it should be taken, and what they may expect in terms of side effects and possible adverse reactions. They must know whom to contact when they have a question and when it is important to report to their physician. Medication education encourages client cooperation and pro- motes accurate and effective management of the treatment regimen.

56 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 4 – 1 Ethnocultural Considerations in the Assessment and Safe Administration of Psychotropic Medications

African Americans

Arabs

Chinese

Japanese

Hispanic (Cuban and Mexican)

Koreans

Vietnamese

SOURCE: Adapted from Purnell, L.D. (2014). Guide to culturally competent health care (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

■ Metabolize alcohol, psychotropic drugs, beta blockers, antihypertensives, and caffeine differently than European Americans

■ Higher incidence of extrapyramidal side effects with haloperidol decanoate than European Americans ■ Show higher blood levels and faster therapeutic response to tricyclic antidepressants ■ Experience more toxic side effects and are more prone to tricyclic antidepressant delirium

■ Some individuals have difficulty metabolizing antidepressants, neuroleptics, and opioid agents

■ Increased response to antidepressants and neuroleptics at lower doses ■ Increased sensitivity to the effects of alcohol

■ Many are poor metabolizers of mephenytoin (an anticonvulsant) and related medications ■ May be more sensitive to the effects of many psychotropic drugs, alcohol, and some beta blockers ■ Opiates may be less effective and produce more gastrointestinal side effects than among white

populations

■ May require lower doses of antidepressants and experience more intense side effects than non- Hispanic white populations

■ May require lower doses of psychotropic medications

■ Increased sensitivity to sedative effects of benzodiazepines ■ May require lower doses of tricyclic antidepressants ■ More sensitive to gastrointestinal side effects of analgesics ■ Generally consider American medicine more concentrated than Asian medicine and may be

inclined to reduce the dose from that which is prescribed

CORE CONCEPTS Neurotransmitter A chemical that is stored in the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron. An electrical impulse through the neuron stimulates the release of the neurotrans- mitter into the synaptic cleft, which in turn determines whether another electrical impulse is generated.

Receptors Molecules situated on the cell membrane that are binding sites for neurotransmitters.

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How Do Psychotropics Work?

Most psychotropic medications affect the neuronal synapse, producing changes in neurotransmitter release and the receptors to which they bind (see Figure 4–1). Researchers hypothesize that most antidepressants work by blocking the reuptake of neurotransmitters, specifically, serotonin and norepinephrine. Reuptake is the process of neurotransmitter inactivation by which the neurotransmitter is reabsorbed into the presynap- tic neuron from which it was released. Blocking the reuptake process allows more of the neurotransmitter to be available for neuronal transmission. This mech- anism of action may also result in undesirable side effects (see Table 4–2). Some antidepressants also block receptor sites that are unrelated to their mecha- nisms of action. These include �-adrenergic, histamin- ergic, and muscarinic cholinergic receptors. Blocking these receptors is associated with the development of certain side effects; for example, this explains why in- dividuals treated with tricyclic antidepressants are at risk for developing postural hypotension. The specific type of receptor that medications bind to is also rele- vant to its level of antianxiety, antidepressant, and seda- tive properties (see Table 4–2).

Antipsychotic medications block dopamine recep- tors, and some affect muscarinic cholinergic, hista- minergic, and �-adrenergic receptors. The atypical (or novel) antipsychotics focus primarily on blocking

specific serotonin receptors. Benzodiazepines facilitate the transmission of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Psychostimulants work by increasing norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine release.

Although each psychotropic medication affects neu- rotransmission, the specific drugs within each class have varying neuronal effects. Their exact mechanisms of action are unknown. Many neuronal effects occur rapidly; however, therapeutic effects of some medica- tions, such as antidepressants and atypical antipsy- chotics, may take weeks. Acute alterations in neuronal function do not fully explain how these medications work. Long-term neuropharmacological reactions to increased norepinephrine and serotonin levels may better explain their mechanisms of action. Recent re- search suggests that the therapeutic effects are related to the nervous system’s adaptation to increased levels of neurotransmitters. These adaptive changes result from a homeostatic mechanism, much like a thermo- stat, that regulates the cell and maintains equilibrium.

Applying the Nursing Process in Psychopharmacological Therapy

An assessment tool for obtaining a drug history is pro- vided in Box 4–1. This tool may be adapted for use by staff nurses admitting clients to the hospital or by nurse practitioners with prescriptive privileges.

C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 57

Receptors

Neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitter in vesicles

Mitochondria

Neurotransmitter transporter

Neurotransmitter transporter

FIGURE 4–1 Area of synaptic transmission that is altered by drugs.

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58 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 4 – 2 Effects of Psychotropic Medications on Neurotransmitters ACTION ON NEUROTRANSMITTER

EXAMPLE OF MEDICATION AND/OR RECEPTOR DESIRED EFFECTS SIDE EFFECTS

SSRIs

Tricyclic antidepressants

MAOIs

Trazodone and nefazodone

SNRIs: venlafaxine, desvenlafaxine, duloxetine, and levomilnacipran

Bupropion

Antipsychotics: phenothiazines and haloperidol

Antipsychotics (novel): aripiprazole, asenapine, brexpiprazole, cariprazine, clozapine, iloperidone, lurasidone, olanzapine, paliperidone, quetiapine, risperidone, ziprasidone

Antianxiety: benzodiazepines

Inhibit reuptake of serotonin (5-HT)

Inhibit reuptake of serotonin (5-HT)

Inhibit reuptake of NE Block NE (�1) receptor Block ACh receptor Block histamine (H1) receptor

Increase NE and 5-HT by inhibiting the enzyme that degrades them (MAO-A)

5-HT reuptake block 5-HT2 receptor antagonism

Adrenergic receptor blockade

Potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake

Weak inhibitors of dopamine reuptake

Inhibits reuptake of NE and D

Strong D2 receptor blockades Weaker blockades of ACh, H1,

�1-adrenergic, and 5-HT2 receptors

Receptor antagonism of 5-HT1 and 5-HT2

D1–D5 (varies with drug) H1,�1-adrenergic muscarinic

(ACh)

Bind to BZ receptor sites on the GABAA receptor com- plex; increase receptor affinity for GABA

Reduce depression Control anxiety Control obsessions

Reduce depression Relieve severe pain Prevent panic attacks

Reduce depression Control anxiety

Reduce depression Reduce anxiety

Reduce depression Relieve pain of

neuropathy (duloxetine)

Relieve anxiety (venlafaxine)

Reduces depression Aids in smoking

cessation Reduces symptoms of

ADHD

Relieve psychosis Relieve anxiety (Some) provide relief

from nausea and vomiting and in- tractable hiccoughs

Relieve psychosis (with minimal or no EPS)

Relieve anxiety Relieve acute mania

Relieve anxiety Produce sedation

Nausea, agitation, headache, sexual dysfunction

Sexual dysfunction (NE & 5-HT)

Sedation, weight gain (H1) Dry mouth, constipation,

blurred vision, urinary retention (ACh)

Postural hypotension and tachycardia (�1)

Sedation, dizziness Sexual dysfunction Hypertensive crisis (interac-

tion with tyramine)

Nausea (5-HT) Sedation (5-HT2) Orthostasis (�1) Priapism (�2)

Nausea (5-HT) ↑ Sweating (NE) Insomnia (NE) Tremors (NE) Sexual dysfunction (5-HT)

Insomnia, dry mouth, tremor, seizures

Blurred vision, dry mouth, ↓ sweating, constipation, urinary retention, tachy- cardia (ACh) EPS (D2)

↑ Plasma prolactin (D2) Sedation; weight gain (H1) Ejaculatory difficulty (5-HT2) Postural hypotension (�; H1)

Potential with some of the drugs for mild EPS (D2)

Sedation, weight gain (H1) Orthostasis and dizziness

(�-adrenergic) Blurred vision, dry mouth,

↓ sweating, constipation, urinary retention, tachy- cardia (ACh)

Dependence (with long- term use)

Confusion, memory impairment, motor incoordination

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C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 59

One of the Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN) criteria culminating from the Institute of Medicine (IOM) (2003) report on essential com-

petencies for health care professionals stresses that the patient must be at the center of decisions about treatment (patient-centered care), and this type of assessment tool provides an opportunity to actively engage the patient in describing what medications have been effective or ineffective and identifying side effects that may impact willingness to adhere to a medication regimen.

Antianxiety Agents Background Assessment Data Indications Antianxiety drugs are also called anxiolytics and his- torically were referred to as minor tranquilizers. They are used in the treatment of anxiety disorders, anxiety symptoms, acute alcohol withdrawal, skeletal muscle spasms, convulsive disorders, status epilepticus, and preoperative sedation. They are most appropriate for

BOX 4–1 Medication Assessment Tool

Date __________________________ Client’s Name __________________________________ Age ______________________ Marital Status ____________________ Children __________________________ Occupation ___________________________ Presenting Symptoms (subjective & objective) _______________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ Diagnosis (DSM-5) _____________________________________________________________________________________ Current Vital Signs: Blood Pressure: Sitting ________/________ ; Standing __________/__________; Pulse____________ ; Respirations ____________ Height ___________________ Weight _______________________

CURRENT/PAST USE OF PRESCRIPTION DRUGS (Indicate with “c” or “p” beside name of drug whether current or past use):

Name Dosage How Long Used Why Prescribed By Whom Side Effects/Results ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________ ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________ ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________

CURRENT/PAST USE OF OVER-THE-COUNTER DRUGS (Indicate with “c” or “p” beside name of drug whether current or past use):

Name Dosage How Long Used Why Prescribed By Whom Side Effects/Results ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________ ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________ ____________ ____________ _______________ _______________ _____________ ___________________

CURRENT/PAST USE OF STREET DRUGS, ALCOHOL, NICOTINE, AND/OR CAFFEINE (Indicate with “c” or “p” beside name of drug): Name Amount Used How Often Used When Last Used Effects Produced _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ ______________________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ ______________________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ ______________________

Any allergies to food or drugs?____________________________________________________________________________

Any special diet considerations?___________________________________________________________________________

TA B L E 4 – 2 Effects of Psychotropic Medications on Neurotransmitters—cont’d ACTION ON NEUROTRANSMITTER

EXAMPLE OF MEDICATION AND/OR RECEPTOR DESIRED EFFECTS SIDE EFFECTS

5-HT1A agonist D2 agonist D2 antagonist

Relieves anxiety Nausea, headache, dizziness Restlessness

Antianxiety: buspirone

5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin); ACh, acetylcholine; ADHD, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder; BZ, benzodiazepine; D, dopamine; EPS, extrapyramidal symptoms; GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid; H, histamine; MAO, monoamine oxidase; MAO-A, monoamine oxidase A; MAOI, monoamine oxidase inhibitor; NE, norepinephrine; SNRI, serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.

Continued

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60 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

the treatment of acute anxiety states rather than long- term treatment, as their use and efficacy for longer than 4 months has not been evaluated. For long-term management of anxiety disorders, antidepressants are often used as the first line of treatment because they are not addictive. (A table of current FDA-approved antianxiety agents, pregnancy categories, half-life, and daily dosage ranges can be found online at DavisPlus and in Chapter 27, Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive, and Related Disorders.)

Action Antianxiety drugs depress subcortical levels of the central nervous system (CNS), particularly the limbic system and reticular formation. They may potentiate the effects of the powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the brain, thereby producing a calming effect. All levels of CNS depression can be affected, from mild sedation to hypnosis to coma. The most commonly prescribed antianxiety agents are benzodi- azepines, including clonazepam (Klonopin), diazepam (Valium), and alprazolam (Xanax). Benzodiazepines are much like alcohol in their effects on GABA recep- tors, which explains why benzodiazepines may be used for the management of alcohol withdrawal. Bus- pirone (BuSpar) is an antianxiety agent but not a ben- zodiazepine and does not depress the CNS. Although its action is unknown, the drug is believed to produce

the desired effects through interactions with sero- tonin, dopamine, and other neurotransmitter recep- tors. Clients should be instructed that buspirone has a lag period of 7 to 10 days before full therapeutic benefits are achieved. It does not have the addiction potential of the other antianxiety agents and there- fore may be a better option for clients with anxiety disorders who have also struggled with substance use disorders.

Interactions ■ Increased effects of antianxiety agents can occur

when they are taken concomitantly with alcohol, barbiturates, narcotics, antipsychotics, antidepres- sants, antihistamines, neuromuscular blocking agents, cimetidine, or disulfiram.

■ Increased effects can also occur with herbal de- pressants (e.g., kava, valerian, lemon verbena, L-tryptophan, melatonin, and chamomile).

■ Decreased effects can be noted with cigarette smoking and caffeine consumption.

Diagnosis The following nursing diagnoses may be considered for clients receiving therapy with antianxiety agents:

■ Risk for injury related to seizures, panic anxiety, acute agitation from alcohol withdrawal (indica- tions), abrupt withdrawal from the medication

BOX 4–1 Medication Assessment Tool—cont’d

Do you have (or have you ever had) any of the following? If yes, provide explanation on the back of this sheet.

Yes No Yes No Yes No

Are you pregnant or breast feeding?____________ Date of last menses___________ Type of contraception used________

Describe any restrictions/limitations that might interfere with your use of medication for your current problem. _________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Prescription orders: Patient teaching related to medications prescribed:

Lab work or referrals prescribed:

Nurse’s signature _________________________________ Client’s signature ____________________________________

Difficulty swallowing ___ ___ Delayed wound healing ___ ___ Constipation problems ___ ___ Urination problems ___ ___ Recent change in elimination patterns ___ ___ Weakness or tremors ___ ___ Seizures ___ ___ Headaches ___ ___ Dizziness ___ ___ High blood pressure ___ ___ Palpitations ___ ___

Chest pain ___ ___ Blood clots/pain in legs ___ ___ Fainting spells ___ ___ Swollen ankles/legs/hands ___ ___ Asthma ___ ___ Varicose veins ___ ___ Numbness/tingling (location?) ___ ___ Ulcers ___ ___ Nausea/vomiting ___ ___ Problems with diarrhea ___ ___ Shortness of breath ___ ___

Sexual dysfunction ___ ___ Lumps in your breasts ___ ___ Blurred or double vision ___ ___ Ringing in the ears ___ ___ Insomnia ___ ___ Skin rashes ___ ___ Diabetes ___ ___ Hepatitis (or other liver disease) ___ ___ Kidney disease ___ ___ Glaucoma ___ ___

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after long-term use, or effects of medication intox- ication or overdose

■ Anxiety (specify) related to threat to physical integrity or self-concept

■ Risk for activity intolerance related to side effects of sedation, confusion, and/or lethargy

■ Disturbed sleep pattern related to situational crises, physical condition, or severe level of anxiety

Safety Issues in Planning and Implementing Care

The IOM (2003) identifies ensuring safety as a core competency for nursing. Table 4–3 notes some of the significant safety issues to be con-

sidered for clients taking antianxiety agents. Nursing interventions related to each side effect are noted in the right-hand column.

Outcome Criteria and Evaluation The following criteria may be used for evaluating the effectiveness of therapy with antianxiety agents.

The client:

■ Demonstrates a reduction in anxiety, tension, and restless activity

■ Experiences no seizure activity ■ Experiences no physical injury ■ Is able to tolerate usual activities without excessive

sedation ■ Exhibits no evidence of confusion ■ Tolerates the medication without gastrointestinal

distress ■ Verbalizes understanding of the need for, side

effects of, and regimen for self-administration ■ Verbalizes possible consequences of abrupt with-

drawal from the medication

Antidepressants Sorting out information on antidepressant medica- tions can be particularly confusing because there are several types of antidepressant medications, some of which are also prescribed to treat anxiety disorders. The first “antidepressant” drug was a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), isoniazid, which was used to treat tuberculosis. When patients began describ- ing their increased feelings of well-being on these drugs, MAOIs were developed specifically for the treatment of depression. Unfortunately, they were also potentially deadly for anyone who ate foods

C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 61

TA B L E 4 – 3 Safety Issues and Nursing Interventions for Patients Taking Antianxiety Agents SAFETY ISSUES NURSING INTERVENTIONS

Tolerance and physical dependence may develop. Abrupt withdrawal can be life threatening (except with buspirone); signs include sweating, agitation, tremors, nausea and vomiting, delirium, seizures.

Drowsiness, confusion, and lethargy are the most common side effects.

Effects of other CNS depressants are increased.

Antianxiety agents may aggravate symptoms of depression.

Orthostatic hypotension may occur.

Paradoxical excitement (opposite from the desired effect) may occur. Especially the elderly may be at higher risk for agitation and increased anxiety.

Blood dyscrasias, although rare, can be serious or life threatening.

Congenital malformations have been associated with use of these drugs during the first trimester of pregnancy.

Instruct client not to stop taking the drug abruptly. Assess the client for signs of developing tolerance (re-

quiring higher doses of medication to achieve effects). Educate the client about symptoms of withdrawal. Contact the doctor immediately if symptoms of with-

drawal are assessed.

Instruct client not to drive or operate dangerous machinery while taking this medication.

Instruct the client not to drink alcohol or take other CNS depressants, antihistamines, cimetidine, antidepres- sants, neuromuscular blocking agents, or disulfiram while taking these drugs.

Assess the client’s mood and assess for suicide risk.

Instruct the client to rise slowly from a sitting to standing position to minimize risk for falls.

Monitor lying and standing blood pressures to assess for orthostatic hypotension.

Hold the medication and notify the doctor.

Assess for sore throat, fever, bruising, or unusual bleeding. Hold medication and report these symptoms immedi-

ately to the doctor.

Instruct the female client who is pregnant or anticipating pregnancy while on these drugs to explore alternative treatment options with her physician.

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high in tyramine while taking these drugs, and sev- eral serious interactions occurred with other drugs. Because MAOIs increase the availability of norepi- nephrine, researchers focused on developing drugs that impacted norepinephrine without the need for food restrictions, leading to introduction of the tricyclic antidepressants.

Tricyclics were the first line of treatment for depression for many years but were effective for only about 70 percent of those treated. In addition, because all neurotransmitters bind to various recep- tor sites, increasing the availability of norepineph- rine with tricyclics also has anticholinergic effects and increases the potential for postural hypoten- sion. This created limitations for the elderly and those with cardiovascular problems.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, serotonin reup- take inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) were developed in response to research indicating that serotonin, an antianxiety hormone and neurotransmitter, could promote improvement in depression and anxiety without significant anticholinergic side effects. SSRIs and SNRIs became the preferred first line of treatment for depression.

The most recent additions to the pharmacological treatments for depression and anxiety are actually atypical antipsychotics that increase the availability of serotonin and dopamine. These medications are promoted as adjunctive to antidepressant therapy. The most popular example is aripiprazole (Abilify). In a recent large study sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health, the combination of Abil- ify with venlafaxine demonstrated a 44 percent im- provement in elderly adults who were not responding to antidepressants alone. This finding is important for treatment of elderly clients because more than half of older adults with clinical depression do not respond to antidepressants alone (Lenze et al., 2015).

Despite these developments and client-subjective reports of improvement with antidepressant medica- tions, our understanding of the exact mechanisms of action remains theoretical because, currently, the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain cannot be measured. Further, a large study funded by the Na- tional Institute of Mental Health (STAR*D) found that two-thirds of patients with at least moderate depression on antidepressant medication did not experience full recovery after initial treatment with an SSRI (NIMH, 2006).

Research continues with the goal of identifying more broadly effective antidepressant therapies. Sev- eral of the newest drugs on the market for treatment of depression are not significantly different from ex- isting products. For example, a “new” antidepressant

approved by the FDA in 2016, Oleptro, is a refor- mulation of trazodone. But new mechanisms are being explored, and some are in clinical trials. Drugs that impact specific types of glutamate recep- tors (N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors) are being studied for potential antidepressant effects, ketamine and midazolam (Versed, a benzodiazepine with transient effects similar to those of ketamine) are being explored as potentially faster-acting treat- ments, drugs that act on melatonin receptors are currently in clinical trials for use in depression (one is already approved for use in Europe), and a new group of antidepressants called triple reuptake inhibitors that simultaneously block reuptake of serotonin, nor- epinephrine, and dopamine is in preliminary phases of research (Tartakovsky, 2016).

Current research also continues to explore genetic testing to identify factors that may influence whether an individual is more likely to respond to one type of antidepressant than another. If reliability is established, the research will provide a valuable resource for making decisions about which antidepressant to prescribe first.

Background Assessment Data Indications In addition to the obvious indications for antidepres- sant medications in the treatment of major depressive and dysthymic disorders, some atypical drugs, such as the SSRIs, have received FDA approval for the treat- ment of most anxiety disorders, bulimia nervosa, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, borderline personal- ity disorder, obesity, smoking cessation, and alcoholism A hallmark review of the research on antidepressants (Fournier et al., 2010) found that the benefits of anti- depressant therapy for patients with mild to moderate symptoms of depression may be minimal or nonexis - tent but that, for clients with severe depression, the benefits when compared with placebo effects are sub- stantial. Therefore, these medications are particularly indicated when an individual is identified as having severe depression. (A table of current FDA-approved antidepressants, pregnancy categories, half-life, and daily dosage ranges can be found online at DavisPlus and in Chapter 25, Depressive Disorders.)

Action Antidepressant drugs ultimately work to increase the concentration of norepinephrine, serotonin, and/or dopamine in the body. This is accomplished in the brain by blocking the reuptake of these neurotrans- mitters by the neurons (tricyclics [TCAs], tetracyclics, SSRIs, and SNRIs). It also occurs when an enzyme, monoamine oxidase (MAO), known to inactivate nor- epinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine, is inhibited at various sites in the nervous system (MAOIs).

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CLINICAL PEARL All antidepressants carry an FDA black-box warning for increased risk of suicidality in children and adolescents.

Interactions Tables 4–4, 4–5, 4–6, and 4–7 identify some of the significant, dangerous interactions between antidepres- sant and other drugs or foods. It is important to recog- nize that new information about drug interactions is discovered and published frequently. To fully under- stand safety issues related to medication administration, nurses need to access the most current, evidence-based informatics on drug interaction information.

Other Atypical Antidepressants Other atypical antidepressants include bupropion (Wellbutrin), mirtazapine (Remeron), and trazodone (Desyrel). Common SNRIs include desvenlafaxine (Pristiq), duloxetine (Cymbalta), levomilnacipran (Fetzima), and venlafaxine (Effexor). Drug interac- tions vary widely within these groups; following are several examples.

■ Concomitant use with MAOIs results in serious, sometimes fatal, effects resembling neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Coadministration is contraindicated.

■ Serotonin syndrome may occur when any of the following are used together: St. John’s wort, suma- triptan, sibutramine, trazodone, nefazodone, venlafaxine, duloxetine, levomilnacipran, SSRIs, 5-HT-receptor agonists (triptans).

■ Increased effects of haloperidol, clozapine, and desipramine may occur with concomitant use of venlafaxine.

■ Increased effects of levomilnacipran may occur with concomitant use of CYP3A4 inhibitors.

■ Increased effects of venlafaxine may occur with concomitant use of cimetidine.

C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 63

TA B L E 4 – 4 Drug Interactions With SSRIs INTERACTING DRUGS ADVERSE EFFECTS

Buspirone (BuSpar), tricyclic antidepressants (especially clomipramine), selegiline (Eldepryl), St. John’s wort

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

Warfarin, NSAIDs

Alcohol, benzodiazepines

Antiepileptics

*Serotonin syndrome is a potentially fatal syndrome of serotonin overstimulation with rapid onset that progresses from diarrhea, restlessness, agitation, hyperreflexia, fluctuations in vital signs to later symptoms of myoclonus, seizures, hyperthermia, uncon- trolled shivering, muscle rigidity, and ultimately can lead to delir- ium, coma, status epilepticus, cardiovascular collapse, and death. Immediate cessation of offending drugs and comprehensive sup- portive intervention is essential (Sadock, Sadock, & Ruiz, 2015).

Serotonin syndrome*

Hypertensive crisis

Increased risk of bleeding

Increased sedation

Lowered seizure threshold

TA B L E 4 – 5 Drug Interactions With Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)

INTERACTING DRUGS ADVERSE EFFECTS

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

St. John’s wort, tramadol (Ultram)

Clonidine (Catapres), epinephrine

Acetylcholine blockers

Alcohol and carbamazepine (Tegretol)

Cimetidine (Tagamet), bupropion (BuSpar)

High fever, convulsions, death

Seizures, serotonin syndrome

Severe hypertension

Paralytic ileus

Blocks antidepressant action, increases sedation

Increased TCA blood levels and increased side effects

TA B L E 4 – 6 Drug Interactions With Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)

INTERACTING DRUGS ADVERSE EFFECTS

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, tricyclic antidepressants, atomoxetine (Strattera), duloxetine (Cymbalta), dextromethorphan (an ingredient in many cough syrups), venlafaxine (Effexor), St. John’s wort, ginkgo biloba

Morphine and other narcotic pain relievers, antihypertensives

All other antidepressants, pseudoephedrine, amphetamines, cocaine cyclobenzaprine (Flexeril), dopamine, methyldopa, levodopa, epinephrine, buspirone (BuSpar)

Buspirone

Antidiabetics

Tegretol

Serotonin syndrome

Hypotension

Hypertensive crisis (these side effects can occur even if taken within 2 weeks of stopping MAOIs)

Psychosis, agitation, seizures

Hypoglycemia

Fever, hypertension, seizures

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■ Increased effects of duloxetine may occur with con- comitant use of CYP1A2 inhibitors (e.g., fluvoxam- ine, quinolone antibiotics) or CYP2D6 inhibitors (e.g., fluoxetine, quinidine, paroxetine).

■ Risk of liver injury is increased with concomitant use of alcohol and duloxetine.

■ Risk of toxicity or adverse effects from drugs exten- sively metabolized by CYP2D6 (e.g., flecainide, phenothiazines, propafenone, tricyclic antidepres- sants, thioridazine) is increased when these drugs are used concomitantly with duloxetine or bupropion.

■ Decreased effects of bupropion and trazodone may occur with concomitant use of carbamazepine.

■ The anticoagulant effect of warfarin may be altered with concomitant use of bupropion, venlafaxine, desvenlafaxine, duloxetine, levomilnacipran, or trazodone.

■ Risk of seizures is increased when bupropion is coadministered with drugs that lower the seizure threshold (e.g., antidepressants, antipsychotics, systemic steroids, theophylline, tramadol).

■ Effects of midazolam are decreased with concomi- tant use of desvenlafaxine.

■ Effects of desvenlafaxine and levomilnacipran are increased with concomitant use of potent CYP3A4 inhibitors (e.g., ketoconazole).

Diagnosis The following nursing diagnoses may be considered for clients receiving therapy with antidepressant medications:

■ Risk for suicide related to depressed mood ■ Risk for injury related to side effects of sedation,

lowered seizure threshold, orthostatic hypotension,

priapism, photosensitivity, arrhythmias, hyperten- sive crisis, or serotonin syndrome

■ Social isolation related to depressed mood ■ Risk for constipation related to side effects of the

medication ■ Insomnia related to depressed mood and elevated

level of anxiety

Safety Issues in Planning and Implementing Care Some of the common but manageable side effects of antidepressant medications include dry mouth, seda- tion, and nausea. General nursing interventions such as offering hard candies, ice, and frequent sips of water are helpful in alleviating dry mouth. Clients may find that sedation is less bothersome if they take the daily dose of antidepressant at bedtime; they should be encouraged to discuss the time of day that their medication should be taken with the prescribing physician or nurse practitioner. Taking antidepressant medication with food may help minimize nausea.

Some patients taking SSRIs or SNRIs complain of sexual dysfunction. Men may report abnormal ejacu- lation or impotence, and women may report loss of orgasm. This side effect sometimes results in clients stopping the medication abruptly, which may put them at risk for discontinuation syndrome and worsen symptoms of depression. Nurses must develop an open attitude regarding discussion and assessment of client sexual concerns, and clients who are partic- ularly troubled by this side effect can be encouraged to explore alternative medication with their physician or nurse practitioner.

Other side effects or adverse reactions may be dan- gerous or even fatal. Many of these are related to

64 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 4 – 7 Diet Restrictions for Clients on MAOI Therapy FOODS CONTAINING TYRAMINE

HIGH TYRAMINE CONTENT (AVOID WHILE ON MAOI THERAPY) Aged cheeses (cheddar, Swiss, Camembert, blue

cheese, parmesan, provolone, Romano, brie) Raisins, fava beans, flat Italian beans, Chinese

pea pods Red wines (chianti, burgundy, cabernet

sauvignon) Liqueurs Smoked and processed meats (salami,

bologna, pepperoni, summer sausage) Caviar, pickled herring, corned beef, chicken

or beef liver Soy sauce, brewer’s yeast, meat tenderizer (MSG) Sauerkraut

SOURCE: Sadock, B.J., Sadock, V.A., & Ruiz, P. (2015). Synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry (11th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; Vallerand, A.H., Sanoski, C.A., & Deglin, J.H. (2016). Davis drug guide for nurses (15th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

MODERATE TYRAMINE CONTENT (MAY EAT OCCASIONALLY WHILE ON MAOI THERAPY) Gouda cheese, processed

American cheese, mozzarella Yogurt, sour cream Avocados, bananas Beer, white wine, coffee, colas,

tea, hot chocolate Meat extracts, such as bouillon Chocolate

LOW TYRAMINE CONTENT (LIMITED QUANTITIES PERMISSIBLE WHILE ON MAOI THERAPY) Pasteurized cheeses (cream

cheese, cottage cheese, ricotta) Figs Distilled spirits (in moderation)

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drug–drug or drug–food interactions, as discussed previously. Because there is so much information and new drug development is ongoing, practicing nurses should assure that they are accessing evidence-based informatics to keep up to date on side effects as

well. Many health-care organizations provide online medication resources to employees, and mobile device applications provide a readily available resource for up- dated drug information. Some important safety issues and nursing interventions are listed in Table 4–8.

C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 65

TA B L E 4 – 8 Safety Issues and Nursing Interventions for Patients Taking Antidepressants SAFETY ISSUES NURSING INTERVENTIONS

Drug interactions (multiple, as discussed in the text)

Increased risk for suicide

Sedation

Discontinuation syndrome: SSRIs—dizziness, lethargy, headache, nausea TCAs—hypomania, akathisia, cardiac

arrhythmias, gastrointestinal upset, panic attacks

MAOIs—flu-like symptoms, confusion, hypomania

Photosensitivity

Orthostatic hypotension (TCAs)

Tachycardia, arrhythmias (TCAs)

Hyponatremia (SSRIs) especially among the elderly (potentially life threatening)

Blurred vision (TCAs and atypicals)

Constipation

MAOI, monoamine oxidase inhibitor; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; TCA, tricyclic antidepressant.

Instruct clients to inform their physician or nurse practitioner of all med- ications they are taking, including herbal preparations, over-the-counter drugs, and any medications they have stopped taking within the previous 2 weeks.

Notify the physician immediately when any symptoms of serotonin syndrome are assessed. Do not administer the offending agent. ■ Monitor vital signs. ■ Protect from injury secondary to muscle rigidity or change in mental

status. ■ Provide cooling blankets for temperature regulation. ■ Monitor intake and output.

The condition usually resolves when the offending agent is promptly discontinued but can be fatal without intervention (Cooper & Sejnowski, 2013).

Assess frequently for presence or worsening of suicide ideation. Initiate suicide precautions as needed. Monitor clients’ use of medication as prescribed, since these medica-

tions can be lethal in overdose.

Instruct clients not to drive or operate dangerous machinery when experi- encing sedation.

Instruct clients that all antidepressants have some potential for discontin- uation syndrome and should not be stopped abruptly but rather tapered off (Schatzberg, Cole, & DeBattista, 2010).

Instruct clients of their vulnerability to severe sunburn and recommend sunscreen.

Instruct clients to rise slowly from sitting to standing. Monitor blood pressure to assess for symptoms.

Monitor vital signs, especially in elderly with preexisting cardiovascular disorders.

Instruct clients to report any symptoms of nausea, malaise, lethargy, muscle cramps.

Assess for disorientation or restlessness. Monitor sodium levels:

■ <120 mEq/L risk for seizure, coma, respiratory arrest ■ Withhold medication, contact physician, restrict water intake

(Jacob & Spinier, 2006)

Instruct clients to avoid driving, and reassure them that this side effect usually resolves within 3 weeks.

Monitor blood pressure to rule out symptoms of hypertension.

Recommend a high-fiber diet and regular exercise, and instruct clients to report any symptoms of ongoing difficulty with bowel movements.

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CLINICAL PEARL As antidepressant drugs take effect and mood begins to lift, the individual may have increased energy with which to implement a suicide plan. Suicide potential may in- crease as level of depression decreases. The nurse should be particularly alert to sudden lifts in mood.

Outcome Criteria and Evaluation The following criteria may be used for evaluating the effectiveness of therapy with antidepressant medications.

The client:

■ Has not harmed self ■ Has not experienced injury caused by side effects ■ Exhibits vital signs within normal limits ■ Manifests symptoms of improvement in mood (pre-

sents brighter affect, interacts with others, demon- strates improved hygiene, expresses clear thought, conveys hopefulness, shows improved ability to make decisions)

■ Willingly participates in activities and interacts appropriately with others

Mood-Stabilizing Agents Background Assessment Data For many years, the drug of choice for treatment and management of bipolar mania was lithium carbonate. In recent years, several other medications have demonstrated effectiveness either alone or in combi- nation with lithium. Most notably are drugs in the class of anticonvulsant medications, which are now FDA approved for mood stabilization. Some second- generation atypical antipsychotics have also demon- strated benefits for management of this disorder.

Bipolar disorder is characterized by cycles of de- pression and manic episodes, which may manifest as grandiose thinking and behavior, rapid thoughts, hyperactivity, and/or impulsive agitation. The effec- tive medication treatment for this disorder is one that reduces the rollercoaster of “ups and downs” often described by clients; thus, the name “mood stabilizer” is an apt description of their purpose. Lithium was first identified as an antimanic but was also recognized as successful for stabilizing the mood swings of bipolar disorder.

Lithium is a salt present in mineral springs and added to spa baths. Although it was also used for other medicinal purposes, in 1949, Australian physi- cian John Cade reported using lithium to treat manic excitement. He found it so successful that some of his patients became symptom free and were able to be discharged after years of institutionalization (Shorter, 2009). It remains true that people who respond to lithium and remain on the medication may show no

evidence of bipolar mood swings. While it is not a cure, it is often described as “like insulin to a diabetic” in that proper use and response can reduce or elimi- nate symptoms. Unfortunately, not everyone responds with the same degree of success, and too much lithium can be fatal. Today, however, we are able to measure the blood levels of lithium and be confident of its safety when maintained within the specified therapeutic range (0.6–1.2 mEq/L). The exact mech- anism of action remains unknown, but it is believed to have an impact on the same neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, glutamate, GABA, and dopamine) as previously discussed.

In 1995, the FDA approved valproate (Depakote) as a mood stabilizer; since then, a great shift toward this group of anticonvulsant mood stabilizers (including carbamazepine, clonazepam, topiramate, and lamotrig- ine) and away from lithium has occurred (Shorter, 2009). The mechanism of action for these drugs as well as for lithium is unclear. Impact on cellular sodium transport, GABA modulation, and raising of the seizure threshold have all been advanced as possible explana- tions for their effectiveness. Both first-generation and second-generation antipsychotics have been used alone or as adjuncts to other medication treatment for bipolar mania. Since lithium has a lag period of 7 to 10 days, first-generation antipsychotics such as haloperidol may be helpful in that their sedative effects are more imme- diate and may bring relief from manic symptoms before lithium reaches therapeutic levels. They also increase the effects of lithium, so monitoring blood serum levels is especially important in the initial phase of treatment when these two drugs are used in combination. (A table of current FDA-approved mood-stabilizer medications, pregnancy categories, half-life, and daily dosage ranges can be found online at DavisPlus and in Chapter 26, Bipolar and Related Disorders.)

Interactions One of the interesting things about drug interactions with mood stabilizers is that many drugs either increase or decrease their effectiveness, as shown in Table 4–9. Understanding that lithium is a salt is relevant in ex- plaining some of these interactions. Because lithium is an imperfect substitute for sodium, anything that de- pletes sodium will make more receptor sites available to lithium and increase the risk for lithium toxicity. This is also the rationale behind maintenance of regu- lar dietary sodium and fluid intake, because major fluc- tuations impact lithium levels. For example, significant increases in dietary sodium intake may reduce the ef- fectiveness of lithium because sodium will bind at more receptor sites and lithium will be excreted. Other drugs that increase serum sodium levels also have an impact on lithium levels.

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C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 67

TA B L E 4 – 9 Drug Interactions With Mood-Stabilizing Agents THE EFFECTS OF: ARE INCREASED BY: ARE DECREASED BY: CONCURRENT USE MAY RESULT IN:

ANTIMANIC: Lithium

ANTICONVULSANTS: Clonazepam

Carbamazepine

Valproic acid

Lamotrigine

Topiramate

Oxcarbazepine

Carbamazepine, fluoxe- tine, haloperidol, loop diuretics, methyldopa, NSAIDs, and thiazide diuretics

CNS depressants, cimetidine, hormonal contraceptives, disulfi- ram, fluoxetine, isoni- azid, ketoconazole, metoprolol, propran - olol, valproic acid, probenecid

Verapamil, diltiazem, propoxyphene, erythro- mycin, clarithromycin, SSRIs, tricyclic antide- pressants, cimetidine, isoniazid, danazol, lam- otrigine, niacin, aceta- zolamide, dalfopristin, valproate, nefazodone

Chlorpromazine, cimet - idine, erythromycin, felbamate, salicylates

Valproic acid

Metformin, hydrochlorothiazide

Acetazolamide, osmotic diuretics, theophylline, and urinary alkalinizers

Rifampin, theophylline (↓ sedative effects), phenytoin

Cisplatin, doxorubicin, felbamate, rifampin, barbiturates, hydan- toins, primidone, theophylline

Rifampin, carba- mazepine, cholestyra- mine, lamotrigine, phenobarbital, ethosux- imide, hydantoins

Primidone, pheno - barbital, phenytoin, rifamycin, succinimides, oral contraceptives, oxcarbazepine, carbamazepine, acetaminophen

Phenytoin, carba- mazepine, valproic acid, lamotrigine

Carbamazepine, phenobarbital, pheny- toin, valproic acid, verapamil

Increased effects of neuromuscular blocking agents and tricyclic antidepres- sants; decreased pressor sensitivity of sympathomimetics; neurotoxicity may occur with phenothiazines or calcium channel blockers

Increased phenytoin levels; decreased efficacy of levodopa

Decreased levels of corticosteroids, doxycycline, quinidine, warfarin, estrogen-containing contraceptives, cyclosporine, benzodiazepines, theophylline, lamotrigine, valproic acid, bupropion, haloperidol, olanzapine, tiagabine, topiramate, voriconazole, ziprasidone, felbamate, levothyroxine, or antidepressants; increased levels of lithium; life-threatening hypertensive reaction with MAOIs

Increased effects of tricyclic antidepres- sants, carbamazepine, CNS depressants, ethosuximide, lamotrigine, phenobarbital, warfarin, zidovudine, hydantoins

Decreased levels of valproic acid; increased levels of carbamazepine and topiramate

Increased risk of CNS depression with alcohol or other CNS depressants; increased risk of kidney stones with carbonic anhydrase inhibitors; increased effects of phenytoin, metformin, amitriptyline; decreased effects of oral contraceptives, digoxin, lithium, risperidone, and valproic acid

Increased concentrations of phenobar- bital and phenytoin; decreased effects of oral contraceptives, felodipine, and lamotrigine

Continued

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68 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 4 – 9 Drug Interactions With Mood-Stabilizing Agents—cont’d THE EFFECTS OF: ARE INCREASED BY: ARE DECREASED BY: CONCURRENT USE MAY RESULT IN:

CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKER: Verapamil

ANTIPSYCHOTICS: Olanzapine

Aripiprazole

Chlorpromazine

Quetiapine

Risperidone

Ziprasidone

Amiodarone, beta blockers, cimetidine, ranitidine, and grape- fruit juice

Fluvoxamine and other CYP1A2 inhibitors, flu- oxetine

Ketoconazole and other CYP3A4 in- hibitors; quinidine, flu- oxetine, paroxetine, or other potential CYP2D6 inhibitors

Beta blockers, paroxetine

Cimetidine; ketocona- zole, itraconazole, fluconazole, erythromy- cin, or other CYP3A4 inhibitors

Clozapine, fluoxetine, paroxetine, or ritonavir

Ketoconazole and other CYP3A4 inhibitors

Barbiturates, calcium salts, hydantoins, rifampin, and antineoplastics

Carbamazepine and other CYP1A2 induc- ers, omeprazole, rifampin

Carbamazepine, famotidine, valproate

Centrally acting anticholinergics

Phenytoin, thioridazine

Carbamazepine

Carbamazepine

Increased effects of beta blockers, disopyramide, flecainide, doxorubicin, benzodiazepines, buspirone, carba- mazepine, digoxin, dofetilide, ethanol, imipramine, nondepolarizing muscle relaxants, prazosin, quinidine, sirolimus, tacrolimus, and theophylline; altered serum lithium levels

Decreased effects of levodopa and dopamine agonists; increased hypoten- sion with antihypertensives; increased CNS depression with alcohol or other CNS depressants

Increased CNS depression with alcohol or other CNS depressants; increased hypotension with antihypertensives

Increased effects of beta blockers; excessive sedation and hypotension with meperidine; decreased hypoten- sive effect of guanethidine; decreased effect of oral anticoagulants; decreased or increased phenytoin levels; increased orthostatic hypotension with thiazide diuretics; increased CNS depression with alcohol or other CNS depressants; increased hypotension with antihyper- tensives; increased anticholinergic effects with anticholinergic agents

Decreased effects of levodopa and dopamine agonists; increased CNS depression with alcohol or other CNS depressants; increased hypotension with antihypertensives

Decreased effects of levodopa and dopamine agonists; increased effects of clozapine and valproate; increased CNS depression with alcohol or other CNS depressants; increased hypoten- sion with antihypertensives

Life-threatening prolongation of QT interval with quinidine, dofetilide, other class Ia and III antiarrhythmics, pimozide, sotalol, thioridazine, chlorpro- mazine, pentamidine, arsenic trioxide, mefloquine, dolasetron, tacrolimus, droperidol, gatifloxacin, or moxifloxacin; decreased effects of levodopa and dopamine agonists; increased CNS depression with alcohol or other CNS depressants; increased hypoten- sion with antihypertensives

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C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 69

TA B L E 4 – 9 Drug Interactions With Mood-Stabilizing Agents—cont’d THE EFFECTS OF: ARE INCREASED BY: ARE DECREASED BY: CONCURRENT USE MAY RESULT IN:

Asenapine

CNS, central nervous system; MAOI, monoamine oxidase inhibitor; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.

Fluvoxamine, imipramine, valproate

Carbamazepine, cimetidine, paroxetine

Increased effects of paroxetine and dextromethorphan; increased CNS depression with alcohol or other CNS depressants; increased hypoten- sion with antihypertensives; additive effects of QT interval prolongation with quinidine, dofetilide, other class Ia and III antiarrhythmics, pimozide, sotalol, thioridazine, chlorpromazine, pentamidine, arsenic trioxide, meflo- quine, dolasetron, tacrolimus, droperi- dol, gatifloxacin, or moxifloxacin

Diagnosis The following nursing diagnoses may be considered for clients receiving therapy with mood-stabilizing agents:

■ Risk for injury related to manic hyperactivity ■ Risk for self-directed or other-directed violence

related to unresolved anger turned inward on the self or outward on the environment

■ Risk for injury related to lithium toxicity ■ Risk for injury related to adverse effects of mood-

stabilizing drugs ■ Risk for activity intolerance related to side effects

of drowsiness and dizziness

Planning and Implementing Care One of the primary safety issues with lithium is its narrow therapeutic range. A description of lithium toxicity, other safety concerns with mood-stabilizing agents, and relevant nursing interventions are dis- cussed in Table 4–10.

Lithium Maintenance Clients who respond to lithium typically remain on the medication indefinitely. To assure safe maintenance and prevent lithium toxicity, client education and reg- ular monitoring are essential. Monitoring includes but

TA B L E 4 – 10 Safety Issues and Nursing Interventions for Clients Taking Mood Stabilizers SAFETY ISSUES NURSING INTERVENTIONS

Lithium toxicity (blood levels >1.2 mEq/L) or <1.2 in elderly or debilitated but most common at 1.5 mEq/L ■ Early signs: vomiting, diarrhea ■ Over 2 mEq/L: tremors, sedation, confusion ■ Levels over 3.5 mEq/L: delirium, seizures, coma,

cardiovascular collapse, death Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) may mask early signs

of lithium toxicity (Vallerand, Sanoski, & Deglin, 2016)

Increased risk of suicide for all antiepileptics (FDA, 2008)

Hyponatremia (lithium, carbamazepine)

Stevens-Johnson syndrome (especially with lamotrigine and carbamazepine)

This toxic skin necrolysis can be life threatening

Instruct clients to report all medications, herbals, and caffeine use to physician or nurse practitioner to evaluate for drug interactions.

Encourage clients to maintain fluid intake at 2,000–3,000 ml/day and avoid activities in which excessive sweating and fluid loss are a risk, since inadequate fluid intake can impact lithium levels.

Instruct clients about the importance of regular monitoring of serum lithium levels.

Blood levels should be drawn 12 hours after the last dose.

Assess for suicide risk regularly and inform clients of risks associated with anticonvulsants.

Instruct clients to maintain usual dietary intake of sodium. Assess for and educate clients to report any episodes

of nausea, vomiting, headache, muscle weakness, confusion, seizures, since these may be signs of hyponatremia.

Assess for and educate clients to report any signs of rash or unusual skin breakdown.

Continued

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is not limited to evaluating serum lithium levels to assure that they remain within the therapeutic range. The usual ranges of therapeutic serum concentrations differ for initiation of treatment in an acute manic state and maintenance (Facts and Comparisons [Firm], 2014; Schatzberg, Cole, & DeBattista, 2010):

■ For acute mania: 1.0 to 1.5 mEq/L ■ For maintenance: 0.6 to 1.2 mEq/L

Serum lithium levels should be monitored once or twice a week after initial treatment until dosage and serum levels are stable and then monthly during maintenance therapy. Blood samples should be drawn 12 hours after the last dose is taken.

At times, clients complain that they miss the “high” feeling of being in a manic or hypomanic state once they begin mood-stabilizer medications. They may be at risk for self-adjusting medication or discon- tinuing it all together. Open discussion and explor- ing the benefits versus disadvantages of medication treatment promotes patient-centered care and en- ables the nurse to troubleshoot with the client ways to minimize risks.

Another generally undesirable side effect of lithium is weight gain. Clients should be educated about this potential, and weight should be monitored at regular intervals. It may be helpful to discuss low-calorie diets while stressing the importance of not making large changes in sodium intake because of its impact on serum blood levels of lithium.

CLINICAL PEARL The U.S. Food and Drug Administration requires that all antiepileptic (anticonvulsant) drugs carry a warning label indicating that use of the drugs increases risk for suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Patients treated with these medications should be monitored for the emergence or worsen- ing of depression, suicidal thoughts or behavior, or any unusual changes in mood or behavior.

Outcome Criteria and Evaluation The following criteria may be used for evaluating the effectiveness of therapy with mood stabilizing agents.

The client:

■ Is maintaining stability of mood ■ Has not harmed self or others ■ Has experienced no injury from hyperactivity ■ Is able to participate in activities without excessive

sedation or dizziness ■ Is maintaining appropriate weight ■ Exhibits no signs of lithium toxicity ■ Verbalizes importance of taking medication regu-

larly and reporting for regular laboratory blood tests

Antipsychotic Agents Background Assessment Data Antipsychotic medications are also called neuroleptics. Historically, they have been referred to as major tran- quilizers and clearly have sedative effects. The term antipsychotics is most descriptive because the primary benefit over time is the alleviation of psychotic symp- toms such as hallucinations and delusions. Antipsy- chotic agents were introduced into the United States in the 1950s with the phenothiazines. Other drugs in this classification soon followed. Unfortunately, this group of medications was found to have the potential for side effects that interfere with normal movements, including acute dystonias (muscle spasms) that can be life threatening, Parkinson-like symptoms, and tardive dyskinesia (later-onset involuntary movement disorders primarily in the tongue, lips, and jaw that may also involve other movement disturbances). Some of these side effects can be permanent, contin- uing even after the drug is discontinued. Since that discovery, a second generation of medications has been developed with less potential for extrapyramidal

70 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 4 – 10 Safety Issues and Nursing Interventions for Clients Taking Mood Stabilizers—cont’d SAFETY ISSUES NURSING INTERVENTIONS

Hypotension, arrhythmias (lithium)

Blood dyscrasias (valproic acid, carbamazepine)

Increased risk of birth defects (anticonvulsant mood stabilizers)

Drowsiness (lithium and all anticonvulsants)

Monitor vital signs and instruct clients to report any symptoms of dizziness or palpitations.

Educate clients to report infections or other illness while on these medications.

Ensure that platelet counts and bleeding time are deter- mined before initiation of therapy. Monitor for sponta- neous bleeding or bruising.

Inform female clients of the risks of birth defects and provide education about contraception as desired.

Instruct clients to avoid driving or operating dangerous machinery when experiencing this side effect.

Assess clients’ mental status for level of alertness.

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side effects (EPS) such as those mentioned above. These drugs have become the first line of treatment for clients with psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. This group of drugs may also be effective for treating negative symptoms of schizophrenia and alleviating positive symptoms like hallucinations, delusions, and agitation. More recently, aripiprazole (Abilify), an atypical antipsychotic, has been described as a third- generation antipsychotic because of its unique func- tional profile with dopamine receptors and minimal risk for EPS (Brust et al., 2015). The typical antipsy- chotics include the phenothiazines, haloperidol, loxapine, pimozide, and thiothixene. The atypical antipsychotics include aripiprazole, asenapine, cloza - pine, olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, paliperidone, iloperidone, lurasidone, ziprasidone, brexpiprazole (Rexulti), cariprazine (Vraylar), and pimavanserin (Nuplazid) indicated for hallucinatins and delusions associated with Parkinson’s disease psychosis.

Indications Antipsychotics are used in the treatment of schizo- phrenia and other psychotic disorders. Selected agents are used in the treatment of bipolar mania (see previous section, “Mood-Stabilizing Agents”). Others are used as antiemetics (chlorpromazine, perphenazine, prochlorperazine), in the treatment of intractable hiccoughs (chlorpromazine), and for the control of tics and vocal utterances in Tourette’s disorder (haloperidol, pimozide). Selected atypical antipsychotics, including aripiprazole (Abilify), are being identified as adjuncts to the treatment of major depressive disorders. (A table of current FDA-approved antipsychotics, pregnancy categories, half-life, and daily dosage ranges, as well as antiparkinsonian agents used to treat extrapyramidal side effects of antipsy- chotic medication, can be found online at DavisPlus and in Chapter 24, Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders.)

Action Typical antipsychotics work by blocking postsynaptic dopamine receptors in the basal ganglia, hypothala- mus, limbic system, brainstem, and medulla. They also demonstrate varying affinity for cholinergic, alpha1-adrenergic, and histaminic receptors. An- tipsychotic effects may be related to inhibition of dopamine-mediated transmission of neural impulses at the synapses.

Atypical antipsychotics are weaker dopamine recep- tor antagonists than conventional antipsychotics but are more potent antagonists of the serotonin type 2A (5HT2A) receptors. They also exhibit antagonism for cholinergic, histaminic, and adrenergic recep- tors. As mentioned previously, aripiprazole (Abilify) is a dopamine receptor antagonist but seems to have

a unique way of accomplishing its action and thus has a minimal risk of extrapyramidal side effects.

Contraindications and Precautions Certain individuals may be at greater risk for experi- encing side effects associated with antipsychotic agents. The elderly have been identified as an at-risk population because of accounts of stroke and sudden death while taking antipsychotic medication. Studies have indicated that elderly patients with psychosis related to neurocognitive disorder (NCD) who are treated with antipsychotic drugs are at increased risk of death compared with those taking a placebo (Steinberg & Lyketsos, 2012). Causes of death are most commonly related to infections or cardiovascu- lar problems. All antipsychotic drugs now carry black- box warnings to this effect. They are not approved for treatment of elderly patients with NCD-related psychosis.

Typical antipsychotics are contraindicated in clients with known hypersensitivity (cross-sensitivity may exist among phenothiazines). They should not be used in comatose states or when CNS depression is evident; when blood dyscrasias exist; in clients with Parkinson’s disease or narrow-angle glaucoma; for those with liver, renal, or cardiac insufficiency; in individuals with poorly controlled seizure disorders; or in elderly clients with dementia-related psychosis. Caution should be taken in administering these drugs to clients who are elderly, severely ill, or debil- itated and to clients with diabetes or with respiratory insufficiency, prostatic hypertrophy, or intestinal obstruction.

Atypical antipsychotics are contraindicated in hyper- sensitivity, comatose or severely depressed patients, elderly patients with dementia-related psychosis, and lactation. Ziprasidone, risperidone, paliperidone, asenapine, and iloperidone are contraindicated in patients with a history of QT prolongation or cardiac arrhythmias, recent myocardial infarction (MI), un- compensated heart failure, and concurrent use with other drugs that prolong the QT interval. Clozapine is contraindicated in patients with myeloproliferative disorders, with a history of clozapine-induced agranu- locytosis or severe granulocytopenia, and in uncon- trolled epilepsy. Lurasidone is contraindicated in concomitant use with strong inhibitors of cytochrome P450 isozyme 3A4 (CYP3A4) (e.g., ketoconazole, an an- tifungal) and strong CYP3A4 inducers (e.g., rifampin, an antitubercular).

Caution should be taken in administering these drugs to elderly or debilitated patients; patients with cardiac, hepatic, or renal insufficiency; those with a history of seizures; patients with diabetes or risk factors for diabetes; clients exposed to temperature extremes; pregnant clients and children (safety

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not established); and under conditions that cause hypotension (dehydration, hypovolemia, treatment with antihypertensive medication). The risk for metabolic disturbances such as weight gain can be particularly dangerous in the elderly.

Interactions Table 4–11 highlights some drug interactions that warrant monitoring and assessment by nurses.

Diagnosis The following nursing diagnoses may be considered for clients receiving antipsychotic therapy:

■ Risk for other-directed violence related to panic anxiety and mistrust of others

■ Risk for injury related to medication side effects of sedation, photosensitivity, reduction of seizure threshold, agranulocytosis, extrapyramidal symp- toms, tardive dyskinesia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and/or QT prolongation

■ Risk for activity intolerance related to medication side effects of sedation, blurred vision, and/or weakness

■ Noncompliance with medication regimen related to suspiciousness and mistrust of others

Safety Issues in Planning and Implementing Care Table 4–12 discusses some significant safety issues to consider and relevant nursing interventions for clients taking antipsychotic medication.

72 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 4 – 11 Drug Interactions With Antipsychotic Medications

DRUG INTERACTION ADVERSE EFFECT

Antihypertensives, CNS depressants Epinephrine or dopamine in combination with haloperidol or phenothiazines

Oral anticoagulants with phenothiazines

Drugs that prolong QT intervals

Drugs that trigger orthostatic hypotension

Drugs with anticholinergic effects, prescription and OTC drugs

Additive and potentially severe hypotension

Less effective anticoagulant effects

Additive effects

Additive hypotension

Additive anticholinergic effects, including anticholinergic toxicity, signs of which are ■ Flushing ■ Dry mouth ■ Mydriasis ■ Altered mental status ■ Tachycardia ■ Urinary retention ■ Tremulousness ■ Hypertension

(Ramnarine & Ahmed, 2015)

TA B L E 4 – 12 Safety Issues and Nursing Interventions for Clients Taking Antipsychotic Medication SAFETY ISSUES NURSING INTERVENTIONS

Extrapyramidal side effectsa (see Table 4–13 for relative risk among specific medications)

Hyperglycemia, weight gain, and diabetes (more common with atypical antipsychotic agents)

Hypotension

Orthostatic hypotension (see Table 4–13 for level of risk by specific medications)

Lower seizure threshold (especially with clozapine)

Instruct client to report any signs of muscle stiffness or spasms. Hold the medication if this occurs.

Administer antiparkinsonian agents as ordered and immediately when signs of acute dystonia are present.

Assess the patient for abnormal involuntary movements (see Box 4–2). (See “Additional Issues for Client Education” for further discussion.)

Assess for history of diabetes. Evaluate blood sugars. Instruct the client in these risks and the importance of diet and exercise. Assess for signs of hyperglycemia including polydipsia, polyphagia, polyuria, and

weakness.

Educate the client about risk for hypotension. Monitor blood pressure.

Instruct client to rise slowly from sitting to standing. Monitor blood pressure lying and then standing to assess for postural changes.

Assess client for history of seizure disorder. Monitor client for evidence of seizure activity and report to prescribing physician or

nurse practitioner.

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Additional Issues for Client Education A comparison of side effects among antipsychotic agents is presented in Table 4–13. Clients should be apprised of health risks, including the following:

■ Smoking increases the metabolism of antipsychotics, requiring an adjustment in dosage to achieve a ther- apeutic effect. Encourage clients to discuss this issue with the prescribing physician or nurse practitioner.

■ Body temperature is harder to maintain with this medication, so clients should be encouraged to dress warmly in cold weather and avoid extended exposure to very high or low temperatures.

■ Alcohol and antipsychotic drugs potentiate each other’s effects, so clients should be advised to avoid drinking alcohol while on antipsychotic therapy.

■ Many medications contain substances that interact with antipsychotics in a way that may be harmful. Clients should avoid taking other medications, in- cluding over-the-counter products, without the physician’s approval.

■ A significant number of clients on clozapine report excessive salivation. Sugar-free gum and medica- tions (anticholinergic or alpha2-adrenoceptor ago- nists) may alleviate symptoms. Encourage clients to discuss these options with the prescribing physician or nurse practitioner.

■ Safe use of antipsychotics during pregnancy has not been established. Antipsychotics are thought to read- ily cross the placental barrier; if so, a fetus could ex- perience adverse effects of the drug. Clients should

C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 73

TA B L E 4 – 12 Safety Issues and Nursing Interventions for Clients Taking Antipsychotic Medication—cont’d SAFETY ISSUES NURSING INTERVENTIONS

Prolonged QT intervalb especially ziprasidone, thioridazine, pimozide, haloperidol, paliperidone, iloperidone, asenapine, and clozapine.

Anticholinergic effects (see Table 4–13 for relative risk among medications)

Sedation

Photosensitivity

Agranulocytosis (more common with typical antipsychotics but especially with the atypical antipsychotic agent clozapine)

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS)c

aAcute dystonias can be life threatening (more common with typical antipsychotic agents). bPotentially life-threatening. cRare but potentially life-threatening side effect characterized by muscle rigidity, severe hyperthermia, and cardiac effects that can progress rapidly over 24–72 hours.

Assess for history of arrhythmias, recent MI, heart failure, and report to prescribing physician or nurse practitioner because these events are contraindications.

Assess for other medications the client is taking that prolong QT interval (there are many; online resources such as www.crediblemeds.org provide a composite list for comparison), but note that erythromycin and clarithromycin are two that are commonly prescribed.

Instruct client to reported any rapid heartbeat, dizziness, or fainting. Check baseline EKG before beginning treatment.

Instruct client about additive effects of other anticholinergic drugs in combination with antipsychotics, and to report any other medications taken including over-the- counter and herbal remedies.

For minor symptoms such as dry mouth, recommend hard candies, sips of water. Instruct client regarding the importance of good oral hygiene. Instruct client to report and assess for any evidence of urinary retention, tachycardia,

tremulousness, or hypertension, which may be signs of anticholinergic toxicity.

Educate client about this side effect and instruct client not to drive or operate dangerous machinery if experiencing sedation.

Instruct client to use sunblock and sunglasses and to wear protective clothing when in the sun because of the increased risk for severe sunburn while on these medications.

Instruct the client receiving clozapine that regular monitoring of white blood cell and absolute neutrophil counts is essential.

Instruct the client to report any signs of sore throat, fever, or malaise. (See additional guidelines in the section on Issues in Antipsychotic Maintenance

Therapy.)

Instruct client to report immediately any fever, muscle rigidity, diaphoresis, tachycardia. Assess vital signs regularly, including temperature. Assess for deteriorating mental status or any other sign of NMS. Presence of any

of these signs requires holding the medication and contacting the prescribing physician or nurse practitioner immediately, as well as monitoring vital signs and intake and output.

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74 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 4 – 13 Comparison of Side Effects Among Antipsychotic Agents GENERIC ORTHOSTATIC WEIGHT

CLASS (TRADE) NAME EPS SEDATION ANTICHOLINERGIC HYPOTENSION GAIN

TYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENTS

ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENTS

Key: 1 = Very low; 2 = Low; 3 = Moderate; 4 = High; 5 = Very high. *Weight gain occurs, but incidence is unknown. EPN = extrapyramidal symptoms. SOURCE: Adapted from Black, D.W., & Andreasen, N.C. (2014). Introductory textbook of psychiatry (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; Facts and Comparisons (Firm) & Wolters Kluwer Health. (2014). Drug facts and comparisons. St. Louis, MO: Wolters Kluwer; Schatzberg, A.F., Cole, J.O., & DeBattista, C. (2010). Manual of clinical psychopharmacology (7th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Chlorpromazine 3 4 3 4 * Fluphenazine 5 2 2 2 Haloperidol (Haldol) 5 2 2 2 Loxapine 3 2 2 2 * Perphenazine 4 2 2 2 * Pimozide (Orap) 4 2 2 2 * Prochlorperazine 3 2 2 2 * Thioridazine 2 4 4 4 * Thiothixene (Navane) 4 2 2 2 * Trifluoperazine 4 2 2 2 *

Aripiprazole (Abilify) 1 2 1 3 2 Asenapine (Saphris) 1 3 1 3 4 Clozapine (Clozaril) 1 5 5 4 5 Iloperidone (Fanapt) 1 3 2 3 3 Lurasidone (Latuda) 1 3 1 3 3 Olanzapine (Zyprexa) 1 3 2 2 5 Paliperidone (Invega) 1 2 1 3 2 Quetiapine (Seroquel) 1 3 1 3 4 Risperidone (Risperdal) 1 2 1 3 4 Ziprasidone (Geodon) 1 3 1 2 2

be aware of the possible risks and should inform the physician immediately if pregnancy occurs, is sus- pected, or is planned.

Issues in Antipsychotic Maintenance Therapy The nurse must understand the management of side effects associated with antipsychotic medication in order to conduct a thorough assessment and mini- mize risks. In addition, some of these side effects can be difficult for clients to manage or understand, par- ticularly when they are struggling with impaired men- tal status including psychosis and cognitive deficits. Three of these are discussed below. Clozaril and the Risk for Agranulocytosis Agranulocytosis is a potentially fatal blood disorder in which the client’s white blood cell (WBC) count can drop to extremely low levels. A baseline WBC count and ab- solute neutrophil count (ANC) must be taken before initiation of treatment with clozapine and weekly for the first 6 months of treatment. Only a 1-week supply of medication is dispensed at one time. If the counts remain within the acceptable levels (i.e., WBC count at least 3,500/mm3 and ANC at least 2,000/mm3) during the 6-month period, blood counts may be monitored biweekly and a 2-week supply of medica- tion may be dispensed. If the counts remain within the acceptable level for the biweekly period (6 months),

counts may then be monitored every 4 weeks. When the medication is discontinued, weekly WBC counts are continued for an additional 4 weeks.

While the benefits of clozapine can be profound, this medication is typically used when clients fail to respond to other antipsychotics because of the strict protocols for adherence. If the client agrees to this option, the nurse can be a vital link in assuring that support services, both professional and personal (such as family members or peers), are engaged to assist the client with follow-through as needed.

Extrapyramidal Side Effects (See Table 4–13 for differ- ences between typical and atypical antipsychotics.) To conduct a thorough assessment, the nurse must be familiar with the several distinct types of extrapyrami- dal side effects:

■ Pseudoparkinsonism: Symptoms of pseudoparkin- sonism—tremor, shuffling gait, drooling, rigidity— may appear 1 to 5 days following initiation of antipsychotic medication. This side effect occurs most often in women, the elderly, and dehydrated clients.

■ Akinesia: Absence or impairment in voluntary movement.

■ Akathisia: Continuous restlessness and fidgeting, or akathisia, occurs most often in women and

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may manifest 50 to 60 days after therapy begins. Combining second generation antipsychotics has demonstrated a three-fold risk for developing akathisia as compared to monotherapy with a single second generation antipsychotic (Berna et al., 2015)

■ Dystonia: This side effect—involuntary muscle spasms in the face, arms, legs, and neck—occurs most often in men and those younger than age 25. Dystonia should be treated as an emergency situa- tion because laryngospasm follows these symptoms and can be fatal. The physician should be contacted, and intravenous or intramuscular benztropine me- sylate (Cogentin) is commonly administered (see Table 4–13 for a list of antiparkinsonian agents used to treat extrapyramidal symptoms). Stay with the client and offer reassurance and support during this frightening time.

■ Oculogyric crisis: Uncontrolled rolling back of the eyes, or oculogyric crisis, is a symptom of acute dystonia and can be mistaken for seizure activity. As with other symptoms of acute dystonia, this side effect should be treated as a medical emergency.

■ Tardive dyskinesia: This extrapyramidal side effect involves bizarre face and tongue movements, stiff neck, and difficulty swallowing. It may occur with all classifications but most commonly takes place with typical antipsychotics. All clients receiving anti - psychotic therapy for months or years are at risk. Symptoms are potentially irreversible. Nurses should immediately report to the prescribing physician or nurse practitioner earliest signs of tardive dyskinesia (usually vermiform movements of the tongue) as the drug is often discontinued, changed to a different antipsychotic, or the dosage is altered. In 2017 the FDA approved the first drug for treating tardive dyskinesia; valbenazine (Ingrezza). It is hoped that this novel drug will effectively reduce this troubling condition and its sometimes stigmatizing effects (FDA, 2017). The involuntary movements associated with tardive dyskinesia can be measured by the Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS), developed in the 1970s by the National Institute of Mental Health. AIMS aids in early detection of move- ment disorders and provides means for ongoing surveillance. AIMS is featured in Box 4–2.

C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 75

BOX 4–2 Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS)

NAME _________________________ RATER NAME ______________________ DATE ___________________ INSTRUCTIONS: Complete the examination procedure before making ratings. For movement ratings, circle the highest severity observed. Rate movements that occur upon activation one less than those observed spontaneously. Circle movement as well as code number that applies.

Code: 0 = None 1 = Minimal, may be normal 2 = Mild 3 = Moderate 4 = Severe

Facial and Oral Movements

Extremity Movements

Trunk Movements

Global Judgments

1. Muscles of Facial Expression (e.g., movements of forehead, eyebrows, periorbital area, cheeks, including frowning, blinking, smiling, grimacing)

2. Lips and Perioral Area (e.g., puckering, pouting, smacking)

3. Jaw (e.g., biting, clenching, chewing, mouth opening, lateral movement)

4. Tongue (Rate only increases in movement both in and out of mouth. NOT inability to sustain movement. Darting in and out of mouth.)

5. Upper (arms, wrists, hands, fingers) Include choreic movements (i.e., rapid, objectively purposeless, irregular, spontaneous) and athetoid movements (i.e., slow, irreg- ular, complex serpentine). Do not include tremor (i.e., repetitive, regular, rhythmic)

6. Lower (legs, knees, ankles, toes) (e.g., lateral knee movement, foot tapping, heel dropping, foot squirming, inversion and eversion of foot)

7. Neck, shoulders, hips (e.g., rocking, twisting, squirming, pelvic gyrations)

8. Severity of abnormal movements overall 9. Incapacitation due to abnormal movements

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4

Continued

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76 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

BOX 4–2 Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS)—cont’d

Dental Status

10. Patient’s awareness of abnormal movements (Rate only the client’s report)

No awareness Aware, no distress Aware, mild distress Aware, moderate distress Aware, severe distress

11. Current problems with teeth and/or dentures? 12. Are dentures usually worn? 13. Edentia? 14. Do movements disappear in sleep?

0 1

2 3

4 No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes

AIMS EXAMINATION PROCEDURE Either before or after completing the Examination Procedure, observe the client unobtrusively, at rest (e.g., in waiting room). The chair to be used in this examination should be a hard, firm one without arms.

1. Ask client to remove shoes and socks. 2. Ask client whether there is anything in his/her mouth (i.e., gum, candy, etc.), and if there is, to remove it. 3. Ask client about the current condition of his/her teeth. Ask client if he/she wears dentures. Do teeth or dentures bother

client now? 4. Ask client whether he/she notices any movements in mouth, face, hands, or feet. If yes, ask to describe and to what

extent they currently bother client or interfere with his/her activities. 5. Have client sit in chair with both hands on knees, legs slightly apart, and feet flat on floor. (Look at entire body for move-

ments while in this position.) 6. Ask client to sit with hands hanging unsupported. If male, between legs, if female and wearing a dress, hanging over

knees. (Observe hands and other body areas.) 7. Ask client to open mouth. (Observe tongue at rest within mouth.) Do this twice. 8. Ask client to protrude tongue. (Observe abnormalities of tongue movement.) Do this twice. 9. Ask client to tap thumb with each finger as rapidly as possible for 10 to 15 seconds; separately with right hand, then

with left hand. (Observe facial and leg movements.) 10. Flex and extend client’s left and right arms (one at a time). (Note any rigidity.) 11. Ask client to stand up. (Observe in profile. Observe all body areas again, hips included.) 12. Ask client to extend both arms outstretched in front with palms down. (Observe trunk, legs, and mouth.) 13. Have client walk a few paces, turn, and walk back to chair. (Observe hands and gait.) Do this twice.

INTERPRETATION OF AIMS SCORE Add client scores and note areas of difficulty. Score of:

• 0 to 1 = Low risk • 2 in only ONE of the areas assessed = borderline/observe closely • 2 in TWO or more of the areas assessed or 3 to 4 in ONLY ONE area = indicative of TD

From U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Available for use in the public domain.

Some extrapyramidal side effects can be life- threatening, and those that are not can sometimes be permanent. The abnormal movements in the tongue and lips are sometimes very visible and severe enough to interfere with a person’s ability to speak or swallow.

The nurse’s empathic approach in listening to the client’s wishes with regard to medication and advocating for exploring other options for

management of symptoms is one way to promote patient-centered care, an essential nursing competency, (IOM, 2003) and to promote a recovery model that

empowers the client to make decisions about manage- ment of the illness. There is evidence that remaining on antipsychotic medication can reduce the frequency of hospitalization, so educating the client about this fact is important in assisting him or her to make an informed decision about medication treatment.

Hormonal Side Effects These may occur with all clas- sifications but are more common with typical an- tipsychotics. Sexual side effects that may accompany these medications include decreased libido, retro- grade ejaculation, and gynecomastia in men and

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amenorrhea in women. These side effects can be troubling for anyone, but for a client struggling with thought disturbances, they can become the founda- tion for delusions. A male client with gynecomastia, for example, might begin to believe that external forces are taking over his body and turning him into a woman. An amenorrheic woman may begin to be- lieve that she has been divinely impregnated. It is important for the nurse to be clear that these are side effects of the medication and offer reassurance that they are reversible. Women with amenorrhea should be instructed that this side effect does not indicate cessation of ovulation, so contraception use should continue as usual. Clients should be encour- aged to explore alternative treatment if these side effects are deemed intolerable.

Current Developments in Psychopharmacological Treatment of Schizophrenia One of the identified limitations of medication treat- ments available for schizophrenia is the cognitive deficits that are core symptoms of this illness, includ- ing deficits in working memory and long-term mem- ory, reduced processing speed, limited verbal fluency, and impaired executive functions. Some atypical antipsychotics have demonstrated efficacy in lessening cognitive deficits but do not eliminate residual effects.

A drug recently approved by the FDA, cariprazine (Vraylor), has demonstrated efficacy in treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, including flat affect, social withdrawal, and apathy (Harrison, 2015). Although the atypical antipsychotics have been identified as better than typical antipsychotics in treating these symptoms, no drugs have yet been shown to eliminate them. Ongoing evaluation is needed to determine the effectiveness of cariprazine in this regard.

Outcome Criteria and Evaluation The following criteria may be used for evaluating the effectiveness of therapy with antipsychotic medications.

The client:

■ Has not harmed self or others ■ Has not experienced injury caused by side effects

of lowered seizure threshold or photosensitivity ■ Maintains a WBC count within normal limits ■ Exhibits no symptoms of extrapyramidal side effects,

tardive dyskinesia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, or hyperglycemia

■ Maintains weight within normal limits ■ Tolerates activity unaltered by the effects of seda-

tion or weakness ■ Takes medication willingly ■ Verbalizes understanding of medication regimen

and the importance of regular administration

Sedative-Hypnotics Background Assessment Data Indications Sedative-hypnotics are used in the short-term man- agement of various anxiety states and to treat insom- nia. Selected agents are used as anticonvulsants (pentobarbital, phenobarbital) and preoperative sedatives (pentobarbital, secobarbital) and to reduce anxiety associated with alcohol withdrawal (chloral hydrate). (A table of current FDA-approved sedative- hypnotics, pregnancy categories, half-life, and daily dosage ranges can be found online at DavisPlus.) Examples of commonly used sedative-hypnotics are presented in Table 4–14.

Action Sedative-hypnotics cause generalized CNS depres- sion. They may produce tolerance with chronic use and have the potential for psychological or physical dependence.

EXCEPTION: Ramelteon (Rozerem) is not a con- trolled substance. It does not produce tolerance or physical dependence. Sleep-promoting properties are the result of ramelteon’s agonist activity on selective melatonin receptors.

Contraindications and Precautions Sedative-hypnotics are contraindicated in individuals with hypersensitivity to the drug or to any drug within the chemical class; in pregnancy (exceptions may be made in certain cases based on benefit-to- risk ratio); during lactation; in severe hepatic, cardiac, respiratory, or renal disease; and in children younger than age 15 for flurazepam and those younger than age 18 for estazolam, quazepam, temazepam, triazo- lam. Triazolam is contraindicated in concurrent use with ketoconazole, itraconazole, or nefazodone, medications that impair the metabolism of triazolam by cytochrome P4503A (CYP3A). Ramelteon is con- traindicated in concurrent use with fluvoxamine. Zolpidem, zaleplon, eszopiclone, and ramelteon are contraindicated in children. Chloral hydrate is contraindicated in persons with esophagitis, gastritis, or peptic ulcer disease and in those with hepatic, renal, or cardiac impairment.

Caution should be used in administering these drugs to clients with cardiac, hepatic, renal, or respi- ratory insufficiency. They should be used with caution in clients who may be suicidal or who previously may have been addicted to drugs. Hypnotic use should be short term. Elderly clients may be more sensitive to CNS depressant effects, and dosage reduction may be required. Chloral hydrate should be used with caution in clients susceptible to acute intermittent porphyria.

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Interactions

Barbiturates The effects of barbiturates are increased with concomitant use of alcohol, other CNS depres- sants, MAOIs, or valproic acid. The effects of barbi- turates may be decreased with rifampin. Possible decreased effects of the following drugs may occur when used concomitantly with barbiturates: anticoag- ulants, beta blockers, carbamazepine, clonazepam, oral contraceptives, corticosteroids, digitoxin, dox- orubicin, doxycycline, felodipine, fenoprofen, grise- ofulvin, metronidazole, phenylbutazone, quinidine, theophylline, or verapamil. Concomitant use with methoxyflurane may enhance renal toxicity.

Benzodiazepines The effects of the benzodiazepine hypnotics are increased with concomitant use of alco- hol or other CNS depressants, cimetidine, oral con- traceptives, disulfiram, isoniazid, or probenecid. The effects of the benzodiazepine hypnotics are decreased with concomitant use of rifampin, theophylline, car- bamazepine, or St. John’s wort and with cigarette smoking. The effects of digoxin or phenytoin are in- creased when used concomitantly with benzodi- azepines. Bioavailability of triazolam is increased with concurrent use of macrolides.

Eszopiclone Additive effects of eszopiclone occur with alcohol or other CNS depressants. Decreased effects of eszopiclone occur with CYP3A4 inducers (e.g., rifampin, phenytoin, carbamazepine, phenobar- bital), with lorazepam, or following a high-fat or heavy

meal. Increased effects of eszopiclone occur with CYP3A4 inhibitors (e.g., ketoconazole, clarithromycin, nefazodone, ritonavir). There are decreased effects of lorazepam with concomitant use.

Zaleplon Additive effects of zaleplon occur with alco- hol or other CNS depressants. Decreased effects of zaleplon occur with CYP3A4 inducers (e.g., rifampin, phenytoin, carbamazepine, phenobarbital) or follow- ing a high-fat or heavy meal. There are increased effects of zaleplon with cimetidine.

Zolpidem Increased effects of zolpidem occur with alcohol or other CNS depressants, azole antifungals, ritonavir, or SSRIs. Decreased effects of zolpidem occur with flumazenil, rifampin, and with food. There is a risk of life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias with concomitant use of amiodarone.

Ramelteon Increased effects of ramelteon occur with alcohol, ketoconazole (and other CYP3A4 inhibitors), or fluvoxamine (and other CYP1A2 inhibitors). Decreased effects of ramelteon occur with rifampin (and other CYP3A4 inducers) and following a heavy or high-fat meal.

Diagnosis The following nursing diagnoses may be considered for clients receiving therapy with sedative hypnotics:

■ Risk for injury related to abrupt withdrawal from long-term use or decreased mental alertness caused by residual sedation

78 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

TA B L E 4 – 14 Sedative-Hypnotic Agents PREGNANCY

CONTROLLED CATEGORIES/ DAILY DOSAGE CHEMICAL CLASS GENERIC (TRADE) NAME CATEGORIES HALF-LIFE (hr) RANGE (mg)

Barbiturates Amobarbital CII D/16–40 60–200 Butabarbital (Butisol) CIII D/66–140 45–120 Pentobarbital (Nembutal) CII D/15–50 150–200 Phenobarbital (Luminal; Solfoton) CIV D/53–118 30–200 Secobarbital (Seconal) CII D/15–40 100 (hypnotic) 200–300

(preoperative sedation)

Benzodiazepines Estazolam CIV X/8–28 1–2 Flurazepam CIV X/2–3 (active 15–30

metabolite: 47–100) Quazepam (Doral) CIV X/39 (active 7.5–15 mg

metabolite: 73) Temazepam (Restoril) CIV X/9–15 15–30 mg Triazolam (Halcion) CIV X/1.5–5.5 0.125–0.5

Miscellaneous Chloral hydrate CIV C/7–10 500–1,000 Eszopiclone (Lunesta) CIV C/6 1–3 Ramelteon (Rozerem) C/1–2.6 8 Zaleplon (Sonata) CIV C/1 5–20 Zolpidem (Ambien) CIV C/2–3 5–10 (immediate release),

12.5 (extended release)

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■ Disturbed sleep pattern and/or insomnia related to situational crises, physical condition, or severe level of anxiety

■ Risk for activity intolerance related to side effects of lethargy, drowsiness, and dizziness

■ Risk for acute confusion related to action of the medication on the CNS

Safety Issues in Planning and Implementing Care Refer to the earlier discussion of safety issues in the section “Antianxiety Agents.” In addition to the side effects listed in that section, abnormal thinking and behavioral changes, including aggressiveness, hallu- cinations, and suicidal ideation, have also been noted in some individuals taking sedative-hypnotics. Certain complex behaviors, such as sleep-driving, preparing and eating food, and making phone calls, with amne- sia for the behavior, have occurred. Although a direct correlation to the behavior with the use of sedative- hypnotics cannot be made, the emergence of any new behavioral sign or symptom of concern requires care- ful and immediate evaluation.

Outcome Criteria and Evaluation The following criteria may be used for evaluating the effectiveness of therapy with sedative-hypnotic medications.

The client:

■ Demonstrates a reduction in anxiety, tension, and restless activity

■ Falls asleep within 30 minutes of taking the med- ication and remains asleep for 6 to 8 hours without interruption

■ Is able to participate in usual activities without residual sedation

■ Experiences no physical injury ■ Exhibits no evidence of confusion ■ Verbalizes understanding of taking the medication

on a short-term basis ■ Verbalizes understanding of potential for devel-

opment of tolerance and dependence with long- term use

Agents for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Background Assessment Data Indications The medications in this section are used for ADHD in children and adults. Amphetamines are also used in the treatment of narcolepsy and exogenous obesity. Bupro- pion is used in the treatment of major depression and for smoking cessation (Zyban only). Clonidine and guanfacine are used to treat hypertension. (A table of current FDA-approved agents for ADHD, pregnancy

categories, half-life, and daily dosage ranges can be found online at DavisPlus and in Chapter 33, Children and Adolescents.)

Action CNS stimulants increase levels of neurotransmitters (probably norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin) in the CNS. They produce CNS and respiratory stim- ulation, dilated pupils, increased motor activity and mental alertness, diminished sense of fatigue, and brighter spirits. The CNS stimulants discussed in this section include dextroamphetamine sulfate, metham- phetamine, lisdexamfetamine, amphetamine mix- tures, methylphenidate, and dexmethylphenidate. Action in the treatment of ADHD is unclear. However, recent research indicates that their effectiveness in the treatment of hyperactivity disorders is based on the activation of dopamine D4 receptors in the basal gan- glia and thalamus, which depress rather than enhance motor activity (Erlij et al., 2012).

Atomoxetine inhibits the reuptake of norepineph- rine, and bupropion blocks the neuronal uptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. Clonidine and guanfacine stimulate central alpha-adrenergic re- ceptors in the brain, resulting in reduced sympathetic outflow from the CNS. The exact mechanism by which these nonstimulant drugs produce the therapeutic effect in ADHD is unclear.

Contraindications and Precautions CNS stimulants are contraindicated in individuals with hypersensitivity to sympathomimetic amines. They should not be used in patients with advanced arteriosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, hyperthyroidism, glaucoma, or agitated or hyperex- citability states; in clients with a history of drug abuse; during or within 14 days of receiving therapy with MAOIs; in children younger than age 3; or in preg- nancy and lactation. Atomoxetine and bupropion are contraindicated in clients with hypersensitivity to the drugs or their components, in lactation, and in con- comitant use with or within 2 weeks of using MAOIs. Atomoxetine is contraindicated in clients with narrow- angle glaucoma. Bupropion is contraindicated in individuals with known or suspected seizure disorder, in the acute phase of MI, and in clients with bulimia or anorexia nervosa. Alpha agonists are contraindi- cated in clients with known hypersensitivity to the drugs.

Caution is advised in using CNS stimulants in chil- dren with psychosis; in Tourette’s disorder; in clients with anorexia or insomnia; in elderly, debilitated, or asthenic clients; and in clients with a history of suicidal or homicidal tendencies. Prolonged use may result in tolerance and physical or psychological dependence. Use atomoxetine and bupropion cautiously in clients

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with urinary retention, hypertension, or hepatic, renal, or cardiovascular disease; in suicidal clients; dur- ing pregnancy; and in elderly and debilitated clients. Alpha agonists should be used with caution in clients with coronary insufficiency, recent MI, or cerebrovas- cular disease; in chronic renal or hepatic failure; in the elderly; and in pregnancy and lactation.

Interactions CNS Stimulants (Amphetamines) Effects of ampheta- mines are increased with furazolidone or urinary alkalinizers. Hypertensive crisis may occur with con- comitant use of (and up to several weeks after discon- tinuing) MAOIs. Increased risk of serotonin syndrome occurs with coadministration of SSRIs. Decreased effects of amphetamines occur with urinary acidifiers, and decreased hypotensive effects of guanethidine occur with amphetamines.

Dexmethylphenidate and Methylphenidate Effects of antihypertensive agents and pressor agents (e.g., dopamine, epinephrine, phenylephrine) are de- creased with concomitant use of the methylphenidates. Effects of coumarin anticoagulants, anticonvulsants (e.g., phenobarbital, phenytoin, primidone), tricyclic antidepressants, and SSRIs are increased with the methylphenidates. Hypertensive crisis may occur with coadministration of MAOIs.

Atomoxetine Effects of atomoxetine are increased with concomitant use of CYP2D6 inhibitors (e.g., paroxetine, fluoxetine, quinidine). Potentially fatal reactions may occur with concurrent use of (or within 2 weeks of discontinuation of) MAOIs. Risk of cardio- vascular effects is increased with concomitant use of albuterol or vasopressors.

Bupropion Effects of bupropion are increased with aman- tadine, levodopa, or ritonavir. Effects of bupropion are decreased with carbamazepine. There is increased risk of acute toxicity with MAOIs. Increased risk of hypertension may occur with nicotine replacement agents, and adverse neuropsychiatric events may occur with alcohol. Increased anticoagulant effects of warfarin and increased effects of drugs metabolized by CYP2D6 (e.g., nortriptyline, imipramine, desipramine, paroxe- tine, fluoxetine, sertraline, haloperidol, risperidone, thioridazine, metoprolol, propafenone, and flecainide) occur with concomitant use.

Alpha Agonists Synergistic pharmacologic and toxic effects, possibly causing atrioventricular block, brady- cardia, and severe hypotension, may occur with concomitant use of calcium channel blockers or beta-blockers. Additive sedation occurs with CNS depressants, including alcohol, antihistamines, opi- oid analgesics, and sedative-hypnotics. Effects of clonidine may be decreased with concomitant use

of tricyclic antidepressants and prazosin. Decreased effects of levodopa may occur with clonidine, and effects of guanfacine are decreased with barbitu- rates or phenytoin.

Diagnosis The following nursing diagnoses may be considered for clients receiving therapy with agents for ADHD:

■ Risk for injury related to overstimulation and hyperactivity (CNS stimulants) or seizures (possible side effect of bupropion)

■ Risk for suicide secondary to major depression related to abrupt withdrawal after extended use (CNS stimulants)

■ Risk for suicide (children and adolescents) as a side effect of atomoxetine and bupropion (black- box warning)

■ Imbalanced nutrition, less than body requirements, related to side effects of anorexia and weight loss (CNS stimulants)

■ Insomnia related to side effects of overstimulation ■ Nausea related to side effects of atomoxetine or

bupropion ■ Pain related to side effect of abdominal pain (atom-

oxetine, bupropion) or headache (all agents) ■ Risk for activity intolerance related to side effects

of sedation and dizziness with atomoxetine or bupropion

Planning and Implementation The plan of care should include monitoring for the following side effects from agents for ADHD. Nursing implications related to each side effect are designated by an asterisk (*).

■ Overstimulation, restlessness, insomnia (CNS stim- ulants) *Assess mental status for changes in mood, level of activity, degree of stimulation, and aggressiveness.

*Ensure that the client is protected from injury. *Keep stimuli low and environment as quiet as pos- sible to discourage overstimulation.

*To prevent insomnia, administer the last dose at least 6 hours before bedtime. Administer sustained-release forms in the morning.

■ Palpitations, tachycardia (CNS stimulants, atomox- etine, bupropion, clonidine), or bradycardia (cloni- dine, guanfacine) *Monitor and record vital signs at regular inter- vals (two or three times a day) throughout ther- apy. Report significant changes to the physician immediately.

NOTE: The FDA has issued warnings associ- ated with CNS stimulants and atomoxetine of the risk for sudden death in patients who have

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cardiovascular disease. A careful personal and family history of heart disease, heart defects, or hypertension should be obtained before these medications are prescribed. Careful monitor- ing of cardiovascular function during adminis- tration must be ongoing.

■ Anorexia, weight loss (CNS stimulants, atomoxe- tine, bupropion) *To reduce anorexia, the medication may be administered immediately after meals.

*The client should be weighed regularly (at least weekly) when receiving therapy with CNS stimu- lants, atomoxetine, or bupropion because of the potential for anorexia and weight loss and tempo- rary interruption of growth and development.

■ Tolerance, physical and psychological dependence (CNS stimulants) *In children with ADHD, a drug “holiday” should be attempted periodically under direction of the physician to determine the effectiveness of the medication and the need for continuation.

*The drug should not be withdrawn abruptly. To do so could initiate a syndrome of symptoms with nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramping, headache, fatigue, weakness, mental depression, suicidal ideation, increased dreaming, and psy- chotic behavior.

■ Nausea and vomiting (atomoxetine and bupropion) *Recommend taking medication with food to min- imize gastrointestinal upset.

■ Constipation (atomoxetine, bupropion, clonidine, guanfacine) *Recommend increasing fiber and fluid in diet if not contraindicated.

■ Dry mouth (clonidine and guanfacine) *Offer the client sugarless candy, ice, frequent sips of water.

*Strict oral hygiene is very important. ■ Sedation (clonidine and guanfacine)

*Warn the client that this effect is increased by con- comitant use of alcohol and other CNS drugs.

*Warn the client to refrain from driving or per- forming hazardous tasks until response has been established.

■ Potential for seizures (bupropion) *Protect the client from injury if seizure should occur.

*Instruct family and significant others of clients on bupropion therapy how to protect the client dur- ing a seizure if one should occur.

*Ensure that doses of the immediate-release med- ication are administered at least 4 to 6 hours apart and doses of the sustained-release medication at least 8 hours apart.

■ Severe liver damage (with atomoxetine) *Monitor for the following side effects and report to physician immediately: itching, dark urine, right upper quadrant pain, yellow skin or eyes, sore throat, fever, malaise.

■ New or worsened psychiatric symptoms (with CNS stimulants and atomoxetine) *Monitor for psychotic symptoms (e.g., hearing voices, paranoid behaviors, delusions).

*Monitor for manic symptoms, including aggres- sive and hostile behaviors.

■ Rebound syndrome (with clonidine and guanfacine) *The client should be instructed not to discon- tinue therapy abruptly. To do so may result in symptoms of nervousness, agitation, headache, tremor, and a rapid rise in blood pressure. In addition, sudden withdrawal from stimulants may increase the risk for depression and suicide.

Dosage should be tapered gradually under the supervision of the physician.

Client and Family Education Instruct the client and/or family that the client should:

■ Use caution when driving or operating dangerous machinery. Drowsiness, dizziness, and blurred vision can occur.

■ Not stop taking CNS stimulants abruptly. To do so could produce serious withdrawal symptoms.

■ Avoid taking CNS stimulants late in the day to prevent insomnia. Take medication no later than 6 hours before bedtime.

■ Not take other medications (including over-the- counter drugs) without physician’s approval. Many medications contain substances that, in combina- tion with agents for ADHD, can be harmful.

■ Monitor blood sugar two or three times a day or as instructed by the physician if the client is diabetic. Be aware of the need for possible alteration in insulin requirements because of changes in food intake, weight, and activity.

■ Avoid consumption of large amounts of caffeinated products (coffee, tea, colas, chocolate), as they may enhance the CNS stimulant effect.

■ Notify physician if restlessness, insomnia, anorexia, or dry mouth becomes severe or if rapid, pounding heartbeat becomes evident.

■ Report any of the following side effects to the physi- cian immediately: shortness of breath, chest pain, jaw/left arm pain, fainting, seizures, sudden vision changes, weakness on one side of the body, slurred speech, confusion, itching, dark urine, right-upper quadrant pain, yellow skin or eyes, sore throat, fever, malaise, increased hyperactivity, believing things that are not true, or hearing voices.

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■ Be aware of possible risks of taking agents for ADHD during pregnancy. Safe use during preg- nancy and lactation has not been established. In- form the physician immediately if pregnancy is suspected or planned.

■ Be aware of potential side effects of agents for ADHD. Refer to written materials furnished by health-care providers for safe self-administration.

■ Carry a card or other identification at all times describing medications being taken.

Outcome Criteria and Evaluation The following criteria may be used for evaluating the effectiveness of therapy with agents for ADHD.

The client:

■ Does not exhibit excessive hyperactivity ■ Has not experienced injury ■ Is maintaining expected parameters of growth and

development ■ Verbalizes understanding of safe self-administration

and the importance of not withdrawing medication abruptly

Summary and Key Points

■ Psychotropic medications are intended to be used as adjunctive therapy to individual or group psychotherapy.

■ Antianxiety agents are used in the treatment of anx- iety disorders and to alleviate acute anxiety symp- toms. Benzodiazepines are the most commonly used group. They are CNS depressants and have a potential for physical and psychological depen - dence. They should not be discontinued abruptly following long-term use because they can produce a life-threatening withdrawal syndrome. The most common side effects are drowsiness, confusion, and lethargy.

■ Antidepressants elevate mood and alleviate other symptoms associated with moderate-to-severe de- pression. These drugs work to increase the concen- tration of norepinephrine and serotonin in the body.

■ The tricyclics and related drugs accomplish their effect by blocking the reuptake of norepinephrine by the neurons.

■ Another group of antidepressants inhibits MAO, an enzyme that is known to inactivate norepineph- rine and serotonin. They are called MAOIs.

■ A third category of drugs blocks neuronal reuptake of serotonin and has minimal or no effect on reup- take of norepinephrine or dopamine. SSRIs.

■ Antidepressant medications may take up to 2 weeks before desired effects are noticed and may take up to 4 weeks to produce full therapeutic benefits.

The most common side effects are anticholinergic effects, sedation, and orthostatic hypotension. They can also reduce the seizure threshold. MAOIs can cause hypertensive crisis if products containing tyra- mine are consumed while taking these medications.

■ Lithium carbonate is widely used as a mood-stabilizing agent. Its mechanism of action is not fully under- stood, but it is thought to enhance the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin in the brain, thereby lowering the levels in the body, resulting in decreased hyperactivity. The most common side effects are dry mouth, gastrointestinal upset, polyuria, and weight gain.

■ There is a very narrow margin between the thera- peutic and toxic levels of lithium. Serum levels must be drawn regularly to monitor for toxicity. Symptoms of lithium toxicity begin to appear at serum levels of approximately 1.5 mEq/L. If left untreated, lithium toxicity can be life threatening.

■ Several other medications are used as mood- stabilizing agents. Two groups, anticonvulsants (carbamazepine, clonazepam, valproic acid, lam- otrigine, oxcarbazepine, and topiramate) and the calcium channel blocker verapamil, have been used with some effectiveness. Their action in the treatment of bipolar mania is not well understood.

■ Most recently, several atypical antipsychotic med- ications have been used with success in the treat- ment of bipolar mania. These include olanzapine, aripiprazole, quetiapine, risperidone, asenapine, and ziprasidone. The phenothiazine chlorpro- mazine has also been used effectively. The action of antipsychotics in the treatment of bipolar mania is not understood.

■ Antipsychotic drugs are used in the treatment of acute and chronic psychoses. The action of phenothi - azines is caused by blocking postsynaptic dopamine receptors in the basal ganglia. Their most common side effects include anticholinergic effects, seda- tion, weight gain, reduction in seizure threshold, photosensitivity, and extrapyramidal symptoms. A newer generation of antipsychotic medications, which includes clozapine, risperidone, paliperi- done, olanzapine, quetiapine, aripiprazole, asena - pine, iloperidone, lurasidone, and ziprasidone, may have an effect on dopamine, serotonin, and other neurotransmitters. They show promise of greater efficacy with fewer side effects.

■ Antiparkinsonian agents are used to counteract the ex- trapyramidal symptoms associated with antipsychotic medications. Antiparkinsonian drugs work to restore the natural balance of acetylcholine and dopamine in the brain. The most common side effects of these drugs are the anticholinergic effects. They may also cause sedation and orthostatic hypotension.

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■ Sedative-hypnotics are used in the management of anxiety states and to treat insomnia. These CNS depressants (except ramelteon) have the potential for physical and psychological dependence. They are indicated for short-term use only. Side effects and nursing implications are similar to those described for antianxiety medications.

■ Several medications have been designated as agents for treatment of ADHD. These include CNS stimulants, which have the potential for physical and psycholog- ical dependence. Tolerance develops quickly with CNS stimulants, and they should not be withdrawn

abruptly because they can produce serious with- drawal symptoms. The most common side effects are restlessness, anorexia, and insomnia. Other medications that have shown to be effective with ADHD include atomoxetine, bupropion, and the �-adrenergic agonists clonidine and guanfacine. Their mechanism of action in the treatment of ADHD is not clear.

Additional info available at www.davisplus.com

Review Questions Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

Select the answer that is most appropriate for each of the following questions.

1. How do antianxiety medications, such as benzodiazepines, produce a calming effect? a. Depressing the CNS b. Decreasing levels of norepinephrine and serotonin in the brain c. Decreasing levels of dopamine in the brain d. Inhibiting production of the enzyme MAO

2. Tam has a new diagnosis of panic disorder. Dr. S has written a prn order for alprazolam (Xanax) for when Tam is feeling anxious. She says to the nurse, “Dr. S prescribed buspirone for my friend’s anxiety. Why did he order something different for me?” The nurse’s answer is based on which of the following? a. Buspirone is not an antianxiety medication. b. Alprazolam and buspirone are essentially the same medication, so either one is appropriate. c. Buspirone has delayed onset of action and cannot be used on a prn basis. d. Alprazolam is the only medication that really works for panic disorder.

3. Education for the client who is taking MAOIs should include which of the following? a. Fluid and sodium replacement when appropriate, frequent drug blood levels, signs and symptoms

of toxicity b. Lifetime of continuous use, possible tardive dyskinesia, advantages of an injection every 2 to 4 weeks c. Short-term use, possible tolerance to beneficial effects, careful tapering of the drug at end of

treatment d. Tyramine-restricted diet, prohibitive concurrent use of over-the-counter medications without physi-

cian notification

4. There is a very narrow margin between the therapeutic and toxic levels of lithium carbonate. Symptoms of toxicity are most likely to appear if the serum levels exceed: a. 0.15 mEq/L b. 1.5 mEq/L c. 15.0 mEq/L d. 150 mEq/L

5. Initial symptoms of lithium toxicity include: a. Constipation, dry mouth b. Dizziness, thirst c. Vomiting, diarrhea d. Anuria, arrhythmias

Continued

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84 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

6. Antipsychotic medications are thought to decrease psychotic symptoms by: a. Blocking reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin b. Blocking the action of dopamine in the brain c. Inhibiting production of the enzyme MAO d. Depressing the CNS

7. Part of the nurse’s continual assessment of the client taking antipsychotic medications is to observe for extrapyramidal symptoms. Which of the following are examples of extrapyramidal symptoms? a. Muscular weakness, rigidity, tremors, facial spasms b. Dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, orthostatic hypotension c. Amenorrhea, gynecomastia, retrograde ejaculation d. Elevated blood pressure, severe occipital headache, stiff neck

8. If the foregoing extrapyramidal symptoms should occur, which of the following would be a priority nursing intervention? a. Notify the physician immediately. b. Administer prn trihexyphenidyl (Artane). c. Withhold the next dose of antipsychotic medication. d. Explain to the client that these symptoms are only temporary and will disappear shortly.

9. A concern with children on long-term therapy with CNS stimulants for ADHD is: a. Addiction b. Weight gain c. Substance abuse d. Growth suppression

10. Doses of bupropion should be administered at least 4 to 6 hours apart and never doubled when a dose is missed in order to prevent: a. Orthostatic hypotension b. Seizures c. Hypertensive crisis d. Extrapyramidal symptoms

References Berna, F., Misdrahi, D., Boyer, L., Aouizerate, B., Brunel, L.,

Capdevielle, D., Liorca, P.M. (2015). Prevalence and risk factors in a community dwelling sample of patients with Schizophrenia. Results from the FACE-SZ dataset. Schizophrenia Research, 169(1-3), 255-261.

Black, D.W., & Andreasen, N.C. (2014). Introductory textbook of psychiatry (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Brust, T.F., Hayes, M.P., Roman, D.L., & Watts, V.J. (2015). New functional activity of aripiprazole revealed: Robust antagonism of D2 dopamine receptor-stimulated Gβγ signaling. Biochemical Pharmacology, 93(1), 85-91. doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2014.10.014

Cooper, B.E., & Sejnowski, C.A. (2013). Serotonin syndrome: Recognition and treatment. AACN Advanced Critical Care, 24(1), 15-20. doi:10.1097/NCI.0b013e31827eecc6

Erlij, D., Acosta-Garcia, J., Rojas-Marquez, M., Gonzalez- Hernandez, B., Escartin-Perez, E., Aceves, J., & Floran, B. (2012). Dopamine D4 receptor stimulation in GABAergic projections of the globus pallidus to the reticular thalamic nucleus and the substantia nigra reticulata of the rat

decreases locomotor activity. Neuropharmacology, 62(2), 1111-1118. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.11.001

Facts and Comparisons (Firm) & Wolters Kluwer Health. (2014). Drug facts and comparisons. St. Louis, MO: Wolters Kluwer.

FDA (Food and Drug Administration). (2017). FDA approves first drug to treat tardive dyskinesia. Retrieved from https://www. fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ ucm552418.htm

FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Administration). (2008). FDA requires warnings about risk of suicidal thoughts and behavior for antiepileptic medications. Retrieved from https://www.fda .gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformation forPatientsandProviders/ucm100197.htm

Fournier, J.C., DeRubeis, R.J., Hollon, S.D., Dimidjian, S., Amsterdam, J.D., Shelton, R.C., & Fawcett, J. (2010). Antidepressant drug effects and depression severity: A patient-level meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 303(1), 47-53. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1943

Harrison, P. (2015). Novel drug first to treat negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Retrieved from www.medscape.com/ viewarticle/850701

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C H A P T E R 4 ■ Psychopharmacology 85

Institute of Medicine. (2003). Health professions education: A bridge to quality. Washington, DC: Author.

Jacob, S., & Spinier, S.A. (2006). Hyponatremia associated with selective serotonin-inhibitors in older adults. Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 40(9), 1618-1622. doi:10.1345/aph.1G293

Lenze, E.J., Mulsant, B.H., Blumberger, D.M., Karp, J.F., Newcomer, J.W., Anderson, S.J., . . . Reynolds, C.F. (2015). Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of augmentation pharmacotherapy with aripiprazole for treatment resistant depression in late life: A randomized placebo-controlled study. Lancet, 386(10011), 2404-2412. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/So140-6736(15) 00308-6

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2006). Questions and answers about the NIMH sequenced treatment alternatives to relieve depression (STAR*D) study—all medication levels. Retrieved from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/funding/clinical-research/ practical/stard/allmedicationlevels.shtml

New York State Office of Mental Health. (2006). An explanation of Kendra’s law. Retrieved from https://www.omh.ny.gov/ omhweb/Kendra_web/Ksummary.htm

Purnell, L.D. (2014). Guide to culturally competent health care (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

Ramnarine, M., & Ahmed, D. (2015). Anticholinergic toxicity. Retrieved from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/ 812644-overview

Sadock, B.J., Sadock, V.A., & Ruiz, P. (2015). Synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry (11th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Sage, D.L. (Producer). (1984). The brain: Madness [television broadcast]. Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Company.

Schatzberg, A.F., Cole, J.O., & DeBattista, C. (2010). Manual of clinical psychopharmacology (7th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Shorter, E. (2009). The history of lithium therapy. Bipolar Disorders, 11(Suppl. 2), 4-9. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2009.00706.x

Steinberg, M., & Lyketsos, C.G. (2012). Atypical antipsychotic use in patients with dementia: Managing safety concerns. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169(9), 900-906. doi:10.1176/ appi.aip.2012.12030342

Tartakovsky, M. (2016). Depression: New medications on the horizon. Retrieved from https://psychcentral.com/lib/depression- new-medications-on-the-horizon/

Vallerand, A.H., Sanoski, C.A., & Deglin, J.H. (2016). Davis drug guide for nurses (15th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

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5 Ethical and Legal Issues C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Objectives

Homework Assignment

Ethical Considerations

Legal Considerations

Summary and Key Points

Review Questions

K EY T E R M S

advocacy

assault

autonomy

battery

beneficence

bioethics

Christian ethics

civil law

common law

criminal law

defamation of character

ethical dilemma

ethical egoism

ethics

false imprisonment

informed consent

justice

Kantianism

libel

malpractice

moral behavior

natural law theory

negligence

nonmaleficence

privileged communication

right

slander

statutory law

tort

utilitarianism

values

values clarification

veracity

O B J EC T I V E S After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Differentiate among ethics, morals, values, and rights.

2. Discuss ethical theories, including utilitarian- ism, Kantianism, Christian ethics, natural law theories, and ethical egoism.

3. Define ethical dilemma. 4. Discuss the ethical principles of autonomy,

beneficence, nonmaleficence, justice, and veracity.

5. Use an ethical decision-making model to make an ethical decision.

6. Describe ethical issues relevant to psychiatric- mental health nursing.

7. Define statutory law and common law. 8. Differentiate between civil law and criminal law. 9. Discuss legal issues relevant to psychiatric-

mental health nursing. 10. Differentiate between malpractice and

negligence. 11. Identify behaviors relevant to the psychiatric-

mental health setting for which specific malpractice action could be taken.

H O M E W O R K A S S I G N M E N T Please read the chapter and answer the following questions:

1. Malpractice and negligence are examples of what kind of law?

2. What charges may be brought against a nurse for confining a client against his or her wishes (outside of an emergency situation)?

3. Which ethical theory espouses that what is right and good is what is best for the individ- ual making the decision?

4. Name the three major elements of informed consent.

CORE CONCEPTS Bioethics Ethics Moral Behavior Right Values Values Clarification

86

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Nurses are constantly faced with the challenge of making difficult decisions regarding good and evil or life and death. Complex situations frequently arise in caring for individuals with mental illness, and nurses are held to the highest level of legal and ethical accountability in their professional practice. This chapter presents basic ethical and legal con- cepts and their relationship to psychiatric-mental health nursing. A discussion of ethical theory is pre- sented as a foundation upon which ethical decisions may be made. The American Nurses Association (ANA) (2015) has established a code of ethics for nurses to use as a framework within which to make ethical choices and decisions (Box 5–1). These re- cently revised provisions and interpretive guidelines have been expanded to address some of the com- plexities of the current health-care environment and include ethical principles regarding the nurse’s duty not only to the patient but also to himself or herself and all people with whom he or she interacts. All relationships should be conducted within a culture of respect and civility.

The ANA Code of Ethics interpretive guidelines include a discussion of the importance of team- work and collaboration, which is consistent with

one of the recommendations of the Institute of Medi- cine (IOM) (2003) for improving the future of health care and has become one of the Quality and Safety in Education for Nurses (QSEN) standards.

The ANA, in cooperation with the American Psy- chiatric Nurses Association and the International Society of Psychiatric-Mental Health Nurses (2014), has published a scope and standards of practice manual specifically for psychiatric-mental health nursing. It maintains consistency with the ANA code of ethics and applies those provisions to psychiatric- mental health nursing issues. Knowledge about the Code of Ethics for Nurses (ANA, 2015) and Psychiatric- Mental Health Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice (ANA et al., 2014) are essential for guiding practice because they clarify the accepted expectations of the nurse in this field.

Because legislation determines what is right or good within a society, legal issues pertaining to psychiatric- mental health nursing are also discussed in this chap- ter. Definitions are presented along with rights of psychiatric clients of which nurses must be aware. Nursing competency and client care accountability are compromised when the nurse has inadequate knowledge about the laws that regulate the practice of nursing.

Knowledge of the legal and ethical concepts pre- sented in this chapter will enhance the quality of care the nurse provides in his or her psychiatric-mental

health nursing practice and will also protect the nurse within the parameters of legal accountability. The right to practice nursing carries with it the responsi- bility to maintain a specific level of competency and to practice in accordance with certain ethical and legal standards of care.

C H A P T E R 5 ■ Ethical and Legal Issues 87

BOX 5–1 American Nurses Association Code of Ethics for Nurses

1. The nurse practices with compassion and respect for the inherent dignity, worth, and unique attributes of every person.

2. The nurse’s primary commitment is to the patient whether an individual, family, group, community, or population.

3. The nurse promotes, advocates for, and strives to protect the health, safety, and rights of the patient.

4. The nurse has authority, accountability, and responsibility for nursing practice; makes decisions; and takes action consistent with the obligation to promote health and to provide optimal care.

5. The nurse owes the same duties to self as to others, in- cluding the responsibility to promote health and safety, preserve wholeness of character and integrity, maintain competence, and continue personal and professional growth.

6. The nurse, through individual and collective effort, es- tablishes, maintains, and improves the ethical environ- ment of the work setting and conditions of employment that are conducive to safe, quality health care.

7. The nurse, in all roles and settings, advances the profes- sion through research and scholarly inquiry, professional standards development, and the generation of both nursing and health policy.

8. The nurse collaborates with other health professionals and the public to protect human rights, promote health diplomacy, and reduce health disparities.

9. The profession of nursing, collectively through its pro- fessional organizations, must articulate nursing values, maintain the integrity of the profession and integrate principles of social justice into nursing and health policy.

Reprinted with permission from American Nurses Association (ANA). (2015). Code of Ethics for Nurses with Interpretive Statements. Silver Spring, MD: ANA. © 2015.

CORE CONCEPTS Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with sys- tematic approaches to distinguishing right from wrong behavior (Butts & Rich, 2016). Bioethics is the term applied to these principles when they refer to concepts within the scope of medicine, nursing, and allied health.

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Ethical Considerations

Theoretical Perspectives An ethical theory is a moral principle or a set of moral principles that can be used in assessing what is morally right or morally wrong (Ellis & Hartley, 2012). These principles provide frameworks for ethi- cal decision-making.

Utilitarianism The basis of utilitarianism is the “greatest-happiness principle.” This principle holds that actions are right to the degree that they tend to promote happiness and are wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. Thus, the good is happiness and the right is that which promotes the good. Conversely, the wrongness of an action is determined by its tendency to bring about unhappiness. An ethical decision based on the utilitarian view looks at the end results of the decision. Action is taken on the basis of the end results that will produce the most good (happiness) for the most people.

Kantianism Named for philosopher Immanuel Kant, Kantianism is directly opposed to utilitarianism. Kant argued that it is not the consequences or end results that make an

action right or wrong; rather it is the principle or motivation on which the action is based that is the morally decisive factor. Kantianism suggests that our actions are bound by a sense of duty. This the- ory is often called deontology (from the Greek word deon, which means “that which is binding; duty”). Kantian-directed ethical decisions are made out of respect for moral law. For example, “I make this choice because it is morally right and my duty to do so” (not because of consideration for a possible outcome).

Christian Ethics This approach to ethical decision-making is focused on the way of life and teachings of Jesus Christ. It advances the importance of virtues such as love, for- giveness, and honesty. One basic principle often as- sociated with Christian ethics is known as the golden rule: “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” The imperative demand of Christian ethics is that all decisions about right and wrong should be centered in love for God and in treating others with the same respect and dignity with which we would expect to be treated.

Natural Law Theory Natural law theory is based on the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas. It advances the idea that deci- sions about right versus wrong are self-evident and determined by human nature. The theory espouses that, as rational human beings, we inherently know the difference between good and evil (believed to be knowledge that is given to man from God), and this knowledge directs our decision-making.

Ethical Egoism Ethical egoism espouses that what is right and good is what is best for the individual making the decision. An individual’s actions are determined by what is to his or her own advantage. The action may not be best for anyone else involved, but consideration is only for the individual making the decision.

Ethical Dilemmas An ethical dilemma in nursing is a situation that requires the nurse to make a choice between two equally unfavorable alternatives (Catalano, 2015). Evidence exists to support both moral “rightness” and moral “wrongness” related to a certain action. The individual who must make the choice experi- ences conscious conflict regarding the decision.

Not all ethical issues are dilemmas. An ethical dilemma arises when there is no clear reason to choose one action over another. Ethical dilemmas generally create a great deal of emotion. Often, the reasons supporting each side of the argument for

88 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Moral behavior is conduct that results from serious critical thinking about how individuals ought to treat others. Moral behavior reflects the way a person inter- prets basic respect for other persons, such as the respect for autonomy, freedom, justice, honesty, and confidentiality.

Values are personal beliefs about what is important and desirable (Butts & Rich, 2016). Values clarification is a process of self-exploration through which individu- als identify and rank their own personal values. This process increases awareness about why individuals behave in certain ways. Values clarification is important in nursing to increase understanding about why certain choices and decisions are made over others and how values affect nursing outcomes.

A right is “a valid, legally recognized claim or entitle- ment, encompassing both freedom from government interference or discriminatory treatment and an entitle- ment to a benefit or service” (Levy & Rubenstein, 1996). A right is absolute when there is no restriction whatso- ever on the individual’s entitlement. A legal right is one on which the society has agreed and formalized into law. Both the National League for Nursing (NLN) and the American Hospital Association (AHA) have estab- lished guidelines of patients’ rights. Although these are not considered legal documents, nurses and hospitals are responsible for upholding these patients’ rights.

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action are logical and appropriate. The actions associated with both sides are desirable in some re- spects and undesirable in others. In most situations, taking no action is considered an action taken. For example, consider a patient who refuses to take a prescribed cardiac medication, claiming that he does not believe it is necessary. Although each patient has the right to refuse medication under or- dinary circumstances, if the same patient is known to be depressed and suicidal, might he be intending self-harm by his refusal to take such a medication? And, if so, what is the best course of action? Many health-care settings have established guidelines for how to proceed should an ethical question or dilemma arise. Hospitals typically have a formal committee to explore and analyze ethical issues from several vantage points. Nurses can improve their critical-thinking and clinical judgment skills by identifying such issues and seeking clarification through collaborative exploration with others and through ethics committee involvement.

Ethical Principles Ethical principles are fundamental guidelines that influence decision-making. The ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, veracity, and justice are helpful and are used frequently by health-care workers to assist with ethical decision- making.

Autonomy The principle of autonomy arises from the Kantian view of persons as autonomous moral agents whose right to determine their destinies should always be respected. This presumes that individuals are always capable of making their own independent choices. Health-care workers know this is not always the case. Children, com- atose individuals, and people with serious mental illness are incapable of making informed choices. In these instances, a representative of the individual is usually asked to intervene and give consent. However, health- care workers must ensure that respect for an individ- ual’s autonomy is not disregarded in favor of what another person may view as best for the client.

Beneficence Beneficence refers to one’s duty to benefit or pro- mote the good of others. Health-care workers who act in their clients’ interests are beneficent, provided their actions really do serve the client’s best interest. In fact, some duties do take preference over other duties. For example, the duty to respect the autonomy of an individual may be overridden when that individ- ual has been deemed harmful to self or others. “Doing good” for the patient should not be confused with “doing whatever the patient wants” (What do I

do now?, 2013). Good care must include a holistic focus that considers the patient’s beliefs, feelings, and wishes; the wishes of the family and significant others; and considerations about competent nursing care (Catalano, 2015). Despite the above-mentioned guidelines, it is not always clear which action is in the best interest of the client. When such dilemmas occur, nurses should reach out to available resources, such as an ethics committee or a supervisor, to build con- fidence that their decisions have explored the neces- sary vantage points.

Peplau (1991) recognized client advocacy as an essential role for the psychiatric nurse. The term advocacy means acting in another’s behalf as a sup- porter or defender. Being a client advocate in psy- chiatric nursing means helping clients fulfill needs that, without assistance and because of their illness, may go unfulfilled. Individuals with mental illness are not always able to speak for themselves. Nurses serve in this manner to protect clients’ rights and interests. Strategies include educating clients and their families about their legal rights, ensuring that clients have sufficient information to make informed decisions or to give informed consent, assisting clients to consider alternatives, and supporting them in the decisions they make. Additionally, nurses may act as advocates by speaking on behalf of individuals with mental illness to secure essential mental health services.

Nonmaleficence Nonmaleficence is the requirement that health-care providers do no harm to their clients, either inten- tionally or unintentionally. Some philosophers sug- gest that this principle is more important than beneficence; that is, they support the notion that it is more important to avoid doing harm than it is to do good. In any event, ethical dilemmas arise when a conflict exists between an individual’s rights and what is thought to best represent the welfare of the indi- vidual. An example of this conflict might occur when a psychiatric client refuses antipsychotic medication (consistent with his or her rights), and the nurse must then decide how to maintain client safety while psy- chotic symptoms continue.

Justice The principle of justice has been referred to as the “justice as fairness” principle. It is sometimes called distributive justice, and its basic premise lies with the right of individuals to be treated equally and fairly regardless of race, gender, marital status, medical diagnosis, social standing, economic level, or reli- gious belief (Catalano, 2015). When applied to health care, the principle of justice suggests that all resources (including health-care services) ought to

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be distributed equally to all people. Thus, according to this principle, the vast disparity in the quality of care dispensed to the various socioeconomic classes within our society would be considered un- just. Retribution or restorative justice refers to the rules for responding when expectations for fairness are violated. Social justice can be summarized as the prin- ciple that rules for both distribution and rules for retribution should be fair and people should play by the rules (Maiese, 2013). It is important for nurses to recognize that in the latest revision of the Code of Ethics for Nurses (ANA, 2015), a new focus in one of the provisions states that nursing should integrate principles of social justice both in practice and in developing health policy.

Veracity The principle of veracity refers to one’s duty to always be truthful. Catalano (2015) states that verac- ity “requires the health-care provider to tell the truth and not intentionally deceive or mislead clients” (p. 126). There are times when limitations must be placed on this principle, such as when the truth would knowingly produce harm or interfere with the recovery process. Being honest is not always easy, but rarely is lying justified. Clients have the right to know about their diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.

A Model for Making Ethical Decisions The following steps may be used in making an ethical decision. These steps closely resemble the steps of the nursing process.

1. Assessment: Gather the subjective and objective data about a situation. Consider personal values as well as values of others involved in the ethical dilemma.

2. Problem identification: Identify the conflict between two or more alternative actions.

3. Planning: a. Explore the benefits and consequences of each

alternative. b. Consider principles of ethical theories. c. Select an alternative.

4. Implementation: Act on the decision made, and communicate the decision to others.

5. Evaluation: Evaluate outcomes.

A schematic of this model is presented in Figure 5–1. A case study using this decision-making model is presented in Box 5–2. If the outcome is acceptable, action continues in the manner selected. If the out- come is unacceptable, benefits and consequences of the remaining alternatives are reexamined, and steps 3 through 7 in Box 5–2 are repeated.

Ethical and Legal Issues in Psychiatric- Mental Health Nursing The Right to Treatment Anyone who is admitted to the hospital has the right to treatment. Consequently, a psychiatric patient can- not legally be hospitalized and then denied appropri- ate treatment. The American Hospital Association (AHA) has also identified the rights of hospitalized patients. The AHA patient bill of rights was originally written with an emphasis on protecting the patient from a breach of reasonable standards while hospital- ized. These guidelines were revised in 2003 to create an emphasis on the importance of the collaborative relationship between the client and the hospital health-care team. Titled “The Patient Care Partner- ship,” this document informs patients of their rights to high-quality care while hospitalized, to a clean and safe environment, to be involved in their own care, to have their privacy protected, to get help when leaving the hospital, and to get help with their billing claims (AHA, 2003). Nurses practicing in hospital settings need to be aware of and adhere to legal statutes,

90 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Assessment of a Situation

A problem that requires action

is identified.

Conflict exists between alternatives.

Action BAction A Ethical conflict exists

BenefitsConsequences ConsequencesBenefits

Consider principles of ethical theories.

1. To bring the greatest pleasure to the most people2. To perform one's duty:– Duty to respect the patient's autonomy – Duty to promote good – Duty to do no harm – Duty to treat all people equally and fairly

3. To do unto others as you would have them do unto you 4. To promote the natural laws of God 5. To consider that which is best for the decision maker

Select an alternative.

ake action and communicate.T

Evaluate the outcome.

Acceptable Unacceptable

– Duty to always be truthful

FIGURE 5–1 Ethical decision-making model.

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C H A P T E R 5 ■ Ethical and Legal Issues 91

BOX 5–2 Ethical Decision-Making—A Case Study

STEP 1. ASSESSMENT Tonja is a 17-year-old girl who is currently on the psychiatric unit with a diagnosis of conduct disorder. Tonja reports that she has been sexually active since she was 14. She had an abortion when she was 15 and a second one just 6 weeks ago. She states that her mother told her she has “had her last abortion” and that she has to start taking birth control pills. She asks her nurse, Kimberly, to give her some infor- mation about the pills and to tell her how to go about getting some. Kimberly believes Tonja desperately needs information about birth control pills and other types of contraceptives, but the psychiatric unit is part of a Catholic hospital, and hospital policy prohibits distributing this type of information.

STEP 2. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION A conflict exists between the client’s need for information, the nurse’s desire to provide that information, and the institution’s policy prohibiting the provision of that information.

STEP 3. ALTERNATIVES—BENEFITS AND CONSEQUENCES Alternative 1: Give the client information and risk losing job. Alternative 2: Do not give client information and compromise

own values of holistic nursing. Alternative 3: Refer client to another source outside the

hospital and risk reprimand from supervisor.

STEP 4. CONSIDER PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL THEORIES Alternative 1: Giving the client information would certainly

respect the client’s autonomy and would benefit the client by decreasing her chances of becoming pregnant again. It would not be to the best advantage of Kimberly in that she would likely lose her job. According to the beliefs of the Catholic hospital, the natural laws of God would be violated.

Alternative 2: Withholding information restricts the client’s autonomy. It has the potential for doing harm in that with- out the use of contraceptives, the client may become pregnant again (and she implies that this is not what she wants). Kimberly’s Christian ethic is violated in that this action is not what she would want “done unto her.”

Alternative 3: A referral would respect the client’s autonomy, would promote good, would do no harm (except perhaps to Kimberly’s ego from the possible reprimand), and would comply with Kimberly’s Christian ethic.

STEP 5. SELECT AN ALTERNATIVE Alternative 3 is selected on the basis of the ethical theories of utilitarianism (does the most good for the greatest number of people), Christian ethics (Kimberly’s belief of “Do unto others as you would have others do unto you”), and Kantianism (to perform one’s duty) and on the basis of the ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, and non- maleficence. The success of this decision depends on the client’s follow-through with the referral and compliance with use of the contraceptives.

STEP 6. TAKE ACTION AND COMMUNICATE Taking action involves providing information in writing for Tonja or perhaps making a phone call to set up an appoint- ment for her with Planned Parenthood. Communicating suggests sharing the information with Tonja’s mother. The referral should be documented in the client’s chart.

STEP 7. EVALUATE THE OUTCOME An acceptable outcome might indicate that Tonja kept her appointment at Planned Parenthood and is complying with the prescribed contraceptive regimen. It might also include Kimberly’s input into the change process in her institution to implement these types of referrals to other clients who request them.

An unacceptable outcome might be indicated by Tonja’s lack of follow-through with the appointment at Planned Parenthood or lack of compliance in using the contracep- tives, resulting in another pregnancy. Kimberly may also view a reprimand from her supervisor as an unacceptable out- come, particularly if she is told that she must select other alternatives should this situation arise in the future. Kimberly’s disagreement with the institution’s policy may motivate her to make another decision—that of seeking employment in an institution that supports a philosophy more consistent with her own.

accepted standards of practice, and organizational policies with regard to a client’s rights during hospital treatment.

The Right to Refuse Treatment (Including Medication) Legally, patients have the right to refuse treatment unless immediate intervention is required to prevent death or serious harm to the patient or another person (Sadock, Sadock, & Ruiz, 2015). The U.S. Constitution and several of its amendments affirm

this right (e.g., the First Amendment, which ad- dresses the rights of speech, thought, and expres- sion; the Eighth Amendment, which grants the right to freedom from cruel and unusual punishment; and the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments, which grant due process of law and equal protection for all). In psychiatry, however, both ethical and legal issues must be considered. Sometimes patients are involuntarily hospitalized because they are at risk of harm to themselves or others and do not recognize

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the severity of their symptoms. In emergency cases, sedative medication may be administered without the patients’ consent in order to protect them from harming themselves or others. Because laws vary from state to state, nurses must know the laws that pertain in their local jurisdictions. Organizational policies in the nurse’s practice setting should also guide decision-making.

Although many courts support a client’s right to refuse medications in the psychiatric area, exceptions do exist. Regarding decision-making about forced medication, Weiss-Kaffie and Purtell (2001) stated:

The treatment team must determine that three criteria be met to force medication without client consent. The client must exhibit behavior that is dangerous to self or others; the medication ordered by the physician must have a reasonable chance of providing help to the client; and clients who refuse medication must be judged incompetent to evalu- ate the benefits of the treatment in question. (p. 361)

More recently, some states have adopted laws that allow a court to mandate outpatient treatment for people with mental illness who have a history of violent behavior. In New York City, this law, known as Kendra’s law, also includes a provision for ordering an individual to take medication as part of the treat- ment plan.

The Right to the Least-Restrictive Treatment Alternative The right to the least-restrictive treatment alternative means that clients who can be adequately treated in an outpatient setting should not be hospitalized, and if they are hospitalized, they should not be sedated, restrained, or secluded unless less restrictive measures were unsuccessful. In other words, the client has a right to whatever level of treatment is effective and least restricts his or her freedom. The restrictiveness of psychiatric therapy can be described in the context of a continuum based on severity of illness. Clients may be treated on an outpatient basis, in day hospitals, or through voluntary or involuntary hospitalization. Symptoms may be treated with verbal rehabilitative techniques and move successively to behavioral tech- niques, chemical interventions, mechanical restraints, or electroconvulsive therapy. However, ethical issues arise in selecting the least-restrictive means among involuntary chemical intervention, seclusion, and mechanical restraints. Sadock and associates (2015) state:

Distinguishing among these interventions on the basis of restrictiveness proves to be a purely subjec- tive exercise fraught with personal bias. Moreover, each of these three interventions is both more and

less restrictive than each of the other two. Neverthe- less, the effort should be made to think in terms of restrictiveness when deciding how to treat patients. (p. 1386)

While the right to the least restrictive treatment may seem reasonable and expected, it is important to rec- ognize that clients with mental illness have historically been hospitalized against their will simply because they had a mental illness. In the case of O’Connor v. Donald- son (1976), the Supreme Court ruled that harmless mentally ill individuals cannot be confined against their will if they are able to remain safe outside of a hospital setting. They must be considered dangerous to themselves or others or be so unable to care for themselves that their safety and survival are at risk. In 1981, the case of Roger v. Oken culminated in the ruling that all patients, even those involuntarily hospitalized, are competent to refuse treatment, but a legal guardian may authorize treatment (Sadock et al., 2015). These laws and policies have better attempted to protect the rights of clients with mental illness while still recognizing that, at times, an individual with acute mental illness may be unable to make decisions in the interest of his or her safety and survival.

Ideally, a person recognizes his or her need for treatment and agrees voluntarily to be hospitalized if this measure is recommended by the health-care provider. The client who is voluntarily hospitalized typically signs a consent to treatment upon admission, but it remains the client’s right as a voluntary patient to revoke that consent and to be discharged from the hospital if he or she so choose.

Legal Considerations

The Patient Self-Determination Act, as part of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990, went into effect on December 1, 1991. Cady (2010) states:

The Patient Self-determination Act requires health- care facilities to provide clear written information for every patient concerning his/her legal rights to make healthcare decisions, including the right to accept or refuse treatment. (p. 118)

Box 5–3 lists the rights of patients affirmed by this law.

Nurse Practice Acts The legal parameters of professional and practical nursing are defined within each state by the state’s nurse practice act. These documents are passed by the state legislature and in general are concerned with provisions such as

■ The definition of important terms, including nurs- ing itself and the various types of nurses.

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■ A statement of the education and other training or requirements for licensure and reciprocity.

■ Broad statements that describe the scope of prac- tice for various levels of nursing (APN, RN, LPN).

■ Conditions under which a nurse’s license may be suspended or revoked and instructions for appeal.

■ The general authority and powers of the state board of nursing.

Most nurse practice acts are general in their termi- nology and do not provide specific guidelines for practice. Nurses must understand the scope of prac- tice protected by their license and should seek assis- tance from legal counsel if they are unsure about the proper interpretation of a nurse practice act.

Types of Law The two general categories of law that are of most concern to nurses are statutory law and common law. These laws are identified by their source or origin.

Statutory Law A statutory law is a law that has been enacted by a legislative body, such as a county or city council, state

legislature, or the U.S. Congress. An example of statutory law is the nurse practice acts.

Common Law Common laws are derived from decisions made in previous cases. These laws apply to a body of princi- ples that evolve from court decisions resolving various controversies. Because common law in the United States has been developed on a state basis, the law on specific subjects may differ from state to state. An example of a common law might be how different states deal with a nurse’s refusal to provide care for a specific client.

Classifications Within Statutory and Common Law Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of unlawful acts: civil and criminal. Both statutory law and com- mon law have civil and criminal components.

Civil Law Civil law protects the private and property rights of individuals and businesses. Private individuals or

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BOX 5–3 Patient Self-Determination Act—Patient Rights

1. The right to appropriate treatment and related services in a setting and under conditions that are the most support- ive of such person’s personal liability and that restrict such liberty only to the extent necessary consistent with such person’s treatment needs, applicable requirements of law, and applicable judicial orders.

2. The right to an individualized, written treatment or service plan (such plan to be developed promptly after admission of such person), the right to treatment based on such plan, the right to periodic review and reassessment of treatment and related service needs, and the right to ap- propriate revision of such plan, including any revision nec- essary to provide a description of mental health services that may be needed after such person is discharged from such program or facility.

3. The right to ongoing participation, in a manner appropriate to a person’s capabilities, in the planning of mental health services to be provided (including the right to participate in the development and periodic revision of the plan).

4. The right to be provided, in terms and language appropri- ate to a person’s condition and ability to understand, a reasonable explanation of the person’s general mental and physical (if appropriate) condition, the objectives of treatment, the nature and significant possible adverse effects of recommended treatment, the reasons a partic- ular treatment is considered appropriate, the reasons ac- cess to certain visitors may not be appropriate, and any appropriate and available alternative treatments, services, and types of providers of mental health services.

5. The right not to receive a mode or course of treatment in the absence of informed, voluntary, written consent to treatment except during an emergency situation or as permitted by law when the person is being treated as a result of a court order.

6. The right not to participate in experimentation in the absence of informed, voluntary, written consent (includes human subject protection).

7. The right to freedom from restraint or seclusion, other than as a mode or course of treatment or restraint or seclusion during an emergency situation with a written order by a responsible mental health professional.

8. The right to a humane treatment environment that affords reasonable protection from harm and appropriate privacy with regard to personal needs.

9. The right to access, on request, to such person’s mental health-care records.

10. The right, in the case of a person admitted on a resi- dential or inpatient care basis, to converse with others privately, to have convenient and reasonable access to the telephone and mail, and to see visitors during regularly scheduled hours. (For treatment purposes, specific individuals may be excluded.)

11. The right to be informed promptly and in writing at the time of admission of these rights.

12. The right to assert grievances with respect to infringe- ment of these rights.

13. The right to exercise these rights without reprisal. 14. The right of referral to other providers upon discharge.

Adapted from the U.S. Code, Title 42, Section 10841, The Public Health and Welfare, 1991.

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groups may bring a legal action to court for breach of civil law. These legal actions are of two basic types: torts and contracts.

Torts A tort is a violation of a civil law in which an individ- ual has been wronged. In a tort action, one party asserts that wrongful conduct on the part of the other has caused harm and seeks compensation. A tort may be intentional or unintentional. Examples of uninten- tional torts are malpractice and negligence actions. An example of an intentional tort is the touching of another person without that person’s consent. Inten- tional touching (e.g., a medical treatment) without the client’s consent can result in a charge of battery, an intentional tort.

Contracts In a contract action, one party asserts that the other party, in failing to fulfill an obligation, has breached the contract, and either compensation or perfor - mance of the obligation is sought as remedy. An example is an action by a mental health professional whose clinical privileges have been reduced or ter- minated in violation of an implied contract between the professional and a hospital.

Criminal Law Criminal law provides protection from conduct deemed injurious to the public welfare. It provides for punishment of those found to have engaged in such conduct, which commonly includes imprisonment, parole conditions, a loss of privilege (such as a license), a fine, or any combination of these (Ellis & Hartley, 2012). An example of a violation of criminal law is the theft by a hospital employee of supplies or drugs.

Legal Issues in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing Confidentiality and Right to Privacy The Fourth, Fifth, and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution protect an individual’s privacy. Most states have statutes protecting the confidential- ity of client records and communications. Nurses must recognize that the only individuals who have a right to observe a client or have access to medical in- formation are those involved in the client’s medical care. The client must provide written consent for health-care information to be shared with anyone outside the current treatment team.

HIPAA Until 1996, client confidentiality in medical records was not protected by federal law. In August 1996, Pres- ident Clinton signed the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) into law. This federal

privacy rule pertains to data that is called protected health information (PHI) and applies to most individu- als and institutions involved in health care. PHI is individually identifiable health information indicators that “relate to past, present, or future physical or mental health or condition of the individual, or the past, present, or future payment for the provision of health care to an individual; and (1) that identifies the individual; or (2) with respect to which there is a reasonable basis to believe the information can be used to identify the individual” (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2003). These specific identifiers are listed in Box 5–4.

Under HIPAA, individuals have the rights to access their medical records, to have corrections made to their medical records, and to decide with whom their medical information may be shared. The actual docu- ment belongs to the facility or the therapist, but the information contained therein belongs to the client. The passage of HIPAA increased the level of control clients have over the information maintained in their

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BOX 5–4 Protected Health Information (PHI): Individually Identifiable Indicators

1. Names 2. Postal address information (except state), including

street address, city, county, precinct, and zip code 3. All elements of dates (except year) for dates directly

related to an individual, including birth date, admis- sion date, discharge date, date of death; and all ages over 89 and all elements of dates (including year) indicative of such age, except that such ages and elements may be aggregated into a single category of age 90 or older

4. Telephone numbers 5. Fax numbers 6. Electronic mail addresses 7. Social Security numbers 8. Medical record numbers 9. Health plan beneficiary numbers 10. Account numbers 11. Certificate/license numbers 12. Vehicle identifiers and serial numbers, including license

plate numbers 13. Device identifiers and serial numbers 14. Web Universal Resource Locators (URLs) 15. Internet protocol (IP) address numbers 16. Biometric identifiers, including finger and voice prints 17. Full face photographic images and any comparable

images 18. Any other unique identifying number, characteristic,

or code

From U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). (2003). Standards for privacy of individually identifiable health information. Washington, DC: HHS.

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medical records. Notice of privacy policies must be pro- vided to clients upon entry into the health-care system.

In 2013, HIPAA privacy and security rules were again expanded to afford more rights to patients with regard to their medical information and to assure greater security of a person’s health information. In some cases, such as when paying out of pocket for care, patients can tell a provider that they do not want treatment information shared with their health insur- ance plan (U.S. Department of Health &Human Serv- ices, 2013). Nurses in any practice setting need to be aware of these HIPAA laws and any new provisions in law that will impact the conduct of their practice.

Pertinent medical information may be released without consent in a life-threatening situation. If in- formation is released in an emergency, the following information must be recorded in the client’s record: date of disclosure, person to whom information was disclosed, reason for disclosure, reason written con- sent could not be obtained, and the specific informa- tion disclosed.

Most states have statutes that pertain to the doc- trine of privileged communication. Although the codes differ markedly from state to state, most grant certain professionals privileges under which they may refuse to reveal information about and communica- tions with clients. In most states, the doctrine of priv- ileged communication applies to psychiatrists and attorneys; in some instances, psychologists, clergy, and nurses are also included.

In certain instances, nurses may be called on to testify in cases in which the medical record is used as evidence. In most states, the right to privacy of these records is exempted in civil or criminal proceedings. Therefore, it is important that nurses document with these possibilities in mind. Strict recordkeeping using objective and nonjudgmental statements, care plans that are specific in their prescriptive interventions, and documentation that describes those interventions and their subsequent evaluation, all serve the best interests of the client, the nurse, and the institution should questions regarding care arise. Documentation very often weighs heavily in malpractice case decisions.

The right to confidentiality is a basic one, espe- cially in psychiatry. Although societal attitudes are improving, individuals have experienced discrimina- tion in the past for no other reason than a history of mental illness. Nurses working in psychiatric-mental health nursing must guard the privacy of their clients with great diligence.

Exception: A Duty to Warn (Protection of a Third Party) There are exceptions to the laws of privacy and con- fidentiality. One of these exceptions stems from the

1974 case of Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of Cali- fornia. The incident from which this case evolved came about in the late 1960s. A young man from Bengal, India (Mr. P.), who was a graduate student at the University of California (UC), Berkeley, fell in love with another university student (Ms. Tarasoff). Because she was not interested in an exclusive rela- tionship with Mr. P., he became resentful and angry. He began to stalk her and record some of their con- versations in an effort to determine why she did not love him. He soon became very depressed and ne - glected his health, appearance, and studies.

Ms. Tarasoff spent the summer of 1969 in South America. During this time, Mr. P. entered therapy with a psychologist at UC. He confided in the psychol- ogist that he intended to kill his former girlfriend (identifying Ms. Tarasoff by name) when she returned from vacation. The psychologist recommended civil commitment for Mr. P., claiming he was suffering from acute and severe paranoid schizophrenia. Mr. P. was picked up by the campus police but released a short time later because he appeared rational and promised to stay away from Ms. Tarasoff. Neither Ms. Tarasoff nor her parents received any warning of Mr. P.’s stated intention to kill her.

When Ms. Tarasoff returned to campus in October 1969, Mr. P. resumed his stalking behavior and even- tually stabbed her to death. Ms. Tarasoff’s parents sued the psychologist, several psychiatrists, and the university for failure to warn the family of the danger. The case was referred to the California Supreme Court, which ruled that a mental health professional has a duty not only to a client but also to individuals who are being threatened by that client. The Court stated:

Once a therapist does in fact determine, or under applicable professional standards should have deter- mined, that a patient poses a serious danger of vio- lence to others, he bears a duty to exercise reasonable care to protect the foreseeable victim of that danger. While the discharge of this duty of due care will nec- essarily vary with the facts of each case, in each in- stance the adequacy of the therapist’s conduct must be measured against the traditional negligence stan- dard of reasonable care under the circumstances. (Tarasoff v. Regents of University of California, 1974a)

The defendants argued that warning the woman or her family would have breached professional ethics and violated the client’s right to privacy. But the court ruled that “the confidential character of patient-psychotherapist communications must yield to the extent that disclosure is essential to avert dan- ger to others. The protective privilege ends where the public peril begins” (Tarasoff v. Regents of Univer- sity of California, 1974b).

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In 1976, the California Supreme Court expanded the original case ruling (now referred to as Tarasoff I). The second ruling (known as Tarasoff II) broadened the ruling of “duty to warn” to include “duty to pro- tect.” It stated that under certain circumstances, a therapist might be required to warn an individual, notify police, or take whatever steps are necessary to protect the intended victim from harm. This duty to protect can also occur in instances when patients must be protected by health-care providers because they are vulnerable due to their inability to identify harmful situations (Guido, 2014).

The Tarasoff rulings created a great deal of contro- versy in the psychiatric community regarding breach of confidentiality and the subsequent negative impact on the client-therapist relationship. However, most states now recognize that therapists have ethical and legal obligations to prevent their clients from harm- ing themselves or others. Many states have passed their own variations on the original “protect and warn” legislation, but in most cases, courts have out- lined the following guidelines for therapists to follow in determining their obligation to take protective measures:

1. Assessment of a threat of violence by a client toward another individual

2. Identification of the intended victim 3. Ability to intervene in a feasible, meaningful way

to protect the intended victim

When these guidelines apply to a specific situation, it is reasonable for the therapist to notify the victim, law enforcement authorities, and/or relatives of the intended victim. They may also consider initiating voluntary or involuntary commitment of the client in an effort to prevent potential violence.

Implications for Nursing While the original decision in the Tarasoff ruling was directed toward psy- chotherapists, it has since been more broadly ap- plied. Not all states identify registered nurses as having a duty to warn, but other statutes include a duty to warn for nurses at all levels, from licensed practical nurses to advanced practice nurses. As of 2015, three states (Maine, Nevada, and North Dakota) have not yet addressed the issue of duty to warn. One state (North Carolina) does not recog- nize the duty to warn (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2016). But even in states that do not recognize a duty to warn, practitioners still need to make a decision about warning a potential victim. Every nurse, not just those practicing in psychiatric nursing, should be informed about the laws in his or her state regarding duty to warn. As Henderson (2015) notes, emergency nurses are often the front- line health-care workers and thus are in a position to identify persons at risk for violence and to protect

the safety of the patient and others. In psychiatric- mental health nursing practice, if a client confides in the nurse about the potential for harm to an intended victim, it is the nurse’s duty to report this information to the psychiatrist and to other team members. This is not a breach of confidentiality, and the nurse may be considered negligent for failure to report. All members of the treatment team must be made aware of the potential danger that the client poses to self or others. Detailed written documenta- tion of the situation is also required.

Exception: Suspected Child or Elder Abuse Every state requires that health-care professionals— and in many jurisdictions, every citizen—report sus- picion of child abuse to legal authorities (Hartsell & Bernstein, 2013). Many jurisdictions also have statutes requiring that suspected elder abuse or neglect be reported. At times, health-care professionals may be reluctant to report, fearing that they may be liable for false allegations, but reporting statutes generally grant immunity to anyone making a good faith report about a reasonable suspicion. In addition, in some jurisdictions, it is a criminal act not to report, “so declining to report should not be considered an option” (Hartsell& Bernstein, 2013, p. 170).

Implications for Nursing There is often an element of clinical judgment about whether a patient’s commu- nication raises a reasonable suspicion of abuse. For example, when a person is experiencing hallucina- tions or delusions, his or her perception about events may be distorted. The nurse has a responsibility to ex- plore all patient perceptions of abuse or mistreatment and discuss these with other health-care team mem- bers to identify the most appropriate decision with consideration of all legal, ethical, and clinical factors.

Informed Consent According to law, all individuals have the right to de- cide whether to accept or reject medical treatment. A health-care provider can be charged with assault and battery for providing life-sustaining treatment to a client when the client has not agreed to the treat- ment. The rationale for the doctrine of informed con- sent is the preservation and protection of individual autonomy in determining what will and will not hap- pen to a person’s body (Guido, 2014).

Informed consent is permission granted by a client for a physician to perform a therapeutic procedure. Before the procedure, the client is presented written information about the treatment and given ade- quate time to consider the pros and cons. The client should receive information such as what treatment alternatives are available; why the physician believes this treatment is most appropriate; the possible out- comes, risks, and adverse effects; the possible outcome

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should the client select another treatment alternative; and the possible outcome should the client choose to decline all treatment. An example of a psychiatric treatment that requires informed consent is electro- convulsive therapy.

Under some conditions, treatment may be per- formed without obtaining informed consent. A client’s refusal to accept treatment may be challenged under the following circumstances (Guido, 2014; Levy & Rubenstein, 1996):

1. When a client is mentally incompetent to make a decision and treatment is necessary to preserve life or avoid serious harm

2. When refusing treatment endangers the life or health of another

3. During an emergency in which a client is in no condition to exercise judgment

4. When the client is a child (consent is obtained from parent or surrogate)

5. In the case of therapeutic privilege, information about a treatment may be withheld if the physician can show that full disclosure would a. hinder or complicate necessary treatment, b. cause severe psychological harm, or c. be so upsetting as to render a rational decision

by the client impossible

Although most clients in psychiatric-mental health facilities are competent and capable of giving informed consent, those with severe psychiatric illness do not possess the cognitive ability to do so. If an individual has been legally determined mentally incompetent, consent is obtained from the legal guardian. Difficulty arises when no legal determina- tion has been made, but the individual’s current men- tal state prohibits informed decision-making (e.g., a person who is psychotic, unconscious, or inebriated). In these instances, informed consent is usually ob- tained from the individual’s nearest relative, or if none exist and time permits, the physician may ask the court to appoint a conservator or guardian. When time does not permit court intervention, permission may be sought from the hospital administrator.

A client or guardian always has the right to with- draw consent after it has been given. When this occurs, the physician should inform (or reinform) the client about the consequences of refusing treat- ment. If treatment has already been initiated, the physician should terminate treatment in a way least likely to cause injury to the client and inform the client or guardian of the risks associated with inter- rupted treatment (Guido, 2014).

The nurse’s role in obtaining informed consent is usually defined by agency policy. A nurse may sign the consent form as witness for the client’s signature. However, legal liability for informed consent lies with

the physician. The nurse acts as client advocate, ensuring that the following three major elements of informed consent have been addressed:

1. Knowledge: The client has received adequate information on which to base his or her decision.

2. Competency: The individual’s cognition is not impaired to an extent that would interfere with decision-making, or he or she has a legal representative.

3. Free will: The individual has given consent volun- tarily without pressure or coercion from others.

Restraints and Seclusion An individual’s privacy and personal security are pro- tected by the Patient Self-Determination Act of 1991. This legislation includes a set of patient rights, includ- ing an individual’s right to freedom from restraint or seclusion except in an emergency. The use of seclu- sion and restraint as a therapeutic intervention for psychiatric patients has long been controversial. Many efforts have been made through federal and state reg- ulations and through standards set forth by accredit- ing bodies to minimize or eliminate the use of this type of intervention.

In addition, there is an element of moral decision- making when any kind of treatment is coerced, as is often the case with seclusion and restraint. Landeweer, Abma, and Widdershoven (2011) point out that although coercion may sometimes be nec- essary, it can be detrimental to the patient, as it may produce trauma and mistrust. One advantage of using a forum such as a hospital-based ethics com- mittee to guide moral decision-making is that by exploring issues such as the use of seclusion and restraint with a diverse group of people who have different vantage points, alternative treatments can be identified and explored.

Because injuries and deaths have been associated with restraint and seclusion, this treatment requires careful attention whenever it is deemed necessary. Further, the laws, regulations, accreditation stan- dards, and hospital policies are frequently revised, so anyone practicing in inpatient psychiatric settings must be well informed in each of these areas.

In psychiatry, the term restraints generally refers to a set of leather straps used to restrain the extremities of an individual whose behavior is out of control and who poses an immediate risk to the physical safety and psychological well-being of himself or herself and others. It is important to note that the currently accepted definition of restraint refers not only to leather restraints but also to any manual method or medication used to restrict a person’s freedom of movement. Restraints are never to be used as punish- ment or for the convenience of staff. Other measures

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to decrease agitation, such as “talking down” (verbal intervention) and chemical restraints (tranquilizing medication), are usually tried first. If these interven- tions are ineffective, mechanical restraints may be instituted (although some controversy exists as to whether chemical restraints are indeed less restrictive than mechanical restraints). Seclusion is another type of physical restraint in which the client is confined alone in a room from which he or she is unable to leave. The room is usually minimally furnished with items to promote the client’s comfort and safety.

The Joint Commission, an association that accred- its health-care organizations, has established stan- dards regarding the use of seclusion and restraint. Some examples of current standards include the following (The Joint Commission, 2015):

1. Seclusion or restraint is discontinued as soon as possible regardless of when the order is scheduled to expire.

2. Unless state law is more restrictive, orders for re- straint or seclusion must be renewed every 4 hours for adults ages 18 and older, every 2 hours for chil- dren and adolescents ages 9 to 17, and every hour for children younger than 9 years. Orders may be renewed according to these time limits for a max- imum of 24 consecutive hours.

3. An in-person evaluation (by a physician, clinical psychologist, or other licensed independent prac- titioner responsible for the care of the patient) must be conducted within 1 hour of initiating restraint or seclusion. Appropriately trained regis- tered nurses and physician assistants may also con- duct this assessment, but they must consult with the physician.

4. Patients who are simultaneously restrained and secluded must be continuously monitored by trained staff, either in person or through audio or video equipment positioned near the patient.

5. Staff who are involved in restraining and secluding patients are trained to monitor the physical and psychological well-being of the patient including but not limited to respiratory and circulatory status, skin integrity, and vital signs.

The laws, regulations, accreditation standards, and hospital policies pertaining to restraint and seclusion share a common priority of maintaining patient safety for a procedure that has the potential to incur injury or death. The importance of close and careful moni- toring cannot be overstated.

False imprisonment is the deliberate and unautho- rized confinement of a person within fixed limits by the use of verbal or physical means (Ellis & Hartley, 2012). Health-care workers may be charged with false imprisonment for restraining or secluding— against the wishes of the client—anyone admitted to

the hospital voluntarily. Should a voluntarily admit- ted client decompensate to a point that restraint or seclusion for protection of self or others is necessary, court intervention to determine competency and in- voluntary commitment is required to preserve the client’s rights to privacy and freedom.

Hospitalization Voluntary Admissions Each year, more than 1 million people are admitted to health-care facilities for psychiatric treatment; of these admissions, approximately two-thirds are con- sidered voluntary. To be admitted voluntarily, an individual makes direct application to the institution for services and may stay as long as treatment is deemed necessary. He or she may sign out of the hos- pital at any time unless the health-care professional determines that the client may be harmful to self or others following a mental status examination and recommends that admission status be changed from voluntary to involuntary. Even when an admission is considered voluntary, it is important to ensure that the individual comprehends the meaning of his or her actions, has not been coerced in any manner, and is willing to proceed with admission.

Involuntary Commitment Although the term involuntary hospitalization is pre- ferred by some over the term involuntary commitment, this process needs to be conducted with respect to state and federal law. Because involuntary hospital- ization results in substantial restrictions of the rights of an individual, the admission process is subject to the guarantee of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution that provides citizens protection against loss of liberty and ensures due process rights (Weiss-Kaffie & Purtell, 2001). Involuntary hospital- izations may be made for various reasons. Most states commonly cite the following criteria:

■ The person is imminently dangerous to himself or herself (i.e., suicidal intent).

■ The person is a danger to others (i.e., physically ag- gressive, violent, or homicidal).

■ The person is unable to take care of basic personal needs (the “gravely disabled”).

Under the Fourth Amendment, individuals are protected from unlawful searches and seizures with- out probable cause. Therefore, the individual rec- ommending involuntary hospitalization must show probable cause why the client should be hospital- ized against his or her wishes; that is, the person must show that there is cause to believe that the client would be dangerous to self or others, is men- tally ill and in need of treatment, or is gravely disabled.

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Emergency Commitments Emergency commitments are sought when an individ- ual manifests behavior that is clearly and imminently dangerous to self or others. These admissions are usu- ally instigated by relatives or friends of the individual or by police officers, the court, or health-care profes- sionals. Emergency commitments are time-limited, and a court hearing for the individual is scheduled, usually within 72 hours. At that time, the court may decide that the client may be discharged or, if deemed necessary and voluntary admission is refused by the client, an additional period of involuntary hospitaliza- tion may be ordered. In most instances, another hearing is scheduled for a specified time (usually in 7 to 21 days).

The Mentally Ill Person in Need of Treatment A second type of involuntary commitment is for the observation and treatment of mentally ill persons in need of treatment. These commitments typically last longer than emergency commitments. Most states have established definitions of what constitutes “men- tally ill” for purposes of state involuntary admission statutes. Some examples include individuals who, because of severe mental illness, are

■ Unable to make informed decisions concerning treatment.

■ Likely to cause harm to self or others. ■ Unable to fulfill basic personal needs necessary for

health and safety.

In determining whether commitment is required, the court looks for substantial evidence of abnormal conduct—evidence that cannot be explained by a physical cause. There must be “clear and convincing evidence” as well as probable cause to substantiate the need for involuntary hospitalization to ensure that an individual’s constitutional rights are pro- tected. As mentioned earlier, the U.S. Supreme Court, in O’Connor v. Donaldson, held that the exis- tence of mental illness alone does not justify involun- tary hospitalization. State standards require a specific impact or consequence caused by mental illness that involves danger or an inability to care for one’s own needs. These clients are entitled to court hearings with representation, at which time determination of commitment and length of stay are considered. Legislative statutes governing involuntary commit- ments vary among states.

Involuntary Outpatient Commitment Involuntary outpatient commitment (IOC) is a court- ordered mechanism used to compel a person with mental illness to submit to treatment on an outpatient basis. A number of eligibility criteria for commitment to outpatient treatment have been cited (Appelbaum,

2001; Csere, 2013; Maloy, 1996; Torrey & Zdanowicz, 2001). Some of these include

■ A history of repeated decompensation requiring involuntary hospitalization.

■ Likelihood that without treatment the individual will deteriorate to the point of requiring inpatient commitment.

■ Presence of severe and persistent mental illness (e.g., schizophrenia or bipolar disorder) and lim- ited awareness of the illness or need for treatment.

■ The presence of severe and persistent mental ill- ness contributing to a risk of becoming homeless, incarcerated, or violent, or of committing suicide.

■ The existence of an individualized treatment plan likely to be effective and a service provider who has agreed to provide the treatment.

■ A danger to self or others. Although this is also a criterion for inpatient commitment, the American Psychiatric Association recommends outpatient commitment as an option when there is an accept- able treatment plan and access to a community provider (Harvard Health, 2008).

■ The risk for relapse and hospitalization related to noncompliance with treatment.

Most states have already enacted IOC legislation or currently have agenda resolutions that speak to this topic. Most commonly, clients who are commit- ted into the IOC programs are those with severe and persistent mental illness such as schizophrenia. The rationale behind the legislation is to improve preven- tive care and reduce the number of readmissions and lengths of hospital stays for these clients. The need for this kind of legislation arose after it was recog- nized that patients with schizophrenia who did not meet criteria for involuntary hospital treatment were in some cases ultimately dangerous to themselves or others. In New York, public attention to this need arose after a man with schizophrenia who had stopped taking his medication pushed a young woman into the path of a subway train. He would not have met criteria for involuntary hospitalization until he was deemed dangerous to others, but advocates for this legislation argued that there should be provisions to prevent violence rather than waiting until it happens. The sub- sequent law governing IOC in New York became known as Kendra’s law in reference to the woman who was pushed to her death. Opponents of this legislation fear that it may violate the individual rights of psychiatric clients without significant improvement in outcomes.

Some research studies have attempted to evaluate whether IOC (sometimes abbreviated as OPC, which refers simply to outpatient commitment) improves care, reduces lengths of stay in the hospital, and/or reduces episodes of violence. Most studies have shown positive outcomes, including a decrease in hospital

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readmissions, with IOC (Swartz & Swanson, 2008). Continuing research is required to determine whether IOC will ultimately improve treatment compliance and enhance quality of life in the community for indi- viduals with severe and persistent mental illness.

The Gravely Disabled Client A number of states have statutes that specifically define the “gravely disabled” client. For those that do not use this label, the description of the individual who is unable to take care of basic personal needs because of mental illness is very similar.

Gravely disabled is generally defined as a condition in which an individual, as a result of mental illness, is in danger of serious physical harm resulting from inability to provide for basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter, medical care, and personal safety. Inability to care for oneself cannot be established by showing that an individual lacks the resources to provide the necessities of life. Rather, it is the inabil- ity to make use of available resources.

Should it be determined that an individual is gravely disabled, a guardian, conservator, or commit- tee will be appointed by the court to ensure the man- agement of the person and his or her estate. To legally restore competency requires another court hearing to reverse the previous ruling. The individual whose competency is being determined has the right to be represented by an attorney.

Nursing Liability Mental health practitioners—psychiatrists, psycholo- gists, psychiatric nurses, and social workers—have a duty to provide appropriate care based on the stan- dards of their professions and the standards set by law. The standards of care for psychiatric-mental health nursing are presented in Chapter 9, The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing.

Malpractice and Negligence The terms malpractice and negligence are often used interchangeably. Negligence has been defined as

the failure to exercise the standard of care that a reasonably prudent person would have exercised in a similar situation; any conduct that falls below the legal standard established to protect others against unreasonable risk of harm, except for conduct that is intentionally, wantonly, or willfully disregardful of others’ rights. (Garner, 2014)

Any person may be negligent. In contrast, mal- practice is a specialized form of negligence caused only by professionals. Black’s Law Dictionary defines malpractice as

an instance of negligence or incompetence on the part of a professional. To succeed in a malpractice

claim, a plaintiff must also prove proximate cause and damages. (Garner, 2014)

In the absence of state statutes, common law is the basis of liability for injuries to clients caused by acts of malpractice and negligence by individual practi- tioners. In other words, most decisions of negligence in the professional setting are based on legal prece- dent (decisions that have been made previously about similar cases) rather than on any specific action taken by the legislature.

To summarize, when a breach of duty is character- ized as malpractice, the action is weighed against the professional standard. When it is brought forth as negligence, the action is contrasted with what a reasonably prudent professional would have done in the same or similar circumstances.

Austin (2011) cites the following basic elements of a nursing malpractice lawsuit:

1. A duty to the patient existed, based on the recog- nized standard of care.

2. A breach of duty occurred, meaning that the care rendered was not consistent with the recognized standard of care.

3. The client was injured. 4. The injury was directly caused by the breach of a

standard of care.

For the client to prevail in a malpractice claim, each of these elements must be proven. Jury deci- sions are generally based on the testimony of expert witnesses because members of the jury are laypeople who cannot be expected to know what nursing inter- ventions should have taken place. Without the testi- mony of expert witnesses, a favorable verdict usually goes to the defendant nurse.

Types of Lawsuits That Occur in Psychiatric Nursing Most malpractice suits against nurses are civil actions, which means they are considered breach of conduct actions on the part of the professional for which com- pensation is sought. The nurse in a psychiatric setting should be aware of the types of behavior that may result in malpractice charges.

The hospitalized psychiatric client has a basic right to confidentiality and privacy. A nurse may be charged with breach of confidentiality for revealing aspects about a client’s case or even for revealing that an individual has been hospitalized if the client can show that mak- ing this information known resulted in harm.

When shared information is detrimental to the client’s reputation, the person sharing the informa- tion may be liable for defamation of character. When the information is in writing, the action is called libel. Oral defamation is called slander. Defamation of character involves communication that is malicious and false (Ellis & Hartley, 2012). Occasionally, libel

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arises out of critical, judgmental statements written in the client’s medical record. Nurses need to be very objective in their charting, backing up all statements with factual evidence.

Invasion of privacy is a charge that may result when a client is searched without probable cause. Many institutions conduct body searches on clients with mental illness as a routine intervention. In these cases, there should be a physician’s order and written rationale showing probable cause for the interven- tion. Many institutions are reexamining their policies regarding this procedure.

Assault is an act that results in a person’s genuine fear and apprehension that he or she will be touched without consent. Battery is the unconsented touching of another person. These charges can result when a treatment is administered to a client against his or her wishes and outside of an emergency situation. Harm or injury need not have occurred for these charges to be legitimate.

For confining a client against his or her wishes outside of an emergency situation, the nurse may be charged with false imprisonment. Examples of actions that may invoke these charges include lock- ing an individual in a room, taking a client’s clothes for purposes of detainment against his or her will, and restraining a competent voluntary client who demands to be released.

Avoiding Liability Catalano (2015) suggests the following proactive nursing actions in an effort to avoid nursing malprac- tice and the risk of lawsuits:

1. Effective communication with patients and other care- givers. The SBAR model of reporting information, which stands for situation, background, assess- ment, and recommendations, has been identified as a useful tool for effective communication with caregivers. Establishing rapport with clients en- courages open and honest communication.

2. Accurate and complete documentation in the medical record.

The electronic health record (EHR) has been identified as the best way to document and share this information. The use of best infor-

matics sources is identified as an essential nursing competency (Institute of Medicine, 2003) and an important standard for quality and safety in nursing education (QSEN Institute, 2013).

3. Complying with standards of care, including those established within the profession (such as ANA standards) and those identified by specific hospital policies.

4. Knowing the client, which includes helping the client become involved in his or her care as well as

understanding and responding to aspects of care in which the client is dissatisfied.

5. Practicing within the nurse’s level of competence and scope of practice, which includes not only adhering to pro- fessional standards (those of the ANA and state boards of nursing) but also keeping knowledge and nursing skills current through evidence-based liter- ature, in-services, and continuing education.

Some clients appear to be more “suit prone” than others. Suit-prone clients are often very critical, com- plaining, uncooperative, and even hostile. A natural staff response to these clients is to become defensive or withdrawn. Either of these behaviors increases the likelihood of a lawsuit should an unfavorable event occur (Ellis & Hartley, 2012). No matter how high the nurse’s technical competence and skill, his or her in- sensitivity to a client’s complaints and failure to meet the client’s emotional needs often influence whether or not a lawsuit is generated. A great deal depends on the psychosocial skills of the health-care professional.

C H A P T E R 5 ■ Ethical and Legal Issues 101

CLINICAL PEARLS • Always put the client’s rights and welfare first. • Develop and maintain a good interpersonal relationship with

each client and his or her family.

Summary and Key Points

■ Ethics is a branch of philosophy that addresses methods for determining the rightness or wrong- ness of one’s actions.

■ Bioethics is the term applied to these principles when they refer to concepts within the scopes of medicine, nursing, and allied health.

■ Moral behavior is conduct that results from serious critical thinking about how individuals ought to treat others.

■ Values are personal beliefs about what is important or desirable

■ A right is “a valid, legally recognized claim or enti- tlement, encompassing both freedom from govern- ment interference or discriminatory treatment and an entitlement to a benefit or service” (Levy & Rubenstein, 1996).

■ The ethical theory of utilitarianism is based on the premise that what is right and good is that which produces the most happiness for the most people.

■ The ethical theory of Kantianism suggests that ac- tions are bound by a sense of duty and that ethical decisions are made out of respect for moral law.

■ The code of Christian ethics is that all decisions about right and wrong should be centered in love for God and in treating others with the same respect and dignity with which we would expect to be treated.

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■ The moral precept of the natural law theory is “do good and avoid evil.” Good is viewed as that which is inscribed by God into the nature of things. Evil acts are never condoned, even if they are intended to advance the noblest of ends.

■ Ethical egoism espouses that what is right and good is what is best for the individual making the decision.

■ Ethical principles include autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, veracity, and justice.

■ An ethical dilemma is a situation that requires an individual to make a choice between two equally unfavorable alternatives.

■ Ethical issues may arise in psychiatric-mental health nursing around the client’s right to refuse medica- tion and right to the least-restrictive treatment alternative.

■ Statutory laws are those that have been enacted by legislative bodies, and common laws are derived from decisions made in previous cases. Both types of laws have civil and criminal components.

■ Civil law protects the private and property rights of individuals and businesses, and criminal law pro- vides protection from conduct deemed injurious to the public welfare.

■ Legal issues in psychiatric-mental health nursing center around confidentiality and the right to privacy, informed consent, restraints and seclusion, and commitment issues.

■ Nurses are accountable for their own actions in relation to legal issues, and violation can result in malpractice lawsuits against the physician, the hospital, and the nurse.

■ Developing and maintaining a good interpersonal relationship with the client and his or her family appears to be a positive factor when the question of malpractice is being considered.

102 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Additional info available at www.davisplus.com

Review Questions Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

Select the answer that is most appropriate for each of the following questions.

1. The nurse decides to go against family wishes and tell the client of his terminal status because that is what she would want if she were the client. Which of the following ethical theories is considered in this decision? a. Kantianism b. Christian ethics c. Natural law theories d. Ethical egoism

2. The nurse decides to respect family wishes and not tell the client of his terminal status because that would bring the most happiness to the most people. Which of the following ethical theories is consid- ered in this decision? a. Utilitarianism b. Kantianism c. Christian ethics d. Ethical egoism

3. The nurse decides to tell the client of his terminal status because she believes it is her duty to do so. Which of the following ethical theories is considered in this decision? a. Natural law theories b. Ethical egoism c. Kantianism d. Utilitarianism

4. The nurse assists the physician with electroconvulsive therapy on a client who has refused to give consent. With which of the following legal actions might the nurse be charged because of this nursing action? a. Assault b. Battery c. False imprisonment d. Breach of confidentiality

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C H A P T E R 5 ■ Ethical and Legal Issues 103

Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

5. A competent, voluntary client has stated he wants to leave the hospital. The nurse hides his clothes in an effort to keep him from leaving. With which of the following legal actions might the nurse be charged because of this nursing action? a. Assault b. Battery c. False imprisonment d. Breach of confidentiality

6. Joe is very restless and is pacing the room. The nurse says to Joe, “If you don’t sit down in the chair and be still, I’m going to put you in restraints!” With which of the following legal actions might the nurse be charged because of this nursing action? a. Defamation of character b. Battery c. Breach of confidentiality d. Assault

7. An individual may be considered gravely disabled for which of the following reasons? (Select all that apply.) a. A person, because of mental illness, cannot fulfill basic needs. b. A mentally ill person is in danger of physical harm based on inability to care for himself or herself. c. A mentally ill person lacks the resources to provide the necessities of life. d. A mentally ill person is unable to make use of available resources to meet daily living requirements.

8. Which of the following statements is correct regarding the use of restraints? (Select all that apply.) a. Restraints may never be initiated without a physician’s order. b. Orders for restraints must be reissued by a physician every 2 hours for children and adolescents. c. Clients in restraints must be observed and assessed every hour for issues regarding circulation, nu-

trition, respiration, hydration, and elimination. d. An in-person evaluation must be conducted within 1 hour of initiating restraints.

9. Guidelines relating to “duty to warn” state that a therapist should consider taking action to warn a third party when his or her client does which of the following? (Select all that apply.) a. Threatens violence toward another individual b. Identifies a specific intended victim c. Is having command hallucinations d. Reveals paranoid delusions about another individual

10. Attempting to calm an angry client by using “talk therapy” is an example of which of the following clients’ rights? a. The right to privacy b. The right to refuse medication c. The right to the least-restrictive treatment alternative d. The right to confidentiality

11. The Quality and Safety Education for Nurses guidelines identify that student nurses need to be well schooled on informatics. This most directly refers to which of the following? a. Learning how to effectively communicate information using electronic health records b. Learning the SBAR method of reporting information c. Learning guidelines for preventing lawsuits d. Learning information about new treatments to keep nursing skills current

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References American Hospital Association (AHA). (2003). The patient care

partnership: Understanding expectations, rights, and respon- sibilities. Retrieved from www.aha.org/advocacy-issues/ communicatingpts/pt-care-partnership.shtml

American Nurses Association (ANA). (2015). Code of ethics for nurses with interpretive statements. Silver Spring, MD: ANA.

American Nurses Association (ANA), American Psychiatric Nurses Association, & International Society of Psychiatric-Mental Health Nurses. (2014). Psychiatric–mental health nursing: Scope and standards of practice (2nd ed.). Silver Spring, MD: ANA.

Appelbaum, P.S. (2001). Thinking carefully about outpatient commitment. Psychiatric Services, 52(3), 347-350. doi:10.1176/ appi.ps.52.3.347

Austin, S. (2011). Stay out of court with proper documentation. Nursing2011, 41(4), 25-29. doi:10.1097/01.NURSE. 0000395202.86451.d4

Butts, J., & Rich, K. (2016). Nursing ethics: Across the curriculum and into practice (4th ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett.

Cady, R.F. (2010). A review of basic patient rights in psychiatric care. JONA’s Healthcare Law, Ethics, and Regulation, 12(4), 117-125. doi:10.1097/NHL.0b013e3181f4d357

Catalano, J.T. (2015). Nursing now! Today’s issues, tomorrow’s trends (7th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

Csere, M. (2013). Updated report: involuntary outpatient mental health treatment laws. OLR Research Report. Retrieved from https://www.cga.ct.gov/2013/rpt/2013-R-0105.htm

Ellis, J.R., & Hartley, C.L. (2012). Nursing in today’s world: Challenges, issues, and trends (10th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Garner, B.A. (Ed.). (2014). Black’s law dictionary (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thompson West.

Guido, G.W. (2014). Legal and ethical issues in nursing (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Hartsell, T.L., & Bernstein, B.E. (2013). The portable lawyer for mental health professionals: An A-Z guide to protecting your clients, your practice, and yourself (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Henderson, E. (2015). Potentially dangerous patients: A review of the duty to warn. Journal of Emergency Nursing, 41(3), 193-200. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jen.2014.08.012

Institute of Medicine. (2003). Health professions education: A bridge to quality. Washington, DC: Institute of Medicine.

Landeweer, E., Abma, T.A., & Widdershoven, G. (2011). Moral margins concerning the use of coercion in psychiatry. Nursing Ethics, 18(3), 304-316. doi:10.1177/0969733011400301

Maiese, M. (2013 [originally posted July 2003]). Principles of justice and fairness. Beyond intractability. Eds. C. Burgess & H. Burgess. Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Retrieved from www.beyondintractability. org/essay/principles-of-justice

Maloy, K.A. (1996). Does involuntary outpatient commitment work? In B.D. Sales & S.A. Shah (Eds.), Mental health and law: Research, policy and services (pp. 41-74). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.

National Conference of State Legislatures. (2016). Mental health professionals’ duty to warn. Retrieved from www.ncsl.org/ research/health/mental-health-professionals-duty-to-warn.aspx

QSEN Institute. (2013). Competencies. Retrieved from http:// qsen.org/competencies/

Sadock, B.J., Sadock, V.A., & Ruiz, P. (2015). Synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry (11th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Swartz, M.S., & Swanson, J.W. (2008). Outpatient commitment: When it improves patient outcomes. Current Psychiatry, 7(4), 25-35. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.52.3.325

Tarasoff v. Regents of University of California et al. (1974a), 551 P.d 345.

Tarasoff v. Regents of University of California et al. (1974b), 554 P.d 347.

The Joint Commission. (2015). The comprehensive accreditation manual for hospitals (CAMH). Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission Resources.

Torrey, E.F., & Zdanowicz, M. (2001). Outpatient commitment: What, why, and for whom. Psychiatric Services, 52(3), 337-341. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.52.3.337

U.S. Code, Title 42, Section 10841, The Public Health and Welfare, 1991.

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (HHS). (2003). Standards for privacy of individually identifiable health information. Washington, DC: HHS.

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (HHS). (2013, Jan. 17). New rule protects patient privacy, secures health information [press release]. Retrieved from www.hhs.gov/ news/press/2013pres/01/20130117b.html

Weiss-Kaffie, C.J., & Purtell, N.E. (2001). Psychiatric nursing. In M.E. O’Keefe (Ed.), Nursing practice and the law: Avoiding malpractice and other legal risks (pp. 352-371). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

What do I do now? Ethical dilemmas in nursing and health care. (2013). ISNA Bulletin, 13(2), 5-12.

Classical References Levy, R.M., & Rubenstein, L.S. (1996). The rights of people with

mental disabilities. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Patient Self-Determination Act—Patient Rights. (1991). U.S.

Code, Title 42, Section 10841, The Public Health and Welfare.

Peplau, H.E. (1991). Interpersonal relations in nursing: A conceptual frame of reference for psychodynamic nursing. New York: Springer.

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6 Cultural and Spiritual Concepts Relevant to Psychiatric-Mental

Health Nursing

CORE CONCEPTS Culture Ethnicity Religion Spirituality

105

C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Objectives

Homework Assignment

Cultural Concepts

How Do Cultures Differ?

Application of the Nursing Process

Spiritual Concepts

Addressing Spiritual and Religious Needs Through the Nursing Process

Summary and Key Points

Review Questions

K EY T E R M S

acculturate

assimilate

collectivist culture

culture

cultural syndromes

curandera

curandero

density

distance

enculturation

ethnicity

folk medicine

individualist culture

religion

shaman

spirituality

stereotyping

territoriality

yin and yang

O B J EC T I V E S After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Define and differentiate between culture, race, and ethnicity.

2. Identify cultural differences based on six characteristic phenomena.

3. Describe cultural variances, based on the six phenomena, for the following: a. Northern European Americans b. African Americans c. American Indian and Alaska Natives d. Asian and Pacific Islander Americans e. Latino Americans

f. Western European Americans g. Arab Americans h. Jewish Americans

4. Apply the nursing process in the care of indi- viduals from various cultural groups.

5. Define and differentiate between spirituality and religion.

6. Identify clients’ spiritual and religious needs. 7. Apply the six steps of the nursing process to

individuals with spiritual and religious needs.

H O M E W O R K A S S I G N M E N T Please read the chapter and answer the following questions.

1. Which cultural group may use a medicine man (or woman) called a shaman?

2. Restoring a balance between opposite forces is a fundamental concept of Asian health practices. What is this called?

3. Name five types of human spiritual needs. 4. What is the largest ethnic minority group in

the United States? 5. What is the perception of mental illness in

the Arab culture?

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106 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Cultural Concepts

What is culture? What is race? How does it differ from ethnicity? Why are these questions important? The answers lie in the changing face of America. Immigra- tion is not new in the United States. Most U.S. citizens are either immigrants or descendants of immigrants, and the number of foreign-born residents in this country continues to grow each year. This pattern persists because of the many individuals who want to take advantage of the technological growth and upward mobility that exists in this country.

or her preferences with regard to cultural and spiritual practices.

Race is a controversial term because of its associa- tion with racism or prejudicial views about a group of people based on their appearance. Some scientists argue that no group of individuals is genetically pure enough to define race as a set of biological distinc- tions. Other scientists argue the benefit of under- standing racial differences in determining response to treatments such as medications (see Chapter 4, Psychopharmacology, for a discussion of this topic). The U.S. Census Bureau collects data on racial de- mographics, and they clarify that the data is based on self-reported, self-identified affiliations (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). In 2000, the Census Bureau also began including a category that allows for individuals to identify with two or more races. A breakdown of these demographics is presented in Figure 6–1.

This chapter explores the ways in which various cultures differ. The nursing process is applied to the delivery of psychiatric-mental health nursing care for individuals from the following cultural groups: Northern European Americans, African Americans, American Indian and Alaska Natives, Asian and Pacific Islander Americans, Latino Americans, Arab Americans, and Jewish Americans.

How Do Cultures Differ?

It is difficult to generalize about any specific group in a country that is known for its heterogeneity. Within

CORE CONCEPTS Culture describes a particular society’s entire way of living, encompassing shared patterns of belief, feeling, and knowledge that guide people’s conduct and are passed down from generation to generation. Ethnicity relates to groups of people who identify with each other because of a shared social and cultural heritage passed on to each successive generation (Giger, 2017). Race may be understood as a more biological term, describ- ing a group of people who share similar inherited char- acteristics such as skin color, facial features, and blood groups.

Knowledge related to culture and ethnicity is impor- tant because these influences affect human behavior, its interpretation, and the response to it. Therefore, it is essential for nurses to understand the effects of cul- tural influences if they are to work effectively with the diverse population. Generalizations about a cultural group in this context can be beneficial. As Sue and Sue (2016) state, “Generalizations are necessary for us; without them we would become inefficient creatures. However, they are guidelines for our behaviors, to be tentatively applied in new situations, and they should be open to change and challenge” (p. 245). Caution must be taken, however, not to assume that all individ- uals who share a culture or ethnic group are identical or exhibit behaviors perceived as characteristic of the group. Such assumptions constitute stereotyping and must be avoided.

Many variations and subcultures occur within a cul- ture. These differences may be related to status, ethnic background, residence, religion, education, or other factors. People of many different cultures reside in the United States. Some maintain traditional cultural practices, whereas others acculturate to dominant cul- tural practices (give up cultural practices or values as a result of contact with another group) and assimilate by incorporating practices and values of the dominant culture. Every individual must be appreciated for his or her uniqueness and assessed carefully to identify his

White (62.9%)

Hispanic or Latino of any race (Mexican,

Puerto Rican, Cuban, Other)

(16.9%)

African American (12.2%)

American Indian and Alaska Native

(0.7%)

Other (0.2%)Asian

(4.9%)

Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander (0.2%)

Two or more races

(2.1%)

FIGURE 6–1 U.S. Census Bureau report on racial demographics. (From U.S. Census Bureau, 2010–2014 American Community Survey 5-Year estimates [2016].)

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C H A P T E R 6 ■ Cultural and Spiritual Concepts Relevant to Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 107

our American “melting pot,” any or all characteristics could apply to individuals within any or all of the cultural groups represented. As these differences con- tinue to be integrated, one American culture will eventually emerge. This integration is already evident in some regions of the country today, particularly in the urban coastal areas. However, some differences still exist, and it is important for nurses to be aware of cultural influences that may affect individuals’ behaviors and beliefs, particularly as they apply to health care.

Giger (2017) describes six cultural phenomena that vary with application and use yet are evidenced among all cultural groups: (1) communication, (2) space, (3) social organization, (4) time, (5) environmental control, and (6) biological variations.

Communication All verbal and nonverbal behavior in connection with another individual is communication. Thera- peutic communication has always been considered an essential part of the nursing process and repre- sents a critical element in most nursing school curricula. Communication has its roots in culture. Cultural mores, norms, ideas, and customs provide the basis for our way of thinking. Cultural values are learned and differ from society to society. Commu- nication is expressed through language (the spoken and written word), paralanguage (the voice quality, intonation, rhythm, and speed of the spoken word), and gestures (touch, facial expression, eye move- ments, body posture, and physical appearance). The nurse who is planning care must have an under- standing of the client’s needs and expectations as they are being communicated. As a third party, an interpreter often complicates matters but may be necessary when the client does not speak the same language as the nurse. Interpreting is a very complex process, however, that requires a keen sensitivity to cultural nuances and not just translating words into another language. Technology has facilitated access to interpreters through such devices as telephone services, video remote interpretation, and Internet document translation, but these technologies do not negate the importance of culturally sensitive, respectful nursing care. Tips for facilitating the com- munication process when using an interpreter are presented in Box 6–1.

Space Spatial determinants relate to the place where the communication occurs and encompass the concepts of territoriality, density, and distance. Territoriality is the innate tendency to own space. The need for territori- ality is met only if the individual has control of a

space, can establish rules for that space, and is able to defend the space against invasion or misuse by others. Density, which refers to the number of people within a given environmental space, can influence interper- sonal interaction. Distance is the means by which various cultures use space to communicate. Hall (1966) identified three primary dimensions of space in interpersonal interactions in the Western culture: the intimate zone (0 to 18 inches), the personal zone (18 inches to 3 feet), and the social zone (3 to 6 feet).

Social Organization Cultural behavior is socially acquired through a process called enculturation, also called socialization, which involves acquiring knowledge and internalizing values of the group (Giger, 2017). Children are encul- turated by observing adults within their social organi- zations. Social organizations include, among others, families, religious groups, and ethnic groups.

BOX 6–1 Using an Interpreter

When using an interpreter, keep the following points in mind:

• Whenever possible, use a certified interpreter with a back- ground in health care. Avoid using relatives or children as interpreters because they may not be objective or may have difficulty relaying information about sensitive topics.

• Address the client directly and maintain eye contact with the client (rather than the interpreter) to engage the client in interaction with the health-care provider.

• Do not interrupt or rush the client and the interpreter. Allow time for interpretation and response before asking another question.

• Ask the interpreter to give you verbatim translations so that you can assess and document exactly what the client has stated in response to questions.

• Avoid using medical jargon or colloquialisms that the interpreter or client may not understand.

• Avoid talking separately with the interpreter at length; the client may feel left out and distrustful.

• Always ask permission to discuss emotional or sensitive topics first, and prepare the interpreter for the content of the interview.

• When possible, allow the client and the interpreter to meet each other before the interview, and if possible, try to use the same interpreter for all subsequent interviews with the client.

• If possible, request an interpreter of the same gender as the client and of similar age or older.

• Discuss the interview questions with the interpreter ahead of time to facilitate flow of the interview.

SOURCES: Gorman, L.M., & Sultan, D. (2008). Psychosocial nursing for general patient care. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis; Purnell, L.D. (2013). Transcultural health care: A culturally competent approach (4th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

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Time An awareness of the concept of time is a gradual learning process. Some cultures place great impor- tance on values measured by clock time. Punctuality and efficiency are highly valued in the United States, whereas some cultures are actually scornful of clock time. For example, some rural people in Algeria label the clock as the “devil’s mill” and therefore have no notion of scheduled appointment times or meal times (Giger, 2017). They are indifferent to the passage of clock time and despise haste in all human endeavors. Other cultural implications regarding time have to do with perception of time orientation. Whether individuals are present oriented or future oriented in their perception of time influences many aspects of their lives.

Environmental Control The variable of environmental control has to do with the degree to which individuals perceive that they have control over their environments. Cultural beliefs and practices influence how an individual responds to his or her environment during periods of wellness and illness. To provide culturally appropriate care, the nurse should not only respect the individual’s unique beliefs, but also have an understanding of how these beliefs can be used to promote optimal health in the client’s environment.

Biological Variations Biological differences exist among people in various racial groups. These differences include body structure (both size and shape), skin color, physiological re- sponses to medication, electrocardiographic patterns, susceptibility to disease, and nutritional preferences and deficiencies. Giger (2017) suggests that nurses who provide care for diverse cultural groups need to be aware of basic biological differences to give nonharm- ful, competent, and culturally appropriate care.

Application of the Nursing Process

Background Assessment Data A cultural assessment tool for gathering information related to culture and ethnicity that is important in the planning of client care is provided in Box 6–2.

Northern European Americans Northern European Americans include people who originate from England, Ireland, Iceland, Wales, Fin- land, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. English is the pri- mary language for those living in the United States. Their language may also include words and phrases that reflect the influence of the languages spoken in the countries of their heritages. The descendants of these immigrants comprise the dominant cultural

BOX 6–2 Cultural Assessment Tool

Client’s name ________________________________________ Ethnic origin _____________________________________ Address _____________________________________________ Birthdate _______________________________________ Name of significant other ______________________________ Relationship _____________________________________ Primary language spoken ______________________________ Second language spoken __________________________ How does client usually communicate with people who speak a different language? _______________________________ Is an interpreter required? ______________________________ Available? _______________________________________ Highest level of education achieved: _____________________ Occupation: _____________________________________ Presenting problem: ___________________________________________________________________________________ Has this problem ever occurred before? ___________________________________________________________________ If so, in what manner was it handled previously? ____________________________________________________________ What is the client’s usual manner of coping with stress? ______________________________________________________ Who is (are) the client’s main support system(s)? ___________________________________________________________ Describe the family living arrangements: ___________________________________________________________________ Who is the major decision maker in the family? _____________________________________________________________ Describe client’s/family members’ roles within the family. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ Describe religious beliefs and practices: ___________________________________________________________________

Are there any religious requirements or restrictions that place limitations on the client’s care? ______________________ If so, describe: ______________________________________________________________________________________

Who in the family takes responsibility for health concerns? ____________________________________________________ Describe any special health beliefs and practices: ___________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ From whom does family usually seek help in addressing health care concerns when needed? _______________________

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BOX 6–2 Cultural Assessment Tool—cont’d

Describe client’s usual emotional/behavioral response to: Anxiety: ____________________________________________________________________________________________ Anger: _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Loss/change/failure: _________________________________________________________________________________ Pain: ______________________________________________________________________________________________ Fear: ______________________________________________________________________________________________

Describe any topics that are particularly sensitive or that the client is unwilling to discuss (because of cultural taboos): _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ Describe any activities in which the client is unwilling to participate (because of cultural customs or taboos): _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ What are the client’s personal feelings regarding touch? _______________________________________________________ What are the client’s personal feelings regarding eye contact? __________________________________________________ What is the client’s personal orientation to time? (past, present, future) __________________________________________ What are the client’s practices regarding punctuality and scheduled appointment times? ____________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ Describe any particular illnesses to which the client may be biologically susceptible (e.g., hypertension and sickle cell anemia in African Americans): _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ Describe any nutritional deficiencies to which the client may be biologically susceptible (e.g., lactose intolerance in Native and Asian Americans) __________________________________________________________________________________ Describe client’s favorite foods: __________________________________________________________________________ Are there any foods the client requests or refuses because of cultural beliefs related to this illness (e.g., “hot” and “cold” foods for Latino Americans and Asian Americans)? If so, please describe: ________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ What does the client typically do to balance his or her diet? ___________________________________________________ Describe client’s perception of the problem and expectations of health care: _____________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

group in the United States today. Specific dialects and rate of speech are common to various regions of the country. All cultures can be described on a contin- uum from individualistic to collectivistic, which de- scribes, in part, the degree of focus on self versus group. Individualistic cultures stress independence, self-reliance, and freedom, and traditional European American culture in the United States is a highly individualistic culture (Purnell, 2013). Northern European Americans value territory. Personal space preference is about 18 inches to 3 feet.

Data collected on the U.S. population can be re- vealing about cultural values and trends, which influ- ence perceptions about American culture both within and outside the country. Data on marriage and di- vorce in the United States show that about half of first marriages end in divorce (Centers for Disease Con- trol and Prevention [CDC], 2015a). The CDC also identifies that the marriage rate has steadily declined over the past 14 years, from 8.2 per 1000 population in 2000 to 6.9 per 1000 in 2014.

The value that was once placed on religion and the organized church also seems to be diminishing in the American culture. According to Gallup polls, over the

last four decades there has been a steady decline in Americans’ confidence in religion. The organized church reached an all-time low confidence rating of 42 percent in 2015 (Gallup, 2015). A 2012 Pew Research poll noted that church attendance has also shown a similar decline but that some individuals still report a religious affiliation even though they do not attend church. Among the variables cited for lack of church attendance were disagreements with the church and being too busy (Lipka, 2013). Although the majority of Americans still identify as affiliated with some branch of Christianity, the percentage declined from 78.4 percent in 2014 to 70.6 percent in 2014. The number of Americans identifying as agnostic, atheist, or “nothing in particular” increased from 16.1 percent to 22.8 percent over the same time pe- riod (Pew Research Center, 2015). These findings sug- gest that while a majority of Americans may still value faith and worship, their mechanisms for expressing those values are undergoing cultural change.

Northern European Americans, particularly those who achieve middle-class socioeconomic status, value preventive medicine and primary health care. This value follows with the socioeconomic group’s

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educational level, successful achievement, and finan- cial capability to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Most recognize the importance of regular physical exer- cise. Punctuality and efficiency are valued aspects of mainstream American work ethic, and in general, in- dividual needs are considered subservient to the needs of the organization (Purnell, 2013). However, as Purnell points out, in the current postmodern movement with its lack of adherence to truths as “absolute” and an emphasis on worldviews based on perception and social context, the face of main- stream American culture is changing.

A typical diet for many Northern European Americans is high in fats and cholesterol and low in fiber. Americans, in general, are learning about the health benefits of reducing fats and increasing nutri- ents in their diet. However, they still enjoy fast food, which conforms to their fast-paced lifestyles.

Changing Trends in Dominant American Culture and Nurse Self-Awareness Nurses who identify with the dominant culture will benefit from reflecting on the values and practices considered important within this context. Much attention is placed on understanding values and prac- tices of people of different cultures, but self-awareness is vitally important as well. Asking clients to describe their expectations for health-care provision and the role of the nurse can begin to lay the groundwork for discussing differences in cultural values and interact- ing as individuals within a culturally sensitive context. For example, a nurse who identifies with the domi- nant, individualistic culture may have the belief that people should take responsibility for themselves and do what they want to do independent of the opinions of family and community. If the nurse communicates this expectation to someone from a collectivist cul- tural framework, the nurse and client may encounter difficulty establishing a working relationship because their basic values are at odds with one another.

The United States, viewed as a melting pot of multiple worldwide ethnic groups, has its own unique blended culture that impacts the health and care of individuals. It is important that the nurse is aware— and self-aware of these conscious and unconscious at- titudes and values within the U.S. culture when caring for clients and understands how these characteristics can impact mental health and mental illness. Charac- teristics common to the U.S. culture are presented in Box 6–3.

African Americans The African American or black population in the United States numbers 46.3 million according to the most recent US Census data. Of those, 2.2 million are

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BOX 6–3 American Culture

General: The United States is the third-largest country and one of the most culturally diverse. The vast majority of Americans speak and understand at least some English. The majority (83%) identify as being of the Christian faith, and the second-largest group (13%) identifies as having no religious affiliation. Judaism is the second-largest re- ligion (1.7%), and Islam is the third (0.6%). Football and baseball are identified as favorite pastimes. Marketing products to people in their homes and other countries now constitutes one of the biggest industries.

Work and economy: Equality and economic mobility are valued, and several laws protect equality rights, but there is still evidence of stratification and segregation (e.g., urban versus suburban neighborhoods). Most Americans are not opposed to social security benefits, but welfare for the poor is controversial. Work and competition are valued; being “on the go” is more valued than idle time.

Time and orientation: Making the best use of time is im- portant and may be connected to work ethics (e.g., “time is money”). Being on time for meetings is expected. Most Americans are future oriented; from a young age, children are taught to focus on what they “want to be” when they grow up.

Individuality: Developing one’s own goals and not relying too heavily on others is valued. Independent achieve- ments are rewarded.

Privacy: Privacy and having some “alone time” are valued. Personal thoughts and feelings are considered by most to be private. It is often considered rude to ask about someone’s finances or their age.

Informality: Casual lifestyle is common. Greetings and farewells are usually short and friendly but superficial; friendships are often casual (e.g., easily developed and easily ended).

Social: Personal restraint of one’s body is common; phys- ical distance is common in interaction, especially among men. Breastfeeding, yawning, and expelling gas in public are considered rude.

Death: Most Americans are uncomfortable with their own mortality. Death is considered difficult to talk about, and funerals are typically sad and solemn occasions.

SOURCES: Beane, M. (no date). An adventure in American culture and values. International Student Guide to the United States of America. Retrieved from www.internationalstudentguidetotheusa.com/articles/culture.htm; Countries & Their Cultures Forum. (2017). United States of America. Re- trieved from www.everyculture.com/To-Z/United-States-of-America.html; Zimmerman, K.A. (2015). American culture: Traditions and customs of the United States. Live Science. Retrieved from www.livescience.com/ 28945-american-culture.html.

military veterans, and 84.7% over the age of 25 hold a high school diploma or higher level of education. De- spite these favorable statistics, the US Census also re- ports that 25.4% of the US black population remains below the poverty level.

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Despite decades of civil rights advances, patterns of discrimination against African Americans con- tinue, and evidence of segregation still exists, usually in the form of predominantly black neighborhoods, churches, and schools, which are still visible in most U.S. cities. Some African Americans find it difficult to assimilate into the mainstream culture and choose to remain within their own social organization.

The most recent survey by the U.S. Census Bureau revealed that 40.4 percent of African American family households were headed by a woman (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). Social support systems may be large and include sisters, brothers, aunts, uncles, cousins, boyfriends, girlfriends, neighbors, and friends. Many African Americans have a strong reli- gious orientation, with the vast majority practicing some form of Protestantism. However, the declining rate of those who identify themselves as Christians and the concurrent rise in numbers who identify themselves as having no affiliation with organized religion is similar among many demographic groups, including African Americans (Pew Research Center, 2015).

African Americans who have assimilated into the dominant culture are likely to be well educated, professional, and future oriented. Some who have not become assimilated may believe that planning for the future is hopeless, a belief based on their previous ex- periences and encounters with racism and discrimi- nation (Cherry & Giger, 2013). Among this group, some may be unemployed or have low-paying jobs with little expectation for improvement.

Some African Americans, particularly those from lower socio-economic groups, may have limited access to primary care services, and may be more receptive to folk medicine practices as an alternative. Incorpo- rated into the system of folk medicine is the belief that health is a gift from God, whereas illness is a pun- ishment from God or a retribution for sin and evil. Historically, African Americans have sometimes pur- sued folk medicine remedies because the cost of mainstream medical treatment was prohibitive, or be- cause of the insensitive treatment by caregivers in the health-care delivery system.

Hypertension occurs more frequently and sickle cell disease occurs predominantly in African Americans. Hypertension carries a strong hereditary risk factor, and sickle cell disease is genetically derived. Alcoholism is a serious problem among members of the black com- munity, leading to a high incidence of alcohol-related illness and death (Cherry & Giger, 2013).

American Indian and Alaska Natives The federal government currently recognizes 566 American Indian (AI) tribes and Alaska Native (AN)

groups. Approximately 200 tribal languages are still spoken, some by only a few individuals and others by many (Bureau of Indian Affairs, 2016). Fewer than half of these individuals still live on reservations, but many return regularly to participate in family and tribal life and sometimes to retire. American Indians and Alaska Natives are often grouped together in statistical reporting about Native Americans, but they are a diverse group, and some Alaska Natives prefer not to be referred to as Native Americans (Purnell, 2014). The AI/AN group is described as a collectivist culture, which stresses their close dependence on and interconnectedness with family and tribe.

Touch is an aspect of communication that is not the same among AI/AN groups as in the dominant American culture. Some AI/AN groups view the tra- ditional handshake as somewhat aggressive. Instead, if a hand is offered to another, it may be accepted with a light touch or just a passing of hands. Some AI/AN groups will not touch a dead person (Hanley, 2017).

American Indians and Alaska Natives may appear silent and reserved. They may be uncomfortable ex- pressing emotions because the culture encourages keeping private thoughts to oneself. In conversation, most prefer a distance of greater than 2 feet, and for some it may be up to 6 feet, so it is important to pay attention to cues from the client (Purnell, 2014).

The concept of space is very concrete to AI/AN culture. Living space is often crowded with members of both nuclear and extended families. A large net- work of kin is very important to American Indians and Alaska Natives. However, a need for extended space exists, as demonstrated by a distance of many miles between individual homes or camps.

The primary social organizations of AI/AN groups are the family and the tribe. From infancy, AI/AN children are taught the importance of these units. Traditions are passed down by the elders, and chil- dren are taught to respect tradition and to honor wisdom.

Most AI/AN individuals are present-time ori- ented. The concept of time is very casual, and tasks are accomplished not with the notion of a particular time in mind but in a present-oriented time frame. AI/AN individuals typically are not ruled by the clock, and some do not even own clocks.

Religion and health practices are intertwined in the AI/AN culture. The medicine man (or woman), gen- erally called the shaman (although some tribes prefer different terms) may use a variety of methods in his or her practice. Some use crystals to diagnose illness, some sing and perform healing ceremonies, and some use herbs and other plants or roots to create remedies with healing properties. The American Indian healers

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and U.S. Indian Health Service have worked together with mutual respect for many years. Hanley (2017) relates that an AI/AN healer may confer with a physi- cian regarding the care of a client in the hospital. Research studies have continued to show the impor- tance of each of these health-care approaches and collaborative practice in the overall wellness of AI/AN client (Hanley, 2017).

The risks of illness and premature death from alcoholism, diabetes, tuberculosis, heart disease, acci- dents, homicide, suicide, pneumonia, and influenza are dramatically higher for American Indians and Alaska Natives than for the U.S. population as a whole. The Indian Health Service (2015) reports that American Indians and Alaska Natives are “more likely to report past-year alcohol and substance use disorders than any other race, and suicide rates are 1.7 times higher than the U.S. all-races rate." Domestic violence, too, is a significant behavioral health concern in this group, with 39 percent of women experiencing inti- mate partner violence. Nutritional deficiencies are not uncommon among tribal AI/AN populations. Fruits and green vegetables are often scarce in many of the federally defined Indian geographical regions. Meat and corn products are identified as preferred foods. Fiber intake is relatively low, while fat intake is often of the saturated variety. Approximately 276 of the tribes recognized by the federal or state govern- ment receive commodity foods supplied by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s food distribution program (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2015).

Asian Pacific Islander Americans Asian Americans comprise 4.9 percent of the U.S. population. The Asian American culture includes peoples (and their descendants) from Japan, China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Thailand, Cambodia, Korea, Laos, India, and the Pacific Islands. Although this discussion relates to this population as a single culture, it is important to keep in mind that a multi- plicity of differences regarding attitudes, beliefs, val- ues, religious practices, and language exist among these subcultures.

Many Asian Americans, particularly Japanese, are third- and even fourth-generation Americans. These individuals are likely to be acculturated to the U.S. culture. Kuo and Roysircar-Sodowsky (2000) describe three patterns common to Asian Americans in their attempt to adjust to the American culture. Some older-generation Asians tend to hold on to the tradi- tional values and practices of their native culture. They have strong, internalized Asian values. Primary allegiance is to their biological family. Frequently,

members of the younger generation may reject the traditional values of their ancestral culture, and to- tally embrace Western culture. Finally, some Asian Americans strike a balance, incorporating traditional values and beliefs with Western values and beliefs. They are—or become—integrated into the American culture while maintaining a connection with their ancestral culture.

The languages and dialects of Asian Americans are very diverse. In general, they share a similar be- lief in harmonious interaction. To raise one’s voice is likely to be interpreted as a sign of loss of control. The English language is very difficult to master, and even bilingual Asian Americans who are recent im- migrants may encounter communication problems because of the differences in meaning assigned to nonverbal cues such as facial gestures, verbal into- nation and speed, and body movements. In Asian cultures, touching during communication has his- torically been considered unacceptable. However, with the advent of Western acculturation, younger gen- erations of Asian Americans accept touching as more appropriate than did their ancestors. Acceptable per- sonal and social spaces are larger than in the domi- nant American culture. Some Asian Americans have a great deal of difficulty expressing emotions. Because of their reserved public demeanor, Asian Americans may be misperceived as shy, cold, or uninterested.

The family is the ultimate social organization in traditional Asian American culture, and loyalty to family is emphasized above all else. Children are ex- pected to obey and honor their parents. Misbehavior is perceived as bringing dishonor to the entire family. Filial piety (one’s social obligation or duty to one’s parents) is held in high regard. Failure to fulfill these obligations can create a great deal of guilt and shame in an individual. A chronological hierarchy exists with the elderly maintaining positions of authority. Several generations or even extended families may share a single household.

Although education is highly valued among tradi- tional Asian Americans, many remain undereducated. Religious beliefs and practices are diverse and exhibit influences of Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity.

Many Asian Americans value both a past and a present orientation. Emphasis is placed on the wishes of one’s ancestors while adjusting to demands of the present. Prompt adherence to schedules or rigid stan- dards of activities may or may not be valued.

Restoring the balance of yin and yang is the funda- mental concept of Asian health practices. Yin and yang represent opposite forces of energy, such as

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negative/positive, dark/light, cold/hot, hard/soft, and feminine/masculine. The belief is that illness occurs when there is a disruption in the balance of these energy forces. In medicine, the opposites are expressed as “hot” and “cold,” and health is the result of a balance between hot and cold elements (Chang, 2017). Food, medicines, and herbs are classified according to their hot and cold properties and are used to restore balance between yin and yang (cold and hot), thereby restoring health.

Rice, vegetables, and fish were the traditional main staple foods of many Asian diets. Milk is seldom consumed because a large majority of Asian Ameri- cans experience lactose intolerance. With Western acculturation, their diet is changing, and unfortu- nately, the percentage of fat in the diet is increasing as more meat is consumed.

Some Asian cultures believe that psychiatric illness is merely behavior that is out of control. They view this as a great shame to the individual and the family. They often attempt to manage the ill person on their own until they can no longer handle the situation. It is not uncommon for Asian Americans to somaticize. Expressing mental distress through various physical ailments may be viewed as more acceptable than ex- pressing true emotions.

The incidence of alcohol dependence is low among Asians. This may be a result of a possible genetic intolerance of the substance. Some Asians develop un- pleasant symptoms, such as flushing, headaches, and palpitations, from drinking alcohol. Research indi- cates that this is due to an isoenzyme variant that quickly converts alcohol to acetaldehyde and the ab- sence of an isoenzyme that is needed to oxidize ac- etaldehyde. This results in a rapid accumulation of acetaldehyde that produces the unpleasant symptoms (Wall et al., 1997).

Latino Americans Latino Americans are the fastest-growing group of people in the United States, comprising 16.9 percent of the population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). They represent the largest ethnic minority group. Recent presidential debates highlighted public confusion about the correct terminology to describe different groups (Garcia-Navarro, 2015). The U.S. Census Bureau clarifies that Latino or Hispanic peoples com- prise many different races. It would not be correct, for example, to refer to someone as a member of the Latin race, since there are a variety of races among Latin American countries. Latin Americans are those who currently reside in Latin American countries. Latino Americans are those who come from Latin

American countries but currently reside in the United States. Latino American is often shortened to Latino, but individual preferences about this term vary. The term Hispanic is used to refer to people who share the common language of Spanish. Brazilian people, for example, would be offended by being referred to as Hispanic, since their primary language is Portuguese (Garcia-Navarro, 2015). Preferences as to what consti- tutes appropriate descriptive terms can vary depending on geographic location. Asking clients how they would describe their cultural identity is in the interest of avert- ing an unintentional insult and demonstrates cultural sensitivity.

Latino Americans trace their ancestry to countries such as Mexico, Spain, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and other countries of Central and South America. Touch is a common form of communication among Latinos; however, they can also be very modest and are likely to withdraw from any infringement on their modesty.

Traditional Latino Americans, as a collectivist cul- ture, are very group oriented and often interact with large groups of relatives. Touching and embracing are common modes of communication. The family is the primary social organization and includes nuclear family members as well as numerous extended family members. The traditional nuclear family is male dom- inated, and the father possesses ultimate authority.

Latino Americans tend to be focused on the pres- ent time. The concept of being punctual and giving attention to activities that concern the future are per- ceived as less important than activities in the present.

Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion among Latino Americans. Most Latinos identify with the Roman Catholic Church, even if they do not at- tend services. Religious beliefs and practices are likely to be strong influences in their lives. Especially in times of crisis, such as in cases of illness and hospital- ization, Latino Americans rely on priests and the fam- ily to carry out important religious rituals, such as promise making, offering candles, visiting shrines, and offering prayers (Spector, 2013).

Folk beliefs regarding health are a combination of elements incorporating views of Roman Catholicism and Indian and Spanish beliefs. The folk healer is called a curandero (male) or curandera (female). Among traditional Latino Americans, the curandero is believed to have a gift from God for healing the sick and is often the first contact made when illness is en- countered. Treatments used include massage, diet, rest, suggestions, practical advice, indigenous herbs, prayers, magic, and supernatural rituals (McMurry et al., 2017). Many Latino Americans still subscribe to the “hot and cold theory” of disease. This concept is

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similar to the Asian perception of yin and yang dis- cussed earlier in this chapter. Diseases and the foods and medicines used to treat them are classified as “hot” or “cold,” and the intention is to restore the body to a balanced state.

National studies have revealed that the lifetime prevalence for selected psychiatric disorders is higher for U.S.-born Latinos (52.5%) than for Latino immi- grants (30.9%), suggesting that there may be a pro- tective context associated with living in their country of origin before immigrating (Alegria et al., 2008; Alegria et al., 2007). This has been referred to as the “immigration paradox” (Alegria et al., 2008), since the stresses of immigration might seem to confer more risk of mental disorders, while the reverse is actually true. The contributing factors are not well understood, and there is variation among some Latino subgroups. Among Mexicans, the immigration paradox holds true for mood, anxiety, and substance disorders, but among Cubans and other Latino sub- groups, it holds true only for substance disorders. This paradox does not hold true for migrant versus U.S.-born Puerto Ricans (Alegria et al., 2008). In gen- eral, Latino Americans have demonstrated a lower lifetime prevalence of mental disorders than their non-Hispanic white counterparts, but it should be noted that the CDC (2015b) reports that the risk for suicide attempts among teenage girls is higher among Latino girls (15.1%) than non-Hispanic white teenage girls (9.8%). As this cultural group, and particularly U.S.-born Latino Americans, contin- ues to grow in number, mental health professionals will need to develop awareness of risks for illness and sensitivity to the cultural values that may impact seeking treatment.

Arab Americans*

Arab Americans trace their ancestry and traditions to the nomadic desert tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. The Arab countries include Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

First-wave immigrants, primarily Christians, came to the United States between 1887 and 1913 seeking economic opportunity. These immigrants and their descendants typically resided in urban centers of the

Northeast. Second-wave immigrants entered the United States after World War II. Most are refugees from nations beset by war and political instability. This group includes a large number of professionals and individuals seeking educational degrees who have subsequently remained in the United States. Most are Muslims and favor professional occupations.

Arabic is the official language of the Arab world. Although English is a common second language, lan- guage and communication can pose formidable prob- lems in health-care settings. Communication is highly contextual, where unspoken expectations are more important than the actual spoken words. While con- versing, individuals stand close together, maintain steady eye contact, and touch (only between members of the same gender) the other’s hand or shoulder.

Speech may be loud and expressive and character- ized by repetition and gesturing, particularly when in serious discussion. Observers witnessing impassioned communication may incorrectly assume that mem- bers of this culture are argumentative, confronta- tional, or aggressive. Privacy is valued, and many resist disclosure of personal information to strangers, espe- cially when it relates to familial disease conditions. Among friends and relatives, Arabs express feelings freely. Devout Muslim men may not shake hands with women. When an Arab man is introduced to an Arab woman, the man may wait for the woman to ex- tend her hand.

Gender roles are often clearly defined. The man is traditionally the head of the household, and women are subordinate to men. Men are traditionally bread- winners, protectors, and decision makers, and women traditionally are responsible for the care and educa- tion of children and for the maintenance of a success- ful marriage by tending to their husbands’ needs.

The family is the primary social organization, and children are loved and indulged. The father is the dis- ciplinarian, and the mother is an ally and mediator. Loyalty to one’s family takes precedence over per- sonal needs. Sons are responsible for supporting elderly parents.

Women value modesty, especially devout Muslims, for whom modesty is expressed with attire. Many Muslim women view the practice of hijab, covering the body except for one’s face and hands, offering them protection in situations in which the genders mix.

Sickle cell disease and the thalassemias (a type of inherited blood disorder) are common in the eastern Mediterranean. Sedentary lifestyle and high fat intake among Arab Americans place them at higher risk for cardiovascular diseases. The rates of cholesterol test- ing, colorectal cancer screening, and uterine cancer

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*This section on Arab Americans is adapted from Kulwicki, A.D., & Ballout, S. (2013). People of Arab heritage. In L.D. Purnell (Ed.), Transcultural health care: A culturally competent approach (4th ed.). © F.A. Davis. Used with permission.

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screening are low; however, in recent years, the rate of mammography screening has increased.

Arab cooking shares many general characteristics. Spices and herbs include cinnamon, allspice, cloves, ginger, cumin, mint, parsley, bay leaves, garlic, and onions. Bread accompanies every meal and is viewed as a gift from God. Lamb and chicken are the most popular meats. Muslims are prohibited from eating pork and pork products. Food is eaten with the right hand because it is regarded as clean. Eating and drinking at the same time is viewed as unhealthy. Eat- ing properly, consuming nutritious foods, and fasting are believed to cure disease. Gastrointestinal com- plaints are the most frequent reason for seeking health care. Lactose intolerance is common.

Most Arabs are Muslims. Islam is the religion of most Arab countries, and in Islam there is no sepa- ration of church and state; a certain amount of reli- gious participation is obligatory. Many Muslims believe in combining spiritual medicine, performing daily prayers, and reading or listening to the Qur’an with conventional medical treatment. The devout client may request that his or her chair or bed be turned to face Mecca and that a basin of water be provided for ritual washing or ablution before pray- ing. Sometimes illness is considered punishment for one’s sins.

Mental illness is a major social stigma. Psychiatric symptoms may be denied or attributed to “bad nerves” or evil spirits. When individuals suffering from mental distress seek medical care, they are likely to present with a variety of vague complaints such as abdominal pain, lassitude, anorexia, and shortness of breath. Clients often expect and may insist on somatic treatment, often vitamins and ton- ics. When mental illness is accepted as a diagnosis, treatment with medications rather than counseling is preferred.

Jewish Americans To be Jewish is to belong to a specific group of people and a specific religion. The term Jewish does not refer to a race. The Jewish people came to the United States mostly from Spain, Portugal, Germany, and Eastern Europe (Bralock & Padgham, 2017). More than 5 million Jewish Americans live in the United States, primarily in the larger urban areas.

Four main Jewish religious groups exist today: Orthodox, Reform, Conservative, and Reconstruc- tionist. Orthodox Jews adhere to strict interpretation and application of Jewish laws and ethics. They believe that the laws outlined in the Torah (the five books of Moses) are divine, eternal, and unalterable.

Reform Judaism is the largest Jewish religious group in the United States. The Reform group believes in the autonomy of the individual in interpreting the Jewish code of law, and a more liberal interpretation is followed. Conservative Jews also accept a less strict interpretation. They believe that the code of laws come from God, but they accept flexibility and adap- tation of those laws to absorb aspects of the culture while remaining true to Judaism’s values. The Recon- structionists have modern views that generally over- ride traditional Jewish laws. They do not believe that Jews are God’s chosen people and reject the notion of divine intervention. Reconstructionists are gener- ally accepting of interfaith marriage.

The primary language of Jewish Americans is English. Hebrew, the official language of Israel and the Torah, is used for prayers and taught in Jewish religious education. Early Jewish immigrants spoke a Judeo- German dialect called Yiddish, and some of those words have become part of American English (e.g., klutz, kosher, tush, chutzpah, mazel tov).

Although traditional Jewish law is clearly male oriented, with acculturation, little difference is seen today with regard to gender roles. Formal education is a highly respected value among the Jewish people. Over one-third of Jewish Americans hold advanced degrees and are employed as professionals (e.g., sci- ence, medicine, law, education), more than any other group within the U.S. white population.

Although most Jewish people live for today and plan for and worry about tomorrow, they are raised with stories of their past, especially of the Holocaust. They are warned to “never forget” lest history be re- peated. Therefore, their time orientation is simulta- neously to the past, the present, and the future (Selekman, 2013).

Children are considered blessings and valued treasures, treated with respect, and deeply loved. They play an active role in most holiday celebrations and services. Respecting and honoring one’s parents is one of the Ten Commandments. Children are ex- pected to be forever grateful to their parents for giv- ing them the gift of life (Selekman, 2013). The rite of passage into adulthood occurs during a religious cer- emony called a bar or bat mitzvah (son or daughter of the commandment) and is usually commemorated by a family celebration.

Because of the respect afforded physicians and the emphasis on keeping the body and mind healthy, Jewish Americans tend to be health conscious. In gen- eral, they practice preventive health care, with routine physical, dental, and vision screening. Circumcision for male infants is both a medical procedure and a

6054_Ch06_105-132 11/09/17 10:07 AM Page 115

religious rite and is performed on the eighth day of life. The procedure is usually performed at home and is considered a family festivity.

A number of genetic diseases are more common in the Jewish than among other populations, includ- ing Tay-Sachs disease, Gaucher’s disease, and familial dysautonomia. Other conditions that occur with in- creased incidence in the Jewish population include inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease), colorectal cancer, and breast and ovarian cancer. Jewish people have a higher rate of side effects from the antipsychotic clozapine. About 20 percent develop agranulocytosis, the cause of which has been attributed to a specific genetic haplo- type (Selekman, 2013).

Alcohol, especially wine, is an essential part of religious holidays and festive occasions. It is viewed as appropriate and acceptable as long as it is used in moderation. For Jewish people who follow the dietary laws, a tremendous amount of attention is given to the slaughter of livestock and the prepara- tion and consumption of food. Religious laws dic- tate which foods are permissible. The term kosher means “fit to eat,” and following these guidelines is considered a commandment of God. Meat may be eaten only if the permitted animal has been slaughtered, cooked, and served following kosher guidelines. Pigs are considered unclean, and pork and pork products are forbidden. Dairy products and meat may not be mixed together in cooking, serving, or eating.

Judaism opposes discrimination against people with physical, mental, and developmental conditions. The maintenance of one’s mental health is consid- ered just as important as the maintenance of one’s physical health. Mental incapacity has always been recognized as grounds for exemption from all obliga- tions under Jewish law (Selekman, 2013).

A summary of information related to the six cul- tural phenomena as they apply to the cultural groups discussed here is presented in Table 6–1.

Cultural Syndromes Cultural syndromes are those that are specific to a cultural group and do not share an exact correlation to any diagnostic categories listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) (Sue & Sue, 2016). These syndromes have his- torically been described as culture-bound syndromes, but as Sadock, Sadock, and Ruiz (2015) point out, “The clear implication was that Western psychiatric categories were not culture bound . . . [when in fact] culture suffuses all forms of psychological distress,

the familiar as well as the unfamiliar” (p. 145). It is important for nurses to understand the physical and behavioral manifestations of these cultural syn- dromes. Ataques de nervios (attack of nerves), a Latin American cultural syndrome, may sound similar to the DSM-5 category of panic attacks, but it is a distinct syndrome with distinct treatment implications (Sue & Sue, 2016). Examples of cultural syndromes are presented in Table 6–2.

Diagnosis and Outcome Identification Nursing diagnoses are selected on the basis of infor- mation gathered during the assessment process. With background knowledge of cultural variables and information uniquely related to the individual, the following nursing diagnoses may be appropriate:

■ Impaired verbal communication related to cultural differences, evidenced by inability to speak the dominant language

■ Anxiety (moderate to severe) related to entry into an unfamiliar health-care system and separation from support systems, evidenced by apprehension and suspicion, restlessness, and trembling

■ Imbalanced nutrition, less than body require- ments, related to refusal to eat unfamiliar foods provided in the health-care setting, evidenced by loss of weight

■ Spiritual distress related to inability to participate in usual religious practices because of hospitaliza- tion, evidenced by alterations in mood (e.g., anger, crying, withdrawal, preoccupation, anxiety, hostil- ity, apathy)

Outcome criteria related to these nursing diag- noses may include the following:

The client:

1. Has all basic needs fulfilled 2. Communicates with staff through an interpreter 3. Maintains anxiety at a manageable level by having

family members stay with him or her during hospitalization

4. Maintains weight by eating foods that he or she likes brought to the hospital by family members

5. Has restored spiritual strength through use of cul- tural rituals and beliefs and visits from a spiritual leader

Planning and Implementation The following interventions have special cultural im- plications for nursing:

■ Use an interpreter, if necessary, to ensure that there are no barriers to communication. Be careful with nonverbal communication because it may be

116 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

6054_Ch06_105-132 11/09/17 10:07 AM Page 116

C H A P T E R 6 ■ Cultural and Spiritual Concepts Relevant to Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 117 TA

B L E

6 –

1 Su

m m

ar y

of S

ix C

ul tu

ra l P

he no

m en

a in

C om

pa ri

so n

of V

ar io

us C

ul tu

ra l G

ro up

s CU

LT U

RA L

G RO

U P

AN D

SO

CI AL

EN VI

RO N

M EN

TA L

BI O

LO G

IC AL

CO U

N TR

IE S

O F

O RI

G IN

CO M

M U

N IC

AT IO

N SP

AC E

O RG

AN IZ

AT IO

N TI

M E

CO N

TR O

L VA

RI AT

IO N

S

N o rt

h er

n E

u ro

p ea

n A

m er

ic an

s (E

n gl

an d , I

re la

n d ,

an d o

th er

s)

A fr

ic an

A m

er ic

an s

(L ar

ge ly

d es

ce n d an

ts o f A fr ic

an s

b ro

u gh

t fo

rc ib

ly t o A

m er

ic a.

as s

la ve

s) . T

h er

e ar

e cu

ltu ra

l d iff

er -

en ce

s b et

w ee

n

lo n g-

st an

d in

g A fr ic

an A m

er ic

an s

an d t h o se

re ce

n tly

im m

ig ra

tin g

fo rm

A fr ic

a.

A m

er ic

an I n d ia

n s

an d A

la sk

a N

at iv

es (N

o rt h A

m er

ic a,

A la

sk a,

A le

u tia

n

Is la

n d s)

A si

an /P

ac ifi

c Is

la n d er

A m

er ic

an s

(J ap

an , C

h in

a, K

o re

a, Vi

et n am

, P h ili

p p in

es ,

Th ai

la n d , C

am b o d ia

, La

o s,

P ac

ifi c

Is la

n d s,

o th

er s)

N at

io n al

la n gu

ag es

(a lth

o u gh

m an

y le

ar n E

n gl

is h

ve ry

q u ic

kl y)

D ia

le ct

s (o

ft en

re

gi o n al

) En

gl is

h M

o re

v er

b al

t h an

n o n ve

rb al

N at

io n al

la n gu

ag es

P rim

ar y

la n gu

ag e

is E

n gl

is h

H ig

h ly

v er

b al

a n d

n o n ve

rb al

2 0 0 t rib

al

la n gu

ag es

re

co gn

iz ed

C o m

fo rt ab

le w

ith

si le

n ce

M o re

t h an

3 0 d

iff er

en t

la n gu

ag es

sp

o ke

n C

o m

fo rt ab

le w

ith

si le

n ce

N o n ve

rb al

c o n n o -

ta tio

n s

m ay

b e

m is

u n d er

st o o d

Te rr ito

ry v

al u ed

Pe rs

o n al

s p ac

e:

1 8 in

ch es

t o

3 f ee

t U

n co

m fo

rt ab

le w

ith p

er so

n al

co n ta

ct a

n d

to u ch

C lo

se p

er so

n al

sp ac

e C

o m

fo rt ab

le w

ith to

u ch

La rg

e, e

xt en

d ed

sp ac

e im

p o rt an

t U

n co

m fo

rt ab

le w

ith t o u ch

La rg

e p er

so n al

sp ac

e U

n co

m fo

rt ab

le w

ith t o u ch

Fa m

ili es

: N

u cl

ea r

an d e

xt en

d ed

R el

ig io

n s:

J ew

is h

an d C

h ris

tia n

O rg

an iz

at io

n s:

So

ci al

c o m

m u n ity

La rg

e, e

xt en

d ed

fa m

ili es

M an

y fe

m al

e- h ea

d ed

h o u se

h o ld

s Tr

ad iti

o n al

ly s

tr o n g

re lig

io u s

o rie

n ta

- tio

n , m

o st

ly P ro

te st

an t

C o m

m u n ity

s o ci

al o rg

an iz

at io

n s

Fa m

ili es

: N

u cl

ea r

an d e

xt en

d ed

C h ild

re n t au

gh t

im p o rt an

ce o

f tr ad

iti o n

So ci

al o

rg an

iz at

io n s:

Tr ib

e an

d f am

ily m

o st

im p o rt an

t

Fa m

ili es

: N

u cl

ea r

an d e

xt en

d ed

C h ild

re n t au

gh t

im p o rt an

ce o

f fa

m ily

lo ya

lty

an d t ra

d iti

o n

M an

y re

lig io

n s:

Ta

o is

m ,

B u d d h is

m ,

Is la

m , H

in d u is

m ,

C h ris

tia n ity

C o m

m u n ity

s o ci

al o rg

an iz

at io

n s

Fu tu

re

o rie

n te

d

P re

se n t- tim

e o rie

n te

d

P re

se n t- tim

e o rie

n te

d

P re

se n t- tim

e o rie

n te

d Pa

st is

im p o r-

ta n t an

d

va lu

ed

M o st

v al

u e

p re

ve n -

tiv e

m ed

ic in

e an

d p rim

ar y

h ea

lth ca

re t h ro

u gh

tr ad

iti o n al

h ea

lth -

ca re

d el

iv er

y sy

st em

A lte

rn at

iv e

m et

h o d s

o n t h e

in cr

ea se

Tr ad

iti o n al

h ea

lth -

ca re

d el

iv er

y sy

st em

So m

e in

d iv

id u al

s p re

fe r to

u se

fo

lk p

ra ct

iti o n er

H o m

e re

m ed

ie s

R el

ig io

n a

n d

h ea

lth p

ra ct

ic es

in te

rt w

in ed

N o n tr ad

iti o n al

h ea

le r

(s h am

an )

u se

s fo

lk p

ra ct

ic es

t o

h ea

l Sh

am an

m ay

w o rk

w ith

m o d er

n m

ed ic

al

p ra

ct iti

o n er

Tr ad

iti o n al

h ea

lth -

ca re

d el

iv er

y sy

st em

So m

e p re

fe r to

u se

fo lk

p ra

ct ic

es (

e. g.

, yi

n a

n d y

an g,

h er

b al

m ed

ic in

e, an

d m

o xi

b u st

io n )

H ea

lth c

o n ce

rn s:

C ar

d io

va sc

u la

r d is

ea se

C an

ce r

D ia

b et

es m

el lit

u s

H ea

lth c

o n ce

rn s:

C ar

d io

va sc

u la

r d is

ea se

H yp

er te

n si

o n

Si ck

le c

el l d

is ea

se D

ia b et

es m

el lit

u s

La ct

o se

in to

le ra

n ce

H ea

lth c

o n ce

rn s:

A lc

o h o lis

m Tu

b er

cu lo

si s

A cc

id en

ts D

ia b et

es m

el lit

u s

H ea

rt d

is ea

se

H ea

lth c

o n ce

rn s:

H yp

er te

n si

o n

C an

ce r

D ia

b et

es m

el lit

u s

Th al

as se

m ia

La ct

o se

in to

le ra

n ce

C o n tin

u ed

6054_Ch06_105-132 11/09/17 10:07 AM Page 117

118 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

Sp an

is h , w

ith m

an y

d ia

le ct

s

A ra

b ic

En gl

is h

En gl

is h , H

eb re

w ,

Yi d d is

h

C lo

se p

er so

n al

sp ac

e Lo

ts o

f to

u ch

in g

an d e

m b ra

ci n g

Ve ry

g ro

u p

o rie

n te

d

La rg

e p er

so n al

sp ac

e b et

w ee

n m

em b er

s o f th

e o p p o si

te g

en d er

o u ts

id e

o f th

e fa

m ily

To u ch

in g

co m

m o n

b et

w ee

n

m em

b er

s o f

sa m

e ge

n d er

To u ch

f o rb

id d en

b et

w ee

n

o p p o si

te g

en -

d er

s in

t h e

O rt h o d o x

tr ad

iti o n

C lo

se r p er

so n al

sp ac

e co

m m

o n

am o n g

n o n -

O rt h o d o x

Je w

s

Fa m

ili es

: N

u cl

ea r

an d la

rg e

ex -

te n d ed

f am

ili es

St ro

n g

tie s

to R o m

an

C at

h o lic

is m

C o m

m u n ity

s o ci

al o rg

an iz

at io

n s

Fa m

ili es

: N

u cl

ea r

an d e

xt en

d ed

R el

ig io

n : M

u sl

im an

d C

h ris

tia n ity

Fa m

ili es

: N

u cl

ea r

an d e

xt en

d ed

C o m

m u n ity

s o ci

al o rg

an iz

at io

n s

P re

se n t- tim

e o rie

n te

d

Pa st

a n d

p re

se n t-

tim e

o rie

n te

d

Pa st

, p re

se n t-

tim e,

a n d

fu tu

re

o rie

n te

d

Tr ad

iti o n al

h ea

lth -

ca re

d el

iv er

y sy

st em

So m

e p re

fe r to

u se

fo lk

p ra

ct iti

o n er

, ca

lle d c

u ra

n d er

o o r cu

ra n d er

a Fo

lk p

ra ct

ic es

in -

cl u d e

h o t an

d co

ld h

er b al

re

m ed

ie s

Tr ad

iti o n al

h ea

lth -

ca re

d el

iv er

y sy

st em

A u th

o rit

y o f p h ys

i- ci

an is

s el

d o m

ch al

le n ge

d o

r q u es

tio n ed

A d ve

rs e

o u tc

o m

es ar

e at

tr ib

u te

d t o

G o d ’s

w ill

M en

ta l i

lln es

s m

ay b e

vi ew

ed a

s a

so ci

al s

tig m

a

G re

at r es

p ec

t fo

r p h ys

ic ia

n s

Em p h as

is o

n k

ee p -

in g

b o d y

an d

m in

d h

ea lth

y P ra

ct ic

e p re

ve n tiv

e h ea

lth c

ar e

H ea

lth c

o n ce

rn s:

H ea

rt d

is ea

se C

an ce

r D

ia b et

es m

el lit

u s

A cc

id en

ts La

ct o se

in to

le ra

n ce

H ea

lth c

o n ce

rn s:

Si ck

le c

el l d

is ea

se Th

al as

se m

ia C

ar d io

va sc

u la

r d is

ea se

C an

ce r

H ea

lth c

o n ce

rn s:

Ta y-

Sa ch

s d is

ea se

G au

ch er

’s d

is ea

se Fa

m ili

al

d ys

au to

n o m

ia U

lc er

at iv

e co

lit is

C ro

h n ’s

d is

ea se

C o lo

re ct

al c

an ce

r B re

as t ca

n ce

r O

va ria

n c

an ce

r

La ti n o A

m er

ic an

s (M

ex ic

o , S

p ai

n , C

u b a,

P u er

to R

ic o , o

th er

co u n tr ie

s o f C

en tr al

an d S

o u th

A m

er ic

a)

A ra

b A

m er

ic an

s (A

lg er

ia , B

ah ra

in ,

C o m

o ro

s, D

jib o u ti,

Eg yp

t, Ira

q , J

o rd

an ,

K u w

ai t,

Le b an

o n ,

Li b ya

, M au

rit an

ia ,

M o ro

cc o , O

m an

, Pa

le st

in e,

Q at

ar ,

Sa u d i A

ra b ia

, So

m al

ia , S

u d an

, Sy

ria , T

u n is

ia ,

U n ite

d A

ra b

Em ira

te s,

Y em

en )

Je w

is h A

m er

ic an

s (S

p ai

n , P

o rt u ga

l, G

er m

an y,

E as

te rn

Eu

ro p e)

SO U

R C

ES : G

ig er

, J .N

. ( 2 0 1 7 ).

T ra

n sc

u ltu

ra l n

u rs

in g : A ss

es sm

en t a n d in

te rv

en tio

n (7

th e

d .)

. S t.

Lo u is

, M O

: M

o sb

y; M

u rr ay

, R .B

., Ze

n tn

er , J

.P .,

& Y

ak im

o , R

. ( 2 0 0 9 ).

H ea

lth p

ro m

o tio

n s

tr a te

g ie

s th

ro u g h t h e

lif e

sp a n

(8 th

e d .)

. U p p er

S ad

d le

R iv

er , N

J: P

re n tic

e H

al l;

P u rn

el l,

L. D

. ( 2 0 1 3 ).

T ra

n sc

u ltu

ra l h

ea lth

c a re

: A c

u ltu

ra lly

c o m

p et

en t a p p ro

a ch

( 4 th

e d .)

. P h ila

d el

p h ia

: F. A . D

av is

; P u rn

el l,

L. D

. (2

0 1 4 ).

G u id

e to

c u ltu

ra lly

c o m

p et

en t h ea

lth c

a re

(3 rd

e d .)

. P h ila

d el

p h ia

: F. A . D

av is

; Sp

ec to

r, R .E

. ( 2 0 1 3 ).

C u ltu

ra l d

iv er

si ty

in h

ea lth

a n d il

ln es

s (8

th e

d .)

. U p p er

S ad

d le

R iv

er : P re

n tic

e H

al l.

TA B

L E

6 –

1 Su

m m

ar y

of S

ix C

ul tu

ra l P

he no

m en

a in

C om

pa ri

so n

of V

ar io

us C

ul tu

ra l G

ro up

s— co

nt ’d

CU LT

U RA

L G

RO U

P AN

D

SO CI

AL EN

VI RO

N M

EN TA

L BI

O LO

G IC

AL CO

U N

TR IE

S O

F O

RI G

IN CO

M M

U N

IC AT

IO N

SP AC

E O

RG AN

IZ AT

IO N

TI M

E CO

N TR

O L

VA RI

AT IO

N S

6054_Ch06_105-132 11/09/17 10:07 AM Page 118

C H A P T E R 6 ■ Cultural and Spiritual Concepts Relevant to Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 119

TA B L E 6 – 2 Examples of Cultural Syndromes SYNDROME CULTURE SYMPTOMS

Amok

Ataque de nervios

Brain fag

Ghost sickness

Hwa-byung

Koro

Pibloktoq

Shenjing Shuairuo (neurasthenia)

Shen-k’uei or Shenkui

Susto

Taijin kyofusho

SOURCES: Giger, J.N. (2017). Transcultural nursing: Assessment and intervention (7th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby; Purnell, L.D. (2013). Transcultural health care: A culturally competent approach (4th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis; Sadock, B.J., Sadock, V.A., & Ruiz, P. (2015). Synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry (11th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; Spector, R.E. (2013). Cultural diversity in health and illness (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall; Sue, D.W., & Sue, D. (2016). Counseling the culturally diverse (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Malaysia, Laos, Philip- pines, Polynesia, Papua New Guinea, Puerto Rico, and among the Navajo (may be precipitated by the perception that they have been insulted in some way)

Latin America, Latin Caribbean, and Mediter- ranean (often occurs in response to a stressful family event such as death or divorce)

West Africa (usually occur- ring in high school or university students during periods of academic stress)

American Indian tribes

Korea (often attributed to suppression of anger)

Southern and Eastern Asia

Eskimo cultures

China

Taiwan, China

Latin America

Japan

A state of depression followed by violent or homicidal behavior and ending with a period of exhaustion, somnolence, and amnesia; persecutory ideas are also common

Uncontrollable shouting, crying, trembling, verbal or physi- cal aggression, sometimes accompanied by dissocia- tive experiences, seizure-like or fainting episodes, and suicidal gestures

Difficulty concentrating, poor memory retention, pain and pressure around head and neck, blurred vision; stu- dents often complain of “brain fatigue”

Preoccupation with death and the deceased; symptoms include anxiety, confusion, weakness, feelings of dan- ger, anorexia, and bad dreams; sometimes associated with witchcraft

Symptoms closely related to those of depression, includ- ing insomnia, fatigue, indigestion, dysphoria, anorexia, bodily aches, and loss of interest

Intense anxiety associated with fear that the penis (in males) or the vulva and nipples (in females) will retract into the body and cause the person to die

Sometimes called arctic hysteria, an abrupt episode of extreme excitement, preceded by withdrawal or mild irritability, and followed by seizure activity and coma. During the attack the individual engages in aberrant and bizarre verbal and motor behavior; afterward, usually reports complete amnesia for the attack

Weakness, emotional excitement, nervous symptoms, and sleep disturbances; this condition is featured in the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders under a section called “other neuroses”

Panic anxiety and somatic symptoms; sexual dysfunctions are common but without identified physical cause. Attributed to fear of excessive semen loss related to frequent sexual activity; semen is considered part of one’s vital essence

Appetite and sleep disturbances, sadness, pains, headache, stomachache, and diarrhea. The soul is thought to leave the body (during dreams or following a traumatic event), resulting in unhappiness and illness

Intense anxiety and fear about possibly offending others, particularly with their body functions, appearance, or odor

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interpreted differently by different cultures (e.g., Asians and American Indians may be uncomfort- able with touch, whereas Latinos and Western Europeans perceive touch as a sign of caring).

■ Make allowances for individuals from other cultures to have family members around them and even to participate in their care. Large num- bers of extended family members are very impor- tant to African Americans, American Indians, Asian Americans, Latino Americans, and Western European Americans. To deny access to these family support systems could interfere with the healing process.

■ Ensure that the individual’s spiritual needs are being met. Religion is an important source of support for many individuals, and the nurse must be tolerant of various rituals that may be connected with different cultural beliefs about health and illness.

■ Be aware of the differences in concept of time among the various cultures. Most members of the dominant American culture are future oriented and place a high value on punctuality and effi- ciency. Other cultures may be more present-time oriented. Nurses must be aware that such individ- uals may not share the value of punctuality. They may be late to appointments and appear to be in- different to some aspects of their therapy. Nurses must be accepting of these differences and refrain from allowing existing attitudes to interfere with delivery of care.

■ Be aware of different beliefs about health care among the various cultures, and recognize the importance of these beliefs to the healing process. If an individual from another culture has been receiving health care from a spiritualist, curandero, or other nontraditional healer, it is important for the nurse to listen to what has been done in the past and even to consult with these cultural healers about the care being given to the client.

■ Follow the health-care practices the client views as essential, provided they do no harm and do not interfere with the healing process. For example, the concepts of yin and yang and the hot and cold theory of disease are very important to the well- being of some Asians and Latinos, respectively. Try to ensure that a balance of these foods are in- cluded in the diet as an important reinforcement for traditional medical care.

■ Be aware of favorite foods of individuals from differ- ent cultures. The health-care setting may seem strange and somewhat isolated, and for some indi- viduals, it feels good to have anything around them that is familiar. They may even refuse to eat unfamil- iar foods. If it does not interfere with his or her care, allow family members to provide favorite foods for the client.

■ The nurse working in psychiatry must realize that psychiatric illness is stigmatized in some cultures. Individuals who believe that expressing emotions is unacceptable will present unique problems as clients in a psychiatric setting. Nurses must have patience and work slowly to establish trust in order to provide these individuals with the assis- tance they require.

Evaluation Evaluation of nursing actions is directed at achieve- ment of the established outcomes. Part of the evalua- tion process is continuous reassessment to ensure that the selected actions are appropriate and the goals and outcomes are realistic. Including the family and extended support systems in the evaluation process is essential if cultural implications of nursing care are to be measured. Modifications to the plan of care are made as the need is determined.

Spiritual Concepts

CORE CONCEPT Spirituality The human quality that gives meaning and sense of purpose to an individual’s existence. Spirituality exists within each individual regardless of belief system and serves as a force for interconnectedness between the self and others, the environment, and a higher power.

Spirituality is difficult to describe. Historically, it has had distinctly religious connections, with a spiri- tual person being described as “someone with whom the Spirit of God dwelt.” Koenig (2012) describes spirituality as distinguished by its connection to that which is considered sacred and transcendent. He identifies spirituality as connected to the supernatu- ral, the mystical, and to organized religion but ex- tending beyond and beginning before organized religion. In other words, spirituality may be consid- ered a quest for the transcendent that might lead to staunch belief or nonbelief.

In the treatment of mental illness, some of the earliest practices focused on spiritual treatment be- cause insanity was considered a disruption of mind and spirit (Reeves & Reynolds, 2009). However, Freud (often described as a forefather of psychiatric treat- ment) believed that religion had a negative effect on mental health and that it was linked to a host of psy- chiatric symptoms. Thus, religion and spiritually have been avoided rather than embraced as a valu- able aspect of treatment. More recently, the focus is changing once again. Reeves and Reynolds (2009) note that the large volume of contemporary research

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(more than 60 studies) demonstrating the value of spirituality for both medical and psychiatric pa- tients is influencing this change. Nursing has em- braced this new focus by the inclusion of nursing responsibility for spiritual care in the International Council of Nurses Code of Ethics and in the American Holistic Nurses Association Standards for Holistic Nurs- ing Practice. The inclusion of spiritual care is also evidenced by two current NANDA International nursing diagnoses: Spiritual distress and Readiness for enhanced spiritual well-being (Herdman & Kamitsuru, 2014).

Smucker (2001) stated:

Spirituality is the recognition or experience of a dimension of life that is invisible, and both within us and yet beyond our material world, providing a sense of connectedness and interrelatedness with the uni- verse. (p. 5)

Smucker (2001) identified the following five fac- tors as types of spiritual needs associated with human beings:

1. Meaning and purpose in life 2. Faith or trust in someone or something beyond

ourselves 3. Hope 4. Love 5. Forgiveness

Spiritual Needs Meaning and Purpose in Life Humans by nature appreciate order and structure in their lives. Having a purpose in life gives one a sense of control and the feeling that life is worth living. Each nurse’s exploration of his or her own spirituality and efforts to grow spiritually are foundational to being responsive to those needs in others. Walsh (1999) describes seven perennial practices that he believes promote enlightenment, aid in transforma- tion, and encourage spiritual growth:

1. Transform your motivation: Reduce craving and find your soul’s desire.

2. Cultivate emotional wisdom: Heal your heart and learn to love.

3. Live ethically: Feel good by doing good. 4. Concentrate and calm your mind: Accept the chal-

lenge of mastering attention and mindfulness. 5. Awaken your spiritual vision: See clearly and rec-

ognize the sacred in all things. 6. Cultivate spiritual intelligence: Develop wisdom

and understand life. 7. Express spirit in action: Embrace generosity and

the joy of service. (p. 14)

In the final analysis, each individual must deter- mine his or her own perception of what is important

and what gives meaning to life. Throughout one’s ex- istence, the meaning of life will undoubtedly be chal- lenged many times. A solid spiritual foundation may help an individual confront the challenges that result from life’s experiences.

Faith Faith is often thought of as the acceptance of a belief in the absence of physical or empirical evidence. Smucker (2001) stated:

For all people, faith is an important concept. From childhood on, our psychological health depends on having faith or trust in something or someone to help meet our needs. (p. 7)

Having faith requires that individuals rise above that which they can experience only through the five senses. Faith transcends the appearance of the physi- cal world. An increasing amount of medical and sci- entific research is showing that what individuals believe exists can have as powerful an impact as what actually exists. Karren and associates (2010) stated:

[There is a] growing appreciation of the healing power of faith among members of the medical com- munity. Belief strongly impacts health outcomes, and belief of a large majority of Americans is connected to their religious commitments. Seventy-five percent of Americans say that their religious faith forms the foundation for their approach to life. Seventy-three percent of Americans say that prayer is an important part of their daily life. Religious belief provides power for an individual. With such beliefs so prevalent, it is no surprise that religious faith plays a significant role in healing. (p. 360)

Evidence suggests that faith, combined with con- ventional treatment and an optimistic attitude, can be a very powerful element in the healing process.

Hope Hope has been defined as a special kind of positive ex- pectation (Karren, Smith, & Gordon, 2013). With hope, individuals look at a situation, and no matter how negative, find something positive on which to focus. Hope functions as an energizing force. In addi- tion, research indicates that hope may promote heal- ing, facilitate coping, and enhance quality of life (Enayati, 2013; Nekolaichuk, Jevne, & Maguire, 1999).

Kübler-Ross (1969), in her classic study of dying pa- tients, stressed the importance of hope. She suggested that even though these patients could not hope for a cure, they could hope for additional time to live, to be with loved ones, for freedom from pain, or for a peaceful death with dignity. She found hope to be a satisfaction unto itself, whether or not it was fulfilled. She stated, “If a patient stops expressing hope, it is usually a sign of imminent death” (p. 140).

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Researchers in the field of psychoneuroimmunol- ogy have found that the attitudes we have and the emotions we experience have a definite effect on the body. An optimistic feeling of hope is not just a mental state. Hope and optimism produce positive physical changes in the body that can influence the immune system and the functioning of specific body organs. The medical literature abounds with count- less examples of individuals with terminal conditions who suddenly improve when they find something to live for. Conversely, there are many accounts of patients whose conditions deteriorate when they lose hope.

Love Love may be identified as a projection of one’s own good feelings onto others. To love others, one must first experience love of self and then be able and will- ing to project that warmth and affectionate concern for others (Karren et al., 2013).

Smucker (2001) stated:

Love, in its purest unconditional form, is probably life’s most powerful force and our greatest spiritual need. Not only is it important to receive love, but equally important to give love to others. Thinking about and caring for the needs of others keeps us from being too absorbed with ourselves and our needs to the exclusion of others. We all have experi- enced the good feelings that come from caring for and loving others. (p. 10)

Love may be a very important key in the healing process. Thaik, a cardiologist, states that love, as one of many strong human emotions, releases a cascade of hundreds or thousands of neuropeptides and hor- mones that can affect physical and mental health (2013). Among the beneficial effects, Thaik reports:

1. Love counteracts the fight-or-flight syndrome and decreases production of the stress hormone cortisol.

2. Love encourages the production of oxytocin, the “feel good” hormone, which can reduce cardiovas- cular stress and improve the immune system.

3. Love increases the production of norepinephrine and dopamine and may stave off depression.

4. Love decreases inflammation, which affects im- mune function and pain relief.

Some researchers suggest that love has a positive effect on the immune system. This has been shown to be true in adults and children and also in animals (Fox & Fox, 1988; Ornish, 1998; Pace et al., 2009). The giving and receiving of love may also result in higher levels of endorphins, thereby contributing to a sense of euphoria and helping to reduce pain.

In a classic long-term study, researchers Werner and Smith (1992) studied children who were reared

in impoverished environments. Their homes were troubled by discord, desertion, or divorce or were marred by parental alcoholism or mental illness. The participants were studied at birth, childhood, adoles- cence, and adulthood. Two out of three of these high- risk children had developed serious learning and/or behavioral problems by age 10 or had a record of delinquencies, mental health problems, or pregnan- cies by age 18. A quarter of them had developed “very serious” physical and psychosocial problems. By the time they reached adulthood, more than three- fourths of them suffered from profound psychologi- cal and behavioral problems, and even more were in poor physical health. But of particular interest to the researchers were the 15 to 20 percent who remained resilient and well despite their impoverished and dif- ficult existence. These children had experienced a warm and loving relationship with another person during their first year of life, whereas the children who developed serious psychological and physical problems did not. This research indicates that the ear- lier people have the benefit of a strong, loving rela- tionship, the better they seem able to resist the effects of a deleterious lifestyle.

Forgiveness Forgiveness has been defined as the letting go of re- sentments and thoughts of revenge (Mayo Clinic, 2014). Feelings of bitterness and resentment take a physical toll on an individual by generating stress hormones, which, when maintained for long periods, can have a detrimental effect on health. Forgiveness enables a person to cast off resentment and begin the pathway to healing. Owen, as cited by Harrison (2011), conducted research with patients who were HIV positive to study the effects of forgiveness on the immune system and found that forgiveness was cor- related with improvements in immune function.

Forgiveness is not easy. Individuals often have great difficulty when called upon to forgive others and even greater difficulty in attempting to forgive themselves. Many people carry throughout their lives a sense of guilt for having committed a mistake for which they do not believe they have been forgiven or for which they have not forgiven themselves.

To forgive is not necessarily to condone or excuse one’s own or someone else’s inappropriate behavior. Karren and associates (2013) suggest that forgiveness is an attitude of owning responsibility for one’s own perceptions in order to move beyond the perception of being a helpless victim to the perception of being empowered in choosing one’s own responses to hurts and offenses.

Holding on to grievances causes pain, suffering, and conflict. Forgiveness (of self and others) is a gift to oneself. It offers freedom and peace of mind.

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Current research supports that spiritual issues such as love and forgiveness are important to address not only because of their impact on psychological and spiritual healing but also because they are deeply connected to neuroendocrine and immune system healing.

It is important for nurses to be able to assess the spiritual needs of their clients. Nurses need not serve the role of professional counselor or spiritual guide, but because of the closeness of their relationship with clients, nurses may be the part of the health-care team to whom clients may reveal the most intimate details of their lives. Smucker (2001) stated:

Just as answering a patient’s question honestly and with accurate information and responding to his needs in a timely and sensitive manner communi- cates caring, so also does high-quality professional nursing care reach beyond the physical body or the illness to that part of the person where identity, self- worth, and spirit lie. In this sense, good nursing care is also good spiritual care. (pp. 11–12)

Religion Religion is one way an individual’s spirituality may be expressed. There are more than 6500 religions in the world (Bronson, 2005). Some individuals seek out various religions in an attempt to find answers to fundamental questions that they have about life and, indeed, about their very existence. Others, although they may regard themselves as spiritual, choose not to affiliate with an organized religious group. In either situation, however, it is inevitable that questions related to life and the human condition arise during the progression of spiritual maturation.

Brodd (2015) suggested that all religious traditions manifest seven dimensions: experiential, mythic, doc- trinal, ethical, ritual, social, and material. He explains that these seven dimensions are intertwined and com- plementary. Depending on the particular religion, certain dimensions are emphasized more than others. For example, Zen Buddhism has a strong experiential dimension but says little about doctrines. Roman Catholicism is strong in both ritual and doctrine. The social dimension is a significant aspect of religion, as it provides a sense of community from belonging to a group such as a parish or a congregation, which is empowering for some individuals.

Evidence supports that affiliation with a religious group is a health-enhancing endeavor (Karren et al., 2013). A number of studies indicate a correlation between religious faith/church attendance and in- creased chance of survival following serious illness, fewer instances of depression and mental illness, longer life, and overall better physical and mental health. In an extensive review of the literature, Levin (2010) concludes that the weight of the evidence across studies suggests that religious involvement is a generally protective factor for mental illness and psychological distress.

It is unknown how religious participation protects health and promotes well-being. Some churches actively promote healthy lifestyles and discourage behavior that would be harmful to health or would interfere with treatment of disease. Graham and Crown (2014) conducted a study to identify what aspects of religion most contributed to happiness and a sense of well-being. They found that those who sought religion for social purpose (as opposed to so- cial interaction) were happiest regardless of religious affiliation or service attendance. Certainly, participa- tion in religious activities also provides opportunities for social interaction. Despite these findings, confi- dence in organized religion and church attendance, as previously discussed, has been showing a steady decline in American society.

Addressing Spiritual and Religious Needs Through the Nursing Process

Assessment It is important for nurses to consider spiritual and religious needs when planning care for their clients. The Joint Commission requires that nurses address the psychosocial, spiritual, and cultural variables that influence the perception of illness. Dossey (1998) has developed a spiritual assessment tool (Box 6–4) about which she stated,

The Spiritual Assessment Tool provides reflective questions for assessing, evaluating, and increasing awareness of spirituality in patients and their signifi- cant others. The tool’s reflective questions can facili- tate healing because they stimulate spontaneous, independent, meaningful initiatives to improve the patient’s capacity for recovery and healing. (p. 45)

Assessing the spiritual needs of a client with a psychotic disorder can pose some additional chal- lenges. Approximately 25 percent of people with schizophrenia and 15 to 22 percent of people with bipolar disorder have religious delusions (Koenig, 2012). Sometimes these delusions can be difficult to differentiate from general religious or cultural be- liefs, but nonpsychotic religious activity may actually

CORE CONCEPT Religion A set of beliefs, values, rites, and rituals adopted by a group of people. The practices are usually grounded in the teachings of a spiritual leader.

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124 U N I T 2 ■ Foundations for Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing

BOX 6–4 Spiritual Assessment Tool

The following reflective questions may assist you in assess- ing, evaluating, and increasing awareness of spirituality in yourself and others.

MEANING AND PURPOSE These questions assess a person’s ability to seek meaning and fulfillment in life, manifest hope, and accept ambiguity and uncertainty.

• What gives your life meaning? • Describe your sense of purpose in life. • How does your illness affect your life goals? • How hopeful are you about obtaining a better degree of

health? • How would you describe your role in maintaining your

health? • What kind of changes will you be able to make in your life

to maintain your health? • Describe your level of motivation to get well. • What is the most important or powerful thing in your life?

INNER STRENGTHS These questions assess a person’s ability to manifest joy and recognize strengths, choices, goals, and faith.

• What brings you joy and peace in your life? • What can you do to feel alive and full of spirit? • What traits do you like about yourself? • What are your personal strengths? • What choices are available to you to enhance your

healing? • What life goals have you set for yourself? • What do you think is the role of stress, if any, in your

illness? • How aware were you of your body before you became

sick? • What do you believe in? • How has your illness influenced your faith? • How important is faith in your overall health and sense of

well-being?

INTERCONNECTIONS These questions assess a person’s positive self-concept, self- esteem, and sense of self; sense of belonging in the world with others; capacity to pursue personal interests; and ability to demonstrate love of self and self-forgiveness.

• How do you feel about yourself right now? • How do you feel when you have a true sense of

yourself? • Describe any activities of personal interest that you

pursue. • What do you do to show love for yourself? • Can you forgive yourself? • What do you do to heal your spirit?

RELATIONSHIPS These questions assess a person’s ability to connect in life-giving ways with family, friends, and social groups and to engage in the forgiveness of others.

• Who are the significant people in your life? • Who are your readily available, nearby, support people? • Who are the people to whom you are closest? • Describe any groups in which you are an active participant. • How comfortable are you with asking people for help when

you need it? • How comfortable are you with sharing your feelings with

others? • What are some of the most loving things that others have

done for you? • What are the loving things that you do for other people? • What are your thoughts about forgiving others?

BEHAVIOR AND ACTIVITIES These questions assess a person’s capacity for finding mean- ing in worship or religious activities and a connectedness with a divinity.

• How important is worship to you? • What do you consider the most significant act of worship

in your life? • Describe any religious activities in which you are an active

participant. • Describe any spiritual activities, if any, that you find

meaningful. • Do you find prayer meaningful? • To whom do you turn for support? • Describe any activities in which you engage for coping

and support. • Describe any activities in which you have previously

engaged and have not found helpful.

ENVIRONMENT These questions assess a person’s ability to experience a sense of connection with life and nature, an awareness of the effects of the environment on life and well-being, and a capacity or concern for the health of the environment.

• How does your environment have an impact on your state of well-being?

• What are your environmental stressors at work and at home?

• What strategies reduce your environmental stressors? • Do you have any concerns for the state of your immediate

environment? • Are you involved with environmental issues such as recy-

cling environmental resources at home, work, or in your community?

• Are you concerned about the survival of the planet?

SOURCES: Burkhardt, M.A. (1989). Spirituality: An analysis of the concept. Holistic Nursing Practice, 3(3), 69-77; Dossey, B.M., & American Holistic Nurses’ Association. (1995). Holistic nursing: A handbook for practice (2nd ed.). Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen. From Dossey, B.M. (1998). Holistic modalities and healing moments, American Journal of Nursing, 98(6), 44-47, with permission.

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improve long-term prognosis in patients with psy- chotic disorders (Koenig, 2012). Engaging family members and significant others in the assessment process can be a great help in determining which religious beliefs and activities have been beneficial to the patient and which have been detrimental to their progress.

Diagnoses and Outcome Identification Nursing diagnoses that may be used when addressing spiritual and religious needs of clients include the following:

■ Risk for spiritual distress ■ Spiritual distress ■ Readiness for enhanced spiritual well-being ■ Risk for impaired religiosity ■ Impaired religiosity ■ Readiness for enhanced religiosity

The following outcomes may be used as guidelines for care and to evaluate effectiveness of the nursing interventions.

The client:

■ Identifies meaning and purpose in life that rein- force hope, peace, and contentment

■ Verbalizes acceptance of self as a worthwhile human being

■ Accepts and incorporates change into life in a healthy manner

■ Expresses understanding of relationship between difficulties in current life situation and interrup- tion in previous religious beliefs and activities

■ Discusses beliefs and values about spiritual and religious issues

■ Expresses desire and ability to participate in beliefs and activities of desired religion

Planning and Implementation NANDA International information related to the diagnoses Risk for spiritual distress and Risk for impaired religiosity is provided in the subsections that follow.

Risk for Spiritual Distress Definition “Vulnerable to an impaired ability to expe- rience and integrate meaning and purpose in life through connectedness within self, literature, nature,

and/or a power greater than oneself which may compromise health” (Herdman & Kamitsuru, 2014, p. 374).

Risk factors

Physical: Physical/chronic illness; substance abuse Psychosocial: Low self-esteem; depression; anxiety;

stress; poor relationships; separate from support systems; blocks to experiencing love; inability to forgive; loss; racial or cultural conflict; change in religious rituals; change in spiritual practices

Developmental: Life changes Environmental: Environmental changes; natural

disasters

Risk for Impaired Religiosity Definition “Vulnerable to impaired ability to exercise reliance on religious beliefs and/or participate in rituals of a particular faith tradition which may compromise health” (Herdman & Kamitsuru, 2014, p. 371).

Risk factors

Physical: Illness/hospitalization; pain Psychological: Ineffective support, coping, caregiving;

depression; lack of security Sociocultural: Lack of social interaction; cultural

barrier to practicing religion; social isolation Spiritual: Suffering Environmental: Lack of transportation; environmen-

tal barriers to practicing religion Developmental: Life transitions A plan of care addressing client’s spiritual and/or

religious needs is presented in Table 6–3. Selected nursing diagnoses are presented along with appro- priate nursing interventions and rationales for each.

Evaluation Evaluation of nursing actions is directed at achieve- ment of the established outcomes. Part of the evalua- tion process is continuous reassessment to ensure that the selected actions are appropriate and the goals and outcomes are realistic. Including the family and extended support systems in the evaluation process is essential if spiritual and religious implications of nurs- ing care are to be measured. Modifications to the plan of care are made as the need is determined.

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Table 6–3 | CARE PLAN FOR THE CLIENT WITH SPIRITUAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS*

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: RISK FOR SPIRITUAL DISTRESS RELATED TO: Life changes; environmental changes; stress; anxiety; depression

OUTCOME CRITERIA NURSING INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Client identifies meaning and purpose in life that rein- force hope, peace, content- ment, and self-satisfaction.

1. Assess current situation.

2. Listen to client’s expressions of anger, concern, self-blame.

3. Note reason for living and whether it is directly related to situation.

4. Determine client’s religious and/or spiritual orientation, cur- rent involvement, and presence of conflicts, especially in current circumstances.

5. Assess sense of self-concept, worth, ability to enter into loving relationships.

6. Observe behavior indicative of poor relationships with others.

7. Determine support systems avail- able to and used by client and significant others.

8. Assess substance use/abuse.

9. Establish an environment that promotes free expression of feel- ings and concerns.

10. Have client identify and prioritize current/immediate needs.

11. Discuss philosophical issues related to impact of current situation on spiritual beliefs and values.

12. Use therapeutic communication skills of reflection and active listening.

13. Review coping skills used and their effectiveness in current situation.

14. Provide a role model (e.g., nurse, individual experiencing similar situation).

1–8. Thorough assessment is neces- sary to develop an accurate care plan for the client.

9. Trust is the basis of a therapeutic nurse-client relationship.

10. Helps client focus on what needs to be done and identify manage- able steps to take.

11. Helps client to understand that certain life experiences can cause individuals to question personal values and that this response is not uncommon.

12. Helps client find own solutions to concerns.

13. Identifies strengths to incorporate into plan and techniques that need revision.

14. Sharing of experiences and hope assists client to deal with reality.

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Continued

Table 6–3 | CARE PLAN FOR THE CLIENT WITH SPIRITUAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS*—cont’d

OUTCOME CRITERIA NURSING INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: RISK FOR IMPAIRED RELIGIOSITY RELATED TO: Suffering; depression; illness; life transitions

OUTCOME CRITERIA NURSING INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Client expresses achieve- ment of support and personal satisfaction from spiritual and/or religious practices.

15. Suggest use of journaling.

16. Discuss client’s interest in the arts, music, literature.

17. Role-play new coping techniques. Discuss possibilities of taking classes, becoming involved in discussion groups, cultural activities of client’s choice.

18. Refer client to appropriate resources for help.

15. Journaling can assist in clarifying beliefs and values and in recog- nizing and resolving feelings about current life situation.

16. Provides insight into meaning of these issues and how they are integrated into an individual’s life.

17. These activities will help to enhance integration of new skills and necessary changes in client’s lifestyle.

18. Client may require additional assistance with an individual who specializes in these types of concerns.

1. Assess current situation (e.g., ill- ness, hospitalization, prognosis of death, presence of support sys- tems, financial concerns).

2. Listen nonjudgmentally to client’s expressions of anger and possible belief that illness or condition may be a result of lack of faith.

3. Determine client’s usual religious and/or spiritual beliefs, current involvement in specific church activities.

4. Note quality of relationships with significant others and friends.

5. Assess substance use/abuse.

6. Develop nurse-client relationship in which individual can express feelings and concerns freely.

7. Use therapeutic communication skills of active listening, reflection, and “I” messages.

1. This information identifies prob- lems client is dealing with in the moment that is affecting desire to be involved with religious activities.

2. Individuals often blame themselves for what has happened and reject previous religious beliefs and/or God.

3. This information is important back- ground for establishing a database.

4. Individual may withdraw from others in relation to the stress of illness, pain, and suffering.

5. When in distress, individuals often turn to use of various substances, which can affect the ability to deal with problems in a positive manner.

6. Trust is the basis for a therapeutic nurse-client relationship.

7. Helps client to find own solutions to problems and concerns and promotes sense of control.

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Table 6–3 | CARE PLAN FOR THE CLIENT WITH SPIRITUAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS*—cont’d

OUTCOME CRITERIA NURSING INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

8. Be accepting and nonjudgmental when client expresses anger and bitterness toward God. Stay with the client.

9. Encourage client to discuss previ- ous religious practices and how these practices provided support in the past.

10. Allow the client to take the lead in initiating participation in religious activities, such as prayer.

11. Contact spiritual leader of client’s choice, if he or she requests.

8. The nurse’s presence and non- judgmental attitude increase the client’s feelings of self-worth and promote trust in the relationship.

9. A nonjudgmental discussion of previous sources of support may help the client work through current rejection of them as potential sources of support.

10. Client may be vulnerable in current situation and needs to be allowed to decide own resumption of these actions.

11. These individuals serve to provide relief from spiritual distress and often can do so when other support persons cannot.

Summary and Key Points

■ Culture encompasses shared patterns of belief, feeling, and knowledge that guide people’s con- duct and are passed down from generation to generation.

■ Some cultures, such as the dominant culture in the United States, are described as individualistic cultures and value independence, personal respon- sibility, and freedom.

■ Cultures such as Latin American, Asian, and AI/AN groups can be described as collectivistic cultures in that they place a high value on interconnectedness and interreliance on family, community, and/or tribal affiliation.

■ Ethnic groups are tied together by a shared heritage.

■ Cultural groups differ in terms of communication, space, social organization, time, environmental control, and biological variations.

■ America is often described as the melting pot of cultural diversity. People of many different cultures reside in the United States; some maintain tradi- tional cultural practices, whereas others acculturate to dominant cultural practices (give up cultural practices or values as a result of contact with another group) and assimilate by incorporating practices and values of the dominant culture.

■ Northern European Americans are the descen- dants of the first immigrants to the United States and make up the current dominant cultural group. They value punctuality, work responsibility, and a healthy lifestyle.

■ Some African Americans trace their roots in the United States to the days of slavery. Most have large support systems and a strong religious ori- entation. Many have assimilated into and have many of the same characteristics as the dominant culture.

■ Many American Indians and Alaska Natives still live on reservations. They speak many different languages and dialects. They often appear silent and reserved, and many are uncomfortable with touch and expressing emotions. Health care may be delivered by a healer called a shaman.

■ Asian American languages are very diverse. Touching during communication has historically been considered unacceptable. Asian Americans may have difficulty expressing emotions and ap- pear cold and aloof. Family loyalty is empha- sized. Psychiatric illness is viewed as behavior that is out of control and brings shame on the family.

■ Latino Americans are those who have origins in Latin American countries but now reside in the United States. Many can be referred to as Hispanic,

*The interventions for this care plan were adapted from Doenges, M.E., Moorhouse, M.F., & Murr, A.C. (2013). Nursing diagnosis manual: Planning, individualizing, and documenting client care (4th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

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which implies their primary language is Spanish. Large family groups are important, and touch is a common form of communication. The predomi- nant religion is Roman Catholicism, and the church is often a source of strength in times of crisis. Health care may be delivered by a folk healer called a curandero or a curandera, who uses various forms of treatment to restore the body to a balanced state.

■ Arab Americans trace their ancestry and traditions to the nomadic desert tribes of the Arabian Penin- sula. Arabic is the official language of the Arab world, and the dominant religion is Islam. Mental illness is considered a social stigma, and symptoms are often somaticized.

■ The Jewish people came to the United States pre- dominantly from Spain, Portugal, Germany, and Eastern Europe. Four main Jewish religious groups exist today: Orthodox, Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist. The primary language is English. A high value is placed on education. Jewish Americans are very health conscious and practice preventive health care. The maintenance of one’s mental health is considered just as important as the maintenance of one’s physical health.

■ Cultural syndromes are clusters of physical and behavioral symptoms considered as illnesses or “afflictions” by specific cultures that do not read- ily fit into the Western conventional diagnostic categories.

■ Spirituality is the human quality that gives meaning and sense of purpose to an individual’s existence.

■ Individuals possess a number of spiritual needs that include meaning and purpose in life, faith or trust in someone or something beyond themselves, hope, love, and forgiveness.

■ Religion is a set of beliefs, values, rites, and rituals adopted by a group of people.

■ Religion is one way in which an individual’s spiri- tuality may be expressed.

■ Affiliation with a religious group has been shown to be a health-enhancing endeavor.

■ Nurses must consider cultural, spiritual, and religious needs when planning care for their clients.

Additional info available at www.davisplus.com

Review Questions Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

Select the answer that is most appropriate for each of the following questions.

1. Miss Lee is an Asian American on the psychiatric unit. She tells the nurse, “I must have the hot ginger root for my headache. It is the only thing that will help.” What cultural belief is likely associated with Miss Lee’s request? a. She is being obstinate and wants control over her care. b. She believes that ginger root has magical qualities. c. She subscribes to the restoration of health through the balance of yin and yang. d. Asian Americans refuse to take traditional medicine for pain.

2. Miss Lee, an Asian American on the psychiatric unit, says she is afraid that no one from her family will visit her. On what belief does Miss Lee base her statement? a. Many Asian Americans do not believe in hospitals. b. Many Asian Americans do not have close family support systems. c. Many Asian Americans believe the body will heal itself if left alone. d. Many Asian Americans view psychiatric problems as bringing shame to the family.

3. Joe, an American Indian, appears at the community health clinic with an oozing stasis ulcer on his lower right leg. It is obviously infected, and he tells the nurse that the shaman has been treating it with herbs. The nurse determines that Joe needs emergency care, but Joe states he will not go to the emergency department (ED) unless the shaman is allowed to help treat him. How should the nurse handle this situation? a. Contact the shaman and have him meet them at the ED to consult with the attending physician. b. Tell Joe that the shaman is not allowed in the ED. c. Explain to Joe that the shaman is at fault for his leg being in the condition it is in now. d. Have the shaman try to talk Joe into going to the ED without him.

Continued

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Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

4. Joe, an American Indian, goes to the emergency department (ED) because he has an oozing stasis ulcer on his leg. He is accompanied by the tribal shaman, who has been treating Joe on the reservation. As a greeting, the physician extends his hand to the shaman, who lightly touches the physician’s hand, then quickly moves away. What cultural norm among American Indians most likely explains the shaman’s behavior? a. The shaman is snubbing the physician. b. The shaman is angry at Joe for wanting to go to the ED. c. The shaman does not believe in traditional medicine. d. The shaman does not feel comfortable with touch.

5. Sarah is an African American woman who receives a visit from the psychiatric home health nurse. A referral for a mental health assessment was made by the public health nurse, who noticed that Sarah was becoming exceedingly withdrawn. When the psychiatric nurse arrives, Sarah says to her, “No one can help me. I was an evil person in my youth, and now I must pay.” How might the nurse assess this statement? a. Sarah is having delusions of persecution. b. Some African Americans believe illness is God’s punishment for their sins. c. Sarah is depressed and just wants to be left alone. d. African Americans do not believe in psychiatric help.

6. Frank is a Latino American who has an appointment at the community health center for 1 p.m. The nurse is angry when Frank shows up at 3:30 p.m. stating, “I was visiting with my brother.” How must the nurse interpret this behavior? a. Frank is being passive-aggressive by showing up late. b. This is Frank’s way of defying authority. c. Frank is a member of a cultural group that is present-time oriented. d. Frank is a member of a cultural group that rejects traditional medicine.

7. The nurse must give Frank, a Latino American, a physical examination. She asks him to remove his clothing and put on an examination gown. Frank refuses. What cultural norm among Latino Americans most likely explains Frank’s response? a. Frank does not believe in taking orders from a woman. b. Frank is modest and embarrassed to remove his clothes. c. Frank does not understand why he must remove his clothes. d. Frank does not think he needs a physical examination.

8. Maria is an Italian American who is in the hospital after having suffered a miscarriage at 5 months’ gestation. Her room is filled with relatives who have brought a variety of foods and gifts for Maria. They are all talking, seemingly at the same time, and some, including Maria, are crying. They repeatedly touch and hug Maria and each other. How should the nurse handle this situation? a. Explain to the family that Maria needs her rest and they must all leave. b. Allow the family to remain and continue their activity as described, as long as they do not disturb

other clients. c. Explain that Maria will not get over her loss if they keep bringing it up and causing her to cry so much. d. Call the family priest to come and take charge of this family situation.

9. Mark, who has come to the mental health clinic with symptoms of depression, says to the nurse, “My father is dying. I have always hated my father. He physically abused me when I was a child. We haven’t spoken for many years. He wants to see me now, but I don’t know if I want to see him.” With which spiritual need is Joe struggling? a. Forgiveness b. Faith c. Hope d. Meaning and purpose in life

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Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

10. As a child, Joe was physically abused by his father. The father is now dying and has expressed a desire to see his son before he dies. Joe is depressed and says to the mental health nurse, “I’m so angry! Why did God have to give me a father like this? I feel cheated of a father! I’ve always been a good person. I deserved better. I hate God!” From this subjective data, which nursing diagnosis might the nurse apply to Joe? a. Readiness for enhanced religiosity b. Risk for impaired religiosity c. Readiness for enhanced spiritual well-being d. Spiritual distress

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Levin, J. (2010). Religion and mental health: Theory and re- search. International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies. doi:10.1002/aps.240

Lipka, M. (2013). What surveys say about worship attendance— And why some stay home. Retrieved from www.pewresearch. org/fact-tank/2013/09/13/what-surveys-say-about-worship- attendance-and-why-some-stay-home

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McMurry, L., Song, H., Owen, D.C., Gonzalez, E.W., & Esperat, C.R. (2017). Mexican Americans. In J.N. Giger (Ed.). Transcultural nursing: Assessment and intervention (6th ed., pp. 208-241). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.

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U N I T 3 Therapeutic Approaches

in Psychiatric Nursing Care

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7 Relationship Development C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Objectives

Homework Assignment

Role of the Psychiatric Nurse

Dynamics of a Therapeutic Nurse-Client Relationship

Conditions Essential to Development of a Therapeutic Relationship

Phases of a Therapeutic Nurse-Client Relationship

Boundaries in the Nurse-Client Relationship

Summary and Key Points

Review Questions

K EY T E R M S

attitude

belief

concrete thinking

confidentiality

countertransference

empathy

genuineness

rapport

sympathy

transference

unconditional positive regard

values

O B J EC T I V E S After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Describe the relevance of a therapeutic nurse-client relationship.

2. Discuss the dynamics of a therapeutic nurse- client relationship.

3. Discuss the importance of self-awareness in the nurse-client relationship.

4. Identify goals of the nurse-client relationship. 5. Identify and discuss essential conditions for a

therapeutic relationship to occur. 6. Describe the phases of relationship develop-

ment and the tasks associated with each phase.

H O M E W O R K A S S I G N M E N T Please read the chapter and answer the following questions:

1. When the nurse’s verbal and nonverbal inter- actions are congruent, he or she is thought to be expressing which characteristic of a therapeutic relationship?

2. During which phase of the nurse-client rela- tionship do each of the following occur: a. The nurse may become angry and anxious

in the presence of the client. b. A plan of action for dealing with stress is

established.

c. The nurse examines personal feelings about working with the client.

d. Nurse and client establish goals of care. 3. What is the goal of using the Johari Window? 4. How do sympathy and empathy differ? 5. Write a one-page journal entry reflecting on

patterns you notice in your relationships with others. How might you use this awareness in developing therapeutic relationship skills?

CORE CONCEPTS Therapeutic

Relationship

134

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The nurse-client relationship is the foundation on which psychiatric nursing is established. It is a rela- tionship in which both participants must recognize each other as unique and important human beings. It is also a relationship in which mutual learning occurs. In today’s health-care environment, patient- centered care is promoted as central to quality and safety, and the therapeutic relationship remains at the foundation of this tenet. Concepts that were advanced over 60 years ago (by Hildegard Peplau in 1952) and have been the core of nursing practice to the present day are now recognized by the larger medical community as not only still relevant but crit- ical to improving quality and safety in the future of health care. Peplau (1991) stated:

Shall a nurse do things for a patient or can participant relationships be emphasized so that a nurse comes to do things with a patient as her share of an agenda of work to be accomplished in reaching a goal—health. It is likely that the nursing process is educative and thera- peutic when nurse and patient can come to know and to respect each other, as persons who are alike, and yet, different, as persons who share in the solution of problems. (p. 9, emphasis in original)

This chapter examines the role of the psychiatric nurse and the use of self as the therapeutic tool in the nursing care of clients with mental illness. Phases of the therapeutic relationship are explored, and conditions essential to the development of a thera- peutic relationship are discussed. The importance of values clarification in the development of self- awareness is emphasized.

custodial caregiver and physician’s handmaiden to recognition as a unique, independent member of the professional health-care team.

Peplau (1991) identified several subroles within the nursing role:

1. The stranger: A nurse is at first a stranger to the client. The client is also a stranger to the nurse. Peplau (1991) stated:

Respect and positive interest accorded a stranger is at first nonpersonal and includes the same ordinary courtesies that are accorded to a new guest who has been brought into any situation. This principle im- plies: (1) accepting the patient as he is; (2) treating the patient as an emotionally able stranger and relat- ing to him on this basis until evidence shows him to be otherwise. (p. 44)

2. The resource person: According to Peplau, “A re- source person provides specific answers to ques- tions usually formulated with relation to a larger problem” (p. 47). In the role of resource person, the nurse explains, in language that the client can understand, information related to the client’s health care.

3. The teacher: In this subrole, the nurse identifies learning needs and provides information required by the client or family to improve the health situation.

4. The leader: According to Peplau, “Democratic leadership in nursing situations implies that the patient will be permitted to be an active partici- pant in designing nursing plans for him” (p. 49). Autocratic leadership promotes overvaluation of the nurse and clients’ substitution of the nurse’s goals for their own. Laissez-faire leaders convey a lack of personal interest in the client.

5. The surrogate: Outside of their awareness, clients often perceive nurses as symbols of other individ- uals. They may view the nurse as a mother figure, a sibling, a former teacher, or another nurse who has provided care in the past. This perception occurs when a client is placed in a situation that generates feelings similar to ones he or she has ex- perienced previously. Peplau (1991) explained that the nurse-client relationship progresses along a continuum. When a client is acutely ill, he or she may incur the role of infant or child, while the nurse is perceived as the mother surrogate. Peplau (1991) stated, “Each nurse has the responsibility for exercising her professional skill in aiding the relationship to move forward on the continuum, so that person to person relations compatible with chronological age levels can develop” (p. 55).

6. The technical expert: The nurse understands var- ious professional devices and possesses the clinical skills necessary to perform interventions that are in the best interest of the client.

C H A P T E R 7 ■ Relationship Development 135

CORE CONCEPT Therapeutic Relationship An interaction between two people (usually a caregiver and a care receiver) in which input from both partici- pants contributes to a climate of healing, growth promotion, and/or illness prevention.

Role of the Psychiatric Nurse

What is a nurse? Undoubtedly, this question would elicit as many different answers as the number of peo- ple to whom it was presented. Nursing as a concept has probably existed since the beginning of the civilized world, with the provision of “care” for the ill or infirm by anyone in the environment who took the time to administer to those in need. However, the emergence of nursing as a profession only began in the late 1800s with the graduation of Linda Richards from the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Boston upon achievement of the diploma in nursing. Since that time, the nurse’s role has evolved from that of

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7. The counselor: The nurse uses “interpersonal tech- niques” to assist clients in adapting to difficulties or changes in life experiences. Peplau (1991) stated, “Counseling in nursing has to do with helping the patient to remember and to understand fully what is happening to him in the present situation, so that the experience can be integrated with, rather than dissociated from, other experiences in life” (p. 64).

Peplau (1962) believed that the emphasis in psy- chiatric nursing is on the counseling subrole. How then does this emphasis influence the role of the nurse in the psychiatric setting? Many sources define the nurse therapist as a person with graduate prepara- tion in psychiatric-mental health nursing. He or she has developed skills through intensive, supervised ed- ucational experiences to provide helpful individual, group, or family therapy.

Peplau suggested that it is essential for the staff nurse working in psychiatry to have a general knowledge of basic counseling techniques. A therapeutic or “help- ing” relationship is established through use of these interpersonal techniques and is based on a sound knowledge of theories of personality development and human behavior.

Sullivan (1953) believed that emotional problems stem from difficulties with interpersonal relation- ships. Interpersonal theorists, such as Peplau and Sullivan, emphasize the importance of relationship development in the provision of emotional care. Through establishment of a satisfactory nurse-client relationship, individuals learn to generalize the ability to achieve satisfactory interpersonal relationships to other aspects of their lives.

Dynamics of a Therapeutic Nurse-Client Relationship

Travelbee (1971), who expanded on Peplau’s theory of interpersonal relations in nursing, stated that only when each individual in the interaction perceives the other as a unique human being is a relationship possible. She refers not to a nurse-client relationship but rather to a human-to-human relationship, which she describes as a “mutually significant experience.” That is, both the nurse and the recipient of care have needs met when each views the other as a unique human being, not as “an illness,” as “a room number,” or as “all nurses” in general.

Therapeutic relationships are goal oriented. Ide- ally, the nurse and client decide together what the goal of the relationship will be. Most often, the goal is promotion of learning and growth in an effort to bring about change in the client’s life. In general, the goal of a therapeutic relationship may be based on a problem-solving model.

EXAMPLE Goal The client will demonstrate more adaptive coping strategies for dealing with (specific life situation).

Interventions ■ Identify what is troubling the client at the present time. ■ Encourage the client to discuss changes he or she would

like to make. ■ Discuss with the client which changes are possible and

which are not possible. ■ Have the client explore feelings about aspects of his or

her life that cannot be changed and alternative ways of coping more adaptively.

■ Discuss alternative strategies for creating changes the client desires to make.

■ Weigh the benefits and consequences of each alternative. ■ Assist the client to select an alternative. ■ Encourage the client to implement the change. ■ Provide positive feedback for the client’s attempts to

create change. ■ Assist the client to evaluate outcomes of the change and

make modifications as required.

Therapeutic Use of Self Travelbee (1971) described the instrument for deliv- ery of interpersonal nursing as the therapeutic use of self, which she defined as “the ability to use one’s personality consciously and in full awareness in an at- tempt to establish relatedness and to structure nurs- ing intervention” (p. 19).

Use of the self in a therapeutic manner requires that the nurse have a great deal of self-awareness and self- understanding, having arrived at a philosophical belief about life, death, and the overall human condition. The nurse must understand that the ability to and the extent to which one can effectively help others in time of need is strongly influenced by this internal value system—a combination of intellect and emotions.

Gaining Self-Awareness Values Clarification Knowing and understanding oneself enhances the abil- ity to form satisfactory interpersonal relationships. Self- awareness requires that an individual recognize and accept what he or she values and learn to accept the uniqueness of and differences in others. This concept is important in everyday life and in the nursing profes- sion in general, but it is essential in psychiatric nursing.

An individual’s value system is established very early in life and has its foundations in the value system held by the primary caregivers. It is culturally oriented; consists of beliefs, attitudes, and values; and may change many times over the course of a lifetime. Val- ues clarification is one process by which an individual may gain self-awareness.

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Beliefs A belief is an idea that one holds true, and it can take any of several forms:

■ Rational beliefs are ideas for which objective evi- dence exists to substantiate their truth.

EXAMPLE Alcoholism is a disease.

■ Irrational beliefs are ideas that an individual holds as true despite the existence of objective contradic- tory evidence. Delusions can be a form of irrational beliefs.

EXAMPLE Once an alcoholic has been through detoxification and rehabilitation, he or she can drink socially if desired.

■ Faith (sometimes called blind beliefs) is a belief in something or someone that does not require proof.

EXAMPLE Belief in a higher power can help an alcoholic stop drinking.

■ Stereotype is a socially shared belief that describes a concept in an oversimplified or undifferentiated matter.

EXAMPLE All alcoholics are skid-row bums.

Attitudes An attitude is a frame of reference around which an individual organizes knowledge about his or her world. An attitude also has an emotional compo- nent. It can be a prejudgment and may be selective and biased. Attitudes fulfill the need to find mean- ing in life and to provide clarity and consistency for

the individual. The prevailing stigma attached to mental illness is an example of a negative attitude. An associated belief might be that “all people with mental illness are dangerous.”

Values Values are abstract standards, positive or negative, that represent an individual’s ideal mode of conduct and ideal goals. Examples of ideal modes of conduct include seeking truth and beauty; being clean and orderly; and behaving with sincerity, justice, reason, compassion, humility, respect, honor, and loyalty. Ex- amples of ideal goals are security, happiness, freedom, equality, ecstasy, fame, and power.

Values differ from attitudes and beliefs in that they are action oriented or action producing. One may hold many attitudes and beliefs without behaving in a way that shows they hold those attitudes and beliefs. For example, a nurse may believe that all clients have the right to be told the truth about their diagnosis; however, he or she may not always act on the belief by telling all clients the complete truth about their conditions. Only when the belief is acted on does it become a value.

Attitudes and beliefs flow out of one’s set of values. An individual may have thousands of beliefs and hun- dreds of attitudes, but his or her values probably num- ber only in the dozens. Values may be viewed as a kind of core concept or basic standard that determines one’s attitudes, beliefs, and ultimately, behavior. Raths, Harmin, and Simon (1978) identified a seven-step process of valuing that can be used to help clarify per- sonal values. This process is presented in Table 7–1. The process can be used by applying these seven steps to an attitude or belief that one holds. When an atti- tude or belief has met each of the seven criteria, it can be considered a value.

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TA B L E 7 – 1 The Process of Values Clarification LEVEL OF OPERATIONS

Cognitive

Emotional

Behavioral

CATEGORY

Choosing

Prizing

Acting

CRITERIA

1. Freely 2. From alternatives 3. After careful consideration of

the consequences

4. Satisfied; pleased with the choice

5. Making public affirmation of the choice, if necessary

6. Taking action to demonstrate the value behaviorally

7. Demonstrating this pattern of behavior consistently and repeatedly

EXPLANATION

“This value is mine. No one forced me to choose it. I understand and accept the consequences of holding this value.”

“I am proud that I hold this value, and I am willing to tell others about it.”

The value is reflected in the individ- ual’s behavior for as long as he or she holds it.

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The Johari Window The self arises out of self-appraisal and the appraisal of others. It represents each individual’s unique pat- tern of values, attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, emotions, and needs. Self-awareness is the recognition of these aspects and understanding about their impact on the self and others. The Johari Window, presented in Figure 7–1, is a representation of the self and a tool that can be used to increase self-awareness (Luft, 1970). The Johari Window is divided into four quad- rants (four aspects of the self): the open self, the un- knowing self, the private self, and the unknown self.

The Open or Public Self The upper-left quadrant of the window represents the part of the self that is public; that is, aspects of the self about which both the individual and others are aware.

EXAMPLE Susan, a nurse who is the adult child of an alcoholic, has strong feelings about helping alcoholics to achieve sobriety. She volunteers her time as a support person on call to help recovering alcoholics. She is aware of her feelings and her desire to help others. Members of the Alcoholics Anonymous group in which she volunteers her time are also aware of Susan’s feelings, and they feel comfortable calling her when they need help with refraining from drinking.

The Unknowing Self The upper-right quadrant of the window represents the part of the self that is known to others but remains hidden from the awareness of the individual.

EXAMPLE When Susan takes care of patients in detoxification, she does so without emotion, tending to the technical aspects of the task

in a way that the patients perceive as cold and judgmental. She is unaware that she comes across to patients in this way.

The Private Self The lower-left quadrant of the window represents the part of the self that is known to the individual but which the individual deliberately and consciously con- ceals from others.

EXAMPLE Susan would prefer not to take care of the clients in detoxi- fication because doing so provokes painful memories from her childhood. However, because she does not want the other staff members to know about these feelings, she volunteers to take care of the detoxification clients whenever they are assigned to her unit.

The Unknown Self The lower-right quadrant of the window represents the part of the self that is unknown to both the indi- vidual and to others.

EXAMPLE Susan felt very powerless as a child growing up with an alcoholic father. She seldom knew in what condition she would find her father or what his behavior would be. She learned over the years to find small ways to maintain control over her life situation, and she left home as soon as she graduated from high school. The need to stay in control has always been very important to Susan, and she is unaware that working with recovering alcoholics helps to fulfill this need. The people she is helping are also unaware that Susan is satisfying an unfulfilled personal need as she provides them with assistance.

The goal of increasing self-awareness by using the Johari Window is to increase the size of the quadrant that represents

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Known to Self Unknown to Self

Known to Others

Unknown to Others

The open or public self

The unknowing self

The unknown self

The private self

FIGURE 7–1 The Johari window. (From Luft, J. [1970]. Group processes: An introduction to group dynamics [3rd ed.]. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Publishing, 1984, with permission.)

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the open or public self. The individual who is open to self and others has the ability to be spontaneous and to share emotions and experiences with others. This individual also has a greater understanding of personal behavior and of others’ responses to him or her. Increased self-awareness allows an individual to interact comfortably with others, to accept the differences in others, and to observe each person’s right to respect and dignity.

Conditions Essential to Development of a Therapeutic Relationship

Several characteristics that enhance the achievement of a therapeutic relationship have been identified. These concepts are highly significant to the use of self as the therapeutic tool in interpersonal relationship development.

Rapport Getting acquainted and establishing rapport is the primary task in relationship development. Rapport implies special feelings on the part of both the client and the nurse based on acceptance, warmth, friend- liness, common interest, a sense of trust, and a non- judgmental attitude. Establishing rapport may be accomplished by discussing non-health-related topics. Travelbee (1971) states:

[To establish rapport] is to create a sense of harmony based on knowledge and appreciation of each indi- vidual’s uniqueness. It is the ability to be still and ex- perience the other as a human being—to appreciate the unfolding of each personality one to the other. The ability to truly care for and about others is the core of rapport. (pp. 152; 155)

Trust To trust another, one must feel confidence in that person’s presence, reliability, integrity, veracity, and sincere desire to provide assistance when requested. As discussed in the chapter Theoretical Models of Personality Development (available online at www.davisplus.com), trust is the initial developmental task described by Erikson. If the task has not been achieved, this component of relationship develop- ment becomes more difficult. That is not to say that trust cannot be established, but only that additional time and patience may be required on the part of the nurse.

Trust cannot be presumed; it must be earned. Trustworthiness is demonstrated through nursing interventions that convey a sense of warmth and caring to the client. These interventions are initiated simply and concretely and directed toward activities that address the client’s basic needs for physiological and psychological safety and security. Many psychi- atric clients experience concrete thinking, which focuses their thought processes on specifics rather than generalities and on immediate issues rather than eventual outcomes. Examples of nursing interven- tions that promote trust in an individual who is think- ing concretely include the following:

■ Providing a blanket when the client is cold ■ Providing food when the client is hungry ■ Keeping promises ■ Being honest (e.g., saying “I don’t know the answer

to your question, but I’ll try to find out”) and then following through

■ Simply and clearly providing reasons for certain policies, procedures, and rules

■ Providing a written, structured schedule of activities ■ Attending activities with the client if he or she is

reluctant to go alone ■ Being consistent in adhering to unit guidelines ■ Listening to the client’s preferences, requests, and

opinions and making collaborative decisions con- cerning his or her care whenever possible

■ Ensuring confidentiality; providing reassurance that what is discussed will not be repeated outside the boundaries of the health-care team

Trust is the basis of a therapeutic relationship. The nurse working in psychiatry must perfect the skills that foster the development of trust. Trust must be es- tablished in order for the nurse-client relationship to progress beyond the superficial level of tending to the client’s immediate needs.

Respect To show respect is to believe in the dignity and worth of an individual regardless of his or her unacceptable behavior. The psychologist Carl Rogers called this unconditional positive regard (Raskin, Rogers, & Witty, 2014). The attitude is nonjudgmental, and the respect is unconditional in that it does not depend on the behavior of the client to meet certain stan- dards. The nurse, in fact, may not approve of the client’s lifestyle or behavior patterns. However, with unconditional positive regard, the client is accepted and respected for no other reason than that he or she is considered to be a worthwhile and unique human being.

Many psychiatric clients have very little self-respect. Sometimes lack of self-respect is related to the low self-esteem that accompanies illnesses such as clinical

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CLINICAL PEARL The nurse must convey an aura of trustwor- thiness, which requires that he or she possess a sense of self- confidence. Confidence in the self is derived from knowledge gained through achievement of personal and professional goals as well as the ability to integrate these roles and to function as a unified whole.

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depression, and sometimes it is related to rejection and stigmatization by others. Recognition that they are unconditionally accepted and respected as unique, valuable individuals can elevate feelings of self-worth and self-respect. The nurse can convey an attitude of respect by

■ Calling the client by name (and title, if he or she prefers).

■ Spending time with the client. ■ Allowing sufficient time to answer the client’s ques-

tions and concerns. ■ Promoting an atmosphere of privacy during thera-

peutic interactions with the client and during phys- ical examination or therapy.

■ Always being open and honest with the client, even when the truth may be difficult to discuss.

■ Listening to the client’s ideas, preferences, and opinions and making collaborative decisions con- cerning his or her care whenever possible.

■ Striving to understand the motivation behind the client’s behavior regardless of how unacceptable it may seem.

Genuineness The concept of genuineness refers to the nurse’s abil- ity to be open, honest, and “real” in interactions with the client. To be real is to be aware of what one is experiencing internally and to allow the quality of this inner experience to be apparent in the therapeutic relationship. When one is genuine, there is congruence between what is felt and what is expressed (Raskin et al., 2014). The nurse who is genuine responds to the client with truth and honesty rather than with re- sponses he or she may consider more “professional” or ones that merely reflect the “nursing role.”

Genuineness may call for a degree of self-disclosure on the part of the nurse. This is not to say that the nurse must disclose to the client everything he or she is feeling or all personal experiences that relate to what the client is going through. Indeed, care must be taken when using self-disclosure to avoid reversing the roles of nurse and client. For example, when a client tells the nurse, “I just get so upset when some- one disrespects me; sometimes you have to smack someone to teach them a lesson,” the nurse might re- spond, “I get upset by that, too. Let’s talk about some different ways to respond to your anger rather than hitting someone.” In this example, the nurse discloses a common feeling while maintaining a focus on the client’s need for problem-solving. When the nurse uses self-disclosure, a quality of “humanness” is re- vealed to the client, creating a role for the client to model in similar situations. The client may then feel more comfortable revealing personal information to the nurse.

Most individuals have an uncanny ability to detect when others are artificial. When the nurse does not bring genuineness and respect to the relationship, a reality basis for trust cannot be established. These qualities are essential to helping the client actualize his or her potential within the nurse-client relation- ship and for change and growth to occur (Raskin et al., 2014).

Empathy Empathy is the ability to see beyond outward behavior and understand the situation from the client’s point of view. With empathy, the nurse can accurately per- ceive and comprehend the meaning and relevance of the client’s thoughts and feelings. The nurse must also be able to communicate this perception to the client by attempting to translate words and behaviors into feelings.

It is not uncommon for the concept of empathy to be confused with that of sympathy. The major differ- ence is that with empathy the nurse “accurately per- ceives or understands” what the client is feeling and encourages the client to explore these feelings. With sympathy the nurse actually “shares” what the client is feeling and experiences a need to alleviate distress. Schuster (2000) stated:

Empathy means that you remain emotionally separate from the other person, even though you can see the patient’s viewpoint clearly. This is different from sym- pathy. Sympathy implies taking on the other’s needs and problems as if they were your own and becoming emotionally involved to the point of losing your ob- jectivity. To empathize rather than sympathize, you must show feelings but not get caught up in feelings or overly identify with the patient’s and family’s concerns. (p. 102)

Empathy is considered to be one of the most im- portant characteristics of a therapeutic relationship. Accurate empathetic perceptions on the part of the nurse assist the client to identify feelings that may have been suppressed or denied. Positive emotions are generated as the client realizes that he or she is truly understood by another. As the feelings surface and are explored, the client learns aspects about self of which he or she may have been unaware. This con- tributes to the process of personal identification and the promotion of positive self-concept.

With empathy, while understanding the client’s thoughts and feelings, the nurse is able to maintain sufficient objectivity to allow the client to achieve problem resolution with minimal assistance. With sympathy, the nurse actually feels what the client is feeling, objectivity is lost, and the nurse may become focused on relief of personal distress rather than on helping the client resolve the problem at hand. The

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following is an example of an empathetic and sympa- thetic response to the same situation.

EXAMPLE Situation: BJ is a client on the psychiatric unit with a diag-

nosis of persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia). She is 5’51⁄2” tall and weighs 295 pounds. BJ has been over- weight all her life. She is single, has no close friends, and has never had an intimate relationship with another per- son. It is her first day on the unit, and she is refusing to come out of her room. When she appeared for lunch in the dining room following admission, she was embar- rassed when several of the other clients laughed out loud and called her “fatso.”

Sympathetic response: Nurse: “I can certainly identify with what you are feeling. I’ve been overweight most of my life, too. I just get so angry when people act like that. They are so insensitive! It’s just so typical of skinny people to act that way. You have a right to want to stay away from them. We’ll just see how loud they laugh when you get to choose what movie is shown on the unit after dinner tonight.”

Empathetic response: Nurse: “You feel angry and embar- rassed by what happened at lunch today.” As tears fill BJ’s eyes, the nurse encourages her to cry if she feels like it and to express her anger at the situation. She stays with BJ but does not dwell on her own feelings about what happened. Instead, she focuses on BJ and what the client perceives are her most immediate needs at this time.

Rapport, trust, respect, genuineness, and empathy all are essential to forming therapeutic relationships, and they can be assets in social relationships, too. The primary differences between social and therapeutic relationships are that therapeutic relationships always remain focused on the health-care needs of the client, are never for the purpose of addressing the nurse’s personal needs, and progress through identified phases of development for the purpose of helping the client solve health-related problems.

Phases of a Therapeutic Nurse-Client Relationship

Psychiatric nurses use interpersonal relationship de- velopment as the primary intervention with clients in psychiatric-mental health settings. This is congruent with Peplau’s (1962) identification of counseling as the major subrole of nursing in psychiatry. Sullivan (1953), from whom Peplau patterned her own inter- personal theory of nursing, strongly believed that many emotional problems were closely related to dif- ficulties with interpersonal relationships. With this concept in mind, this role of the nurse in psychiatry becomes especially meaningful and purposeful—an integral part of the total therapeutic regimen.

The therapeutic interpersonal relationship is the means by which the nursing process is implemented. Through the relationship, problems are identified and resolution is sought. Tasks of the relationship have been categorized into four phases: (1) the preinteraction phase, (2) the orientation (introduc- tory) phase, (3) the working phase, and (4) the ter- mination phase. Although each phase is presented as specific and distinct from the others, there may be some overlap of tasks, particularly when the interac- tion is limited. The major nursing goals during each phase of the nurse-client relationship are listed in Table 7–2.

The Preinteraction Phase The preinteraction phase involves preparation for the first encounter with the client. Tasks include

■ Obtaining available information about the client from his or her chart, significant others, or other health-care team members. From this information, the initial assessment begins. The nurse may also become aware of personal responses to knowledge about the client.

■ Examining one’s feelings, fears, and anxieties about working with a particular client. For exam- ple, the nurse may have been reared in an alco- holic family and have ambivalent feelings about caring for a client who is dependent on alcohol. All individuals bring attitudes and feelings from prior experiences to the clinical setting. The nurse needs to be aware of how these preconceptions may affect his or her ability to care for individual clients.

The Orientation (Introductory) Phase During the orientation phase, the nurse and client become acquainted. Tasks include

■ Creating an environment for the establishment of trust and rapport.

■ Establishing a contract for intervention that details the expectations and responsibilities of both nurse and client.

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TA B L E 7 – 2 Phases of Relationship Development and Major Nursing Goals

PHASE

1. Preinteraction

2. Orientation (introductory)

3. Working

4. Termination

GOALS

Explore self-perceptions

Establish trust Formulate contract for intervention

Promote client change

Evaluate goal attainment Ensure therapeutic closure

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■ Gathering assessment information to build a strong client database.

■ Identifying the client’s strengths and limitations. ■ Formulating nursing diagnoses. ■ Setting goals that are mutually agreeable to the

nurse and client. ■ Developing a plan of action that is realistic for

meeting the established goals. ■ Exploring feelings of both the client and nurse in

terms of the introductory phase.

Introductions are often uncomfortable, and the participants may experience some anxiety until a de- gree of rapport has been established. Interactions may remain on a superficial level until anxiety sub- sides. Several interactions may be required to fulfill the tasks associated with this phase.

The Working Phase The therapeutic work of the relationship is accom- plished during this phase. Tasks include

■ Maintaining the trust and rapport established dur- ing the orientation phase.

■ Promoting the client’s insight and perception of reality.

■ Problem-solving using the model presented earlier in this chapter.

■ Overcoming resistance behaviors on the part of the client as the level of anxiety rises in response to discussion of painful issues.

■ Continuously evaluating progress toward goal attainment.

Transference and Countertransference Transference and countertransference are common phenomena that often arise during the course of a therapeutic relationship.

Transference Transference occurs when the client unconsciously displaces (or “transfers”) to the nurse feelings formed toward a person from his or her past (Sadock, Sadock, & Ruiz, 2015). These feelings may be triggered by something about the nurse’s appearance or person- ality characteristics that reminds the client of another person. Transference can interfere with the therapeu- tic interaction when the feelings expressed include anger and hostility. Anger toward the nurse can be manifested by uncooperativeness and resistance to therapy.

Transference can also take the form of overwhelm- ing affection for or excessive dependency on the nurse. The nurse is overvalued, and the client forms unrealistic expectations of the nurse. When the nurse is unable to fulfill those expectations or meet the excessive dependency needs, the client becomes angry and hostile.

Interventions for Transference Hilz (2013) states:

In cases of transference, the relationship does not usually need to be terminated, except when the transference poses a serious barrier to therapy or safety. The nurse should work with the patient in sorting out the past from the present, assist the pa- tient into identifying the transference, and reassign a new and more appropriate meaning to the current nurse-patient relationship. The goal is to guide patients toward independence by teaching them to assume responsibility for their own behaviors, feelings, and thoughts, and to assign the correct meanings to their relationships based on present circumstances instead of the past.

Countertransference Countertransference refers to the nurse’s behavioral and emotional responses to the client in which the nurse transfers feelings (often unconscious) about past experiences or people onto the patient. These responses may be related to unresolved feelings toward significant others from the nurse’s past, or they may be generated in response to transference feelings on the part of the client. It is not easy to refrain from becoming angry when the client is consistently antagonistic, to feel flattered when showered with affection and attention by the client, or even to feel quite powerful when the client ex- hibits excessive dependency on the nurse. These feelings can interfere with the therapeutic rela- tionship when they initiate the following types of behaviors:

■ The nurse overidentifies with the client’s feelings, as they remind him or her of problems from the nurse’s past or present.

■ The nurse and client develop a social or personal relationship.

■ The nurse begins to give advice or attempts to “res- cue” the client.

■ The nurse encourages and promotes the client’s dependence.

■ The nurse’s anger engenders feelings of disgust toward the client.

■ The nurse feels anxious and uneasy in the presence of the client.

■ The nurse is bored and apathetic in sessions with the client.

■ The nurse has difficulty setting limits on the client’s behavior.

■ The nurse defends the client’s behavior to other staff members.

The nurse may be completely unaware or only minimally aware of the countertransference as it is occurring (Hilz, 2013).

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Interventions for Countertransference Hilz (2013) states:

The relationship usually should not be terminated in the presence of countertransference. Rather, the nurse or staff member experiencing the countertransference should be supportively assisted by other staff members to identify his or her feelings and behaviors and rec- ognize the occurrence of the phenomenon. It may be helpful to have evaluative sessions with the nurse after his or her encounter with the patient, in which both the nurse and other staff members (who are observing the interactions) discuss and compare the exhibited behaviors in the relationship.

The Termination Phase Termination of the relationship may occur for a vari- ety of reasons: the mutually agreed-on goals may have been reached, the client may be discharged from the hospital, or, in the case of a student nurse, the clinical rotation ends. Termination can be difficult for both the client and nurse. The main task involves bringing a therapeutic conclusion to the relationship. This occurs when

■ Progress has been made toward attainment of mutually set goals.

■ A plan for continuing care or for assistance during stressful life experiences is mutually established by the nurse and client.

■ Feelings about termination of the relationship are recognized and explored. Both the nurse and client may experience feelings of sadness and loss. The nurse should share his or her feelings with the client. Through these interactions, the client learns that it is acceptable to have these kinds of feelings at a time of separation. With this knowledge, the client experiences growth during the process of ter- mination. This is also a time when both nurse and client may evaluate and summarize the learning that occurred as an outgrowth of their relationship.

■ Social boundaries: These are established within a culture and define how individuals are expected to behave in social situations.

■ Personal boundaries: These are boundaries that in- dividuals define for themselves. They include phys- ical distance boundaries, or just how close individuals will allow others to invade their physical space; and emotional boundaries, or how much individuals choose to disclose of their most private and inti- mate selves to others.

■ Professional boundaries: These boundaries limit and outline expectations for appropriate profes- sional relationships with clients. “Professional boundaries are the spaces between a nurse’s power and the patient’s vulnerability” (National Council of State Boards of Nursing [NCSBN], 2014). Nurses must recognize that they have an imbalance of power with their patients by virtue of their role and the patient information to which they have access. They must be consistently conscientious in avoiding any circumstance in which they might achieve per- sonal gain within that relationship. Concerns re- garding professional boundaries are commonly related to the following issues: ■ Self-disclosure: Self-disclosure on the part of the

nurse may be appropriate when the information may therapeutically benefit the client. It should never be undertaken to meet the nurse’s needs.

■ Gift-giving: Individuals who are receiving care often feel indebted toward health-care providers. Indeed, gift-giving may be part of the therapeutic process for people who receive care (College and Association of Registered Nurses of Alberta, 2011). Cultural beliefs and values may also enter into the decision of whether to accept a gift from a client. In some cultures, failure to do so would be interpreted as an insult (Pies, 2012). Accepting financial gifts is never appropriate, but in some in- stances nurses may be permitted to suggest instead a donation to a charity of the client’s choice. If acceptance of a small gift of gratitude is deemed appropriate, the nurse may choose to share it with other staff members who have been involved in the client’s care. In all instances, nurses should exer- cise professional judgment when deciding whether to accept a gift from a client. Attention should be given to what the gift-giving means to the client, as well as to institutional policy, the American Nurses Association (ANA) Code of Ethics for Nurses, and the ANA Scope and Standards of Practice.

■ Touch: Nursing by its very nature involves touch- ing clients. Touching is required to perform the therapeutic procedures involved in the physical care of clients. Caring touch is the touching of clients when there is no physical need to do so. Touching or hugging can be beneficial when it

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CLINICAL PEARL When the client feels sadness and loss, behav- iors to delay termination may become evident. If the nurse experiences the same feelings, he or she may allow the client’s behaviors to delay termination. For therapeutic closure, the nurse must establish the reality of the separation and resist being manipulated into repeated delays by the client.

Boundaries in the Nurse-Client Relationship

A boundary indicates a border that determines the extent of acceptable limits. Many types of boundaries exist, such as the following:

■ Material boundaries: These are physical property that can be seen, such as fences that border land.

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is implemented with therapeutic intent and client consent. When using caring touch, make sure it is appropriate, supportive, and welcomed (College of Registered Nurses of British Colum- bia, 2015). Caring touch may provide comfort or encouragement, but some vulnerable clients may misinterpret its meaning. In certain cultures, such as within Navajo Indian, Chinese, and Japanese heritages, touch is not considered ac- ceptable unless the parties know each other very well (Purnell, 2014). The nurse must be sensitive to these cultural nuances and aware when touch is crossing a personal boundary. Additionally, clients who are experiencing high levels of anxi- ety or suspicious or psychotic behavior may inter- pret touch as aggressiveness. These are times when touch should be avoided or considered with extreme caution.

■ Friendship or romantic association: When a nurse is acquainted with a client, the relationship must move from a personal nature to professional. If the nurse is unable to accomplish this separation, he or she should withdraw from the nurse-client relationship. Likewise, nurses must guard against personal relationships developing as a result of the nurse-client relationship. Romantic, sexual, or otherwise intimate personal relationships are never appropriate between nurse and client.

Certain warning signs indicate that professional boundaries of the nurse-client relationship may be in jeopardy. These may include (Coltrane & Pugh, 1978)

■ Favoring one client’s care over that of another. ■ Keeping secrets with a client. ■ Changing dress style for working with a particular

client. ■ Swapping assignments to care for a particular

client. ■ Giving special attention or treatment to one client

over others. ■ Spending free time with a client. ■ Frequently thinking about the client when away

from work. ■ Sharing personal information or work concerns

with the client. ■ Receipt of gifts or continued contact or communi-

cation with the client after discharge.

Boundary crossing can threaten the integrity of the nurse-client relationship. Nurses must gain self- awareness and insight to recognize when professional integrity is compromised. Although some variables,

such as the care setting, community influences, patient needs, and the nature of therapy, affect how bound- aries are delineated, “any actions that overstep the es- tablished boundaries to meet the needs of the nurse are boundary violations” (NCSBN, 2014).

Summary and Key Points

■ Nurses who work in the psychiatric-mental health field use special skills, or “interpersonal tech- niques,” to assist clients in adapting to difficulties or changes in life experiences. Therapeutic nurse- client relationships are goal oriented, and the problem-solving model is used to try to bring about some type of change in the client’s life.

■ The instrument for delivery of the process of inter- personal nursing is the therapeutic use of self, which requires that the nurse possess a strong sense of self-awareness and self-understanding.

■ Hildegard Peplau identified seven subroles within the role of nurse: stranger, resource person, teacher, leader, surrogate, technical expert, and counselor.

■ Characteristics that enhance the achievement of a therapeutic relationship include rapport, trust, respect, genuineness, and empathy.

■ Phases of a therapeutic nurse-client relationship include the preinteraction phase, the orientation (introductory) phase, the working phase, and the termination phase.

■ Transference occurs when the client unconsciously displaces (or “transfers”) to the nurse feelings formed toward a person from the past.

■ Countertransference refers to the nurse’s behav- ioral and emotional response to the client in which the nurse transfers feelings (often unconscious) about past experiences or people onto the patient. These responses may be related to unresolved feelings toward significant others from the nurse’s past, or they may be generated in response to trans- ference feelings on the part of the client.

■ Types of boundaries include material, social, per- sonal, and professional.

■ Concerns associated with professional boundaries include self-disclosure, gift-giving, touch, and developing a friendship or romantic association.

■ Boundary crossings can threaten the integrity of the nurse-client relationship.

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Additional info available at www.davisplus.com

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C H A P T E R 7 ■ Relationship Development 145

Review Questions Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

Select the answer that is most appropriate for each of the following questions.

1. Nurse Mary has been providing care for Tom during his hospital stay. On Tom’s day of discharge, his wife brings a bouquet of flowers and box of chocolates to his room. He presents these gifts to Nurse Mary, saying, “Thank you for taking care of me.” What is a correct response by the nurse? a. “I don’t accept gifts from patients.” b. “Thank you so much! It is so nice to be appreciated.” c. “Thank you. I will share these with the rest of the staff.” d. “Hospital policy forbids me to accept gifts from patients.”

2. Elisa says to the nurse, “I worked as a secretary to put my husband through college, and as soon as he graduated, he left me. I hate him! I hate all men!” Which of the following is an empathetic response by the nurse? a. “You are very angry now. This is a normal response to your loss.” b. “I know what you mean. Men can be very insensitive.” c. “I understand completely. My husband divorced me, too.” d. “You are depressed now, but you will feel better in time.”

3. Which of the following behaviors suggest a possible breach of professional boundaries? (Select all that apply.) a. The nurse repeatedly requests to be assigned to a specific client. b. The nurse shares the details of her divorce with the client. c. The nurse makes arrangements to meet the client outside of the therapeutic environment. d. The nurse shares how she dealt with a similar difficult situation.

4. Which of the following tasks are associated with the orientation phase of relationship development? (Select all that apply.) a. Promoting the client’s insight and perception of reality b. Creating an environment for the establishment of trust and rapport c. Using the problem-solving model toward goal fulfillment d. Obtaining available information about the client from various sources e. Formulating nursing diagnoses and setting goals

5. Nurse Rosetta, who is the adult child of an alcoholic, is working with John, a client who abuses alcohol. John has experienced a successful detoxification process and is beginning a rehabilitation program. He says to Rosetta, “I’m not going to go to those stupid AA meetings. They don’t help anything.” Rosetta, whose father died of complications from alcoholism, responds with anger: “Don’t you even care what happens to your children?” Rosetta’s response is an example of which of the following? a. Transference b. Countertransference c. Self-disclosure d. A breach of professional boundaries

6. Nurse Jones is working with Kim, a client in the anger-management program. Which of the following identifies actions associated with the working phase of the therapeutic relationship? a. Kim tells Nurse Jones she wants to learn more adaptive ways to handle her anger. Together, they set

some goals. b. The goals of therapy have been met, but Kim cries and says she has to keep coming to therapy in

order to be able to handle her anger appropriately. c. Nurse Jones reads Kim’s previous medical records. She explores her feelings about working with a

woman who has abused her child. d. Nurse Jones helps Kim practice various techniques to control her angry outbursts. She gives Kim

positive feedback for attempting to improve maladaptive behaviors.

Continued

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Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

7. When there is congruence between what is felt and what is expressed, the nurse is exhibiting which of the following characteristics? a. Trust b. Respect c. Genuineness d. Empathy

8. When the nurse shows unconditional acceptance of an individual as a worthwhile and unique human being, he or she is exhibiting which of the following characteristics? a. Trust b. Respect c. Genuineness d. Empathy

9. Hildegard Peplau identified seven subroles within the role of the nurse. She believed the emphasis in psychiatric nursing was on which of the subroles? a. The resource person b. The teacher c. The surrogate d. The counselor

10. Which of the following behaviors are associated with the phenomenon of transference? (Select all that apply.) a. The client attributes toward the nurse feelings associated with a person from the client’s past. b. The nurse attributes toward the client feelings associated with a person from the nurse’s past. c. The client forms an overwhelming affection for the nurse. d. The client becomes excessively dependent on the nurse and forms unrealistic expectations of him

or her.

References College and Association of Registered Nurses of Alberta (CARNA).

(2011). Professional boundaries for registered nurses: Guidelines for the nurse-client relationship. Edmonton, AB: CARNA.

College of Registered Nurses of British Columbia (CRNBC). (2015). Boundaries in the nurse-client relationship. Retrieved from https://www.crnbc.ca/Standards/PracticeStandards/ Pages/boundaries.aspx

Hilz, L.M. (2013). Transference and countertransference. Kathi’s Mental Health Review. Retrieved from www.toddlertime.com/ mh/terms/countertransference-transference-3.htm

National Council of State Boards of Nursing (NCSBN). (2014). A nurse’s guide to professional boundaries. Retrieved from https://www.ncsbn.org/ProfessionalBoundaries_Complete.pdf

Pies, R.W. (2012). The patient gift conundrum. Medscape Psychia- try & Mental Health. Retrieved from www.medscape.com/ viewarticle/775575

Purnell, L.D. (2014). Guide to culturally competent health care (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

Raskin, N.J., Rogers, C.R., & Witty, M.C. (2014). Client-centered ther- apy. In D. Wedding & R.J. Corsini (Eds.), Current psychotherapies (10th ed., pp. 95-145). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Sadock, B.J., Sadock, V.A., & Ruiz, P. (2015). Synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry (11th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Schuster, P.M. (2000). Communication: The key to the therapeutic rela- tionship. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

Classical References Coltrane, F., & Pugh, C. (1978). Danger signals in staff/patient

relationships. Journal of Psychiatric Nursing & Mental Health Services, 16(6), 34-36. doi:10.3928/0279-3695-19780601-06

Luft, J. (1970). Group processes: An introduction to group dynamics (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Publishing.

Peplau, H.E. (1962). Interpersonal techniques: The crux of psychiatric nursing. American Journal of Nursing, 62(6), 50-54. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-13441-0_13

Peplau, H.E. (1991). Interpersonal relations in nursing. New York: Springer.

Raths, L., Harmin, M., & Simon, S. (1978). Values and teaching: Working with values in the classroom (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Sullivan, H.S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: W.W. Norton.

Travelbee, J. (1971). Interpersonal aspects of nursing (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

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8Therapeutic Communication C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Objectives

Homework Assignment

What Is Communication?

The Impact of Preexisting Conditions

Nonverbal Communication

Therapeutic Communication Techniques

Nontherapeutic Communication Techniques

Active Listening

Motivational Interviewing

Process Recordings

Feedback

Summary and Key Points

Review Questions

K EY T E R M S

density

distance

intimate distance

motivational interviewing

paralanguage

personal distance

public distance

social distance

territoriality

O B J EC T I V E S After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Discuss the transactional model of communication.

2. Identify types of preexisting conditions that influence the outcome of the communication process.

3. Define territoriality, density, and distance as components of the environment.

4. Identify components of nonverbal expression. 5. Describe therapeutic and nontherapeutic

verbal communication techniques. 6. Describe motivational interviewing as a

communication strategy. 7. Describe active listening. 8. Discuss therapeutic feedback.

H O M E W O R K A S S I G N M E N T Please read the chapter and answer the following questions:

1. A client asks the nurse for advice about a personal situation, and the nurse responds, “What do you think you should do?” This is an example of what technique? Is it thera- peutic or nontherapeutic?

2. “Just hang in there. Everything will be all right.” If the nurse makes this statement to a client, it is an example of what technique? Is it therapeutic or nontherapeutic?

3. Why might it be more appropriate to conduct a client interview in a conference room or

interview room rather than in the client’s room or nurse’s office?

4. Name the five elements of constructive feedback.

5. Write a one-page journal entry reflecting on things that friends or close relatives have told you characterize your style of communi- cating with others. How can you use this self- awareness to promote the development of therapeutic communication?

CORE CONCEPTS Communication Therapeutic

Communication

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Development of the therapeutic interpersonal relationship was described in Chapter 7, Relationship Development, as the process by which nurses provide care for clients in need of psychosocial intervention. Therapeutic use of self was identified as the instrument for delivery of care. The focus of this chapter is on techniques—or, more specifically, interpersonal communication techniques—to facilitate the delivery of that care.

In their classic work on therapeutic communica- tion, Hays and Larson (1963) stated, “To relate thera- peutically with a patient it is necessary for the nurse to understand his or her role and its relationship to the patient’s illness” (p. 1). They describe the role of the nurse as providing the client with the opportunity to accomplish the following:

1. Identify and explore problems in relating to others. 2. Discover healthy ways of meeting emotional needs. 3. Experience a satisfying interpersonal relationship.

These goals are achieved through use of interper- sonal communication techniques (both verbal and nonverbal). The nurse must be aware of the therapeu- tic or nontherapeutic value of the communication techniques used with the client because they are the tools of psychosocial intervention.

transactional model of communication, both partici- pants simultaneously perceive each other, listen to each other, and are mutually involved in creating meaning in a relationship. The transactional model is illustrated in Figure 8–1.

The Impact of Preexisting Conditions

In all interpersonal transactions, the sender and re- ceiver each bring certain preexisting conditions to the exchange that influence both the intended mes- sage and the way in which it is interpreted. Examples of these conditions include one’s value system, inter- nalized attitudes and beliefs, culture and religion, social status, gender, background knowledge and experience, and age or developmental level. The type of environment in which the communication takes place may also influence the outcome of the transaction. Figure 8–2 shows how these influencing factors are positioned on the transactional model.

Values, Attitudes, and Beliefs Values, attitudes, and beliefs are learned ways of thinking. Children generally adopt the value systems and internalize the attitudes and beliefs of their par- ents. Children may retain this way of thinking into adulthood or develop a different set of attitudes and values as they mature.

Values, attitudes, and beliefs can influence commu- nication in numerous ways. For example, prejudice is expressed verbally through negative stereotyping.

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CORE CONCEPT Communication An interactive process of transmitting information between two or more entities.

What Is Communication?

It has been said that individuals “cannot not commu- nicate.” Every word spoken, every movement made, and every action taken or not taken gives a message to someone. Interpersonal communication is a trans- action between the sender and the receiver. In the

Person 2MessagesPerson 1

FIGURE 8–1 The Transactional Model of Communication.

Person 1

Person 2

Environment

Environment

OUTCOME

Values Attitudes Culture Knowledge Religion Gender

Social Status

Values Attitudes

Culture Knowledge

Religion Gender

Social Status

Messages

Age Age

FIGURE 8–2 Factors influencing the Transac- tional Model of Communication.

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One’s value system may be communicated with be- haviors that are symbolic in nature. For example, an individual who values youth may dress and behave in a manner that is characteristic of one who is much younger. Persons who value freedom and the American way of life may fly the U.S. flag in front of their homes each day. In each of these situations, a message is being communicated.

Culture and Religion Communication has its roots in culture. Cultural mores, norms, ideas, and customs provide the basis for our way of thinking. Cultural values are learned and differ from society to society. For example, in some European coun- tries (e.g., Italy, Spain, and France), men may greet each other with hugs and kisses. These behaviors are appropriate in those cultures but may communicate a different message in the United States or England.

Religion can influence communication as well. Priests and ministers who wear clerical collars publicly communicate their mission in life. The collar may also influence the way in which others relate to them, either positively or negatively. Other symbolic ges- tures, such as wearing a cross around the neck or hanging a crucifix on the wall, communicate an indi- vidual’s religious beliefs.

Social Status Studies of nonverbal indicators of social status or power have suggested that high-status persons are associated with gestures that communicate their higher-power position. For example, they use less eye contact, have a more relaxed posture, use louder voice pitch, place hands on hips more frequently, are “power dressers,” have greater height, and maintain more distance when communicating with individuals considered to be of lower social status.

Gender Gender influences the manner in which individuals communicate. Most cultures have gender signals that are recognized as either masculine or feminine and provide a basis for distinguishing between members of each gender. Examples include differences in pos- ture, both standing and sitting, between men and women in the United States. Men usually stand with thighs 10 to 15 degrees apart, the pelvis rolled back, and the arms slightly away from the body. Women often stand with legs close together, the pelvis tipped forward, and the arms close to the body. When sitting, men may lean back in the chair with legs apart or may rest the ankle of one leg over the knee of the other. Women tend to sit more upright in the chair with legs together, perhaps crossed at the ankles, or one leg crossed over the other at thigh level.

Roles have historically been identified as either male or female. For example, in the United States masculinity typically was communicated through such roles as husband, father, breadwinner, doctor, lawyer, or engineer. Traditional female roles included those of wife, mother, homemaker, nurse, teacher, or secretary.

Gender signals are changing in U.S. society as sexual roles become less distinct. Behaviors that had been considered typically masculine or feminine in the past may now be generally accepted in members of both genders. Words such as unisex communicate a desire by some individuals to diminish the distinc- tion between genders and minimize the discrimina- tion of either. Gender roles are changing as both women and men enter professions that were once dominated by members of the opposite gender.

Age or Developmental Level Age influences communication, which is never more evident than during adolescence. In their struggle to separate from parental confines and establish their own identity, adolescents generate a unique pattern of communication that changes from generation to generation. Words such as dude, groovy, clueless, awe- some, cool, and wasted have had special meaning for cer- tain generations of adolescents. The technological age has produced a whole new language for today’s teenagers. Communication by text messaging includes such acronyms as BRB (“be right back”), BFF (“best friends forever”), and MOS (“mom over shoulder”).

Developmental influences on communication may relate to physiological alterations. One example is American Sign Language, the system of unique ges- tures used by many people who are deaf or hearing impaired. Individuals who are blind at birth never learn the subtle nonverbal gesticulations that accom- pany language, which can totally change the meaning of the spoken word.

Environment in Which the Transaction Takes Place The place where communication occurs influences the outcome of the interaction. Some individuals who feel uncomfortable and refuse to speak during a group therapy session may be willing to discuss prob- lems privately on a one-to-one basis with the nurse.

Territoriality, density, and distance are aspects of environment that communicate messages. Territoriality is the innate tendency to own space. Individuals lay claim to areas around them as their own. This influ- ences communication when an interaction takes place in the territory “owned” by one or the other. Interpersonal communication can be more successful if the interaction takes place in a “neutral” area. For

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example, with the concept of territoriality in mind, the nurse may choose to conduct the psychosocial assessment in an interview room rather than in his or her office or in the client’s room.

Density refers to the number of people within a given environmental space. It has been shown to influence interpersonal interaction. Some studies in- dicate that a correlation exists between prolonged high-density situations and certain behaviors, such as aggression, stress, criminal activity, hostility toward others, and a deterioration of mental and physical health.

Distance is the means by which various cultures use space to communicate. Hall (1966) identified four kinds of spatial interaction, or distances, that people maintain from each other in their interper- sonal interactions and the kinds of activities in which people engage at these various distances. Intimate distance is the closest distance that individuals will allow between themselves and others. In mainstream American culture, this distance, which is restricted to interactions of an intimate nature, is 0 to 18 inches. Personal distance is approximately 18 to 40 inches and reserved for interactions that are personal in nature, such as close conversations with friends or colleagues. Social distance is about 4 to 12 feet away from the body. Interactions at this distance include conversations with strangers or acquaintances, such as at a cocktail party or in a public building. A public distance is one that exceeds 12 feet. Examples in- clude speaking in public or yelling to someone some distance away. This distance is considered public space, and communicants are free to move about in it during the interaction.

Nonverbal Communication

About 70 to 80 percent of all effective communication is nonverbal (Khan, 2014). Some aspects of nonverbal expression were discussed in the previous section on preexisting conditions that influence communica- tion. Other components of nonverbal communica- tion include physical appearance and dress, body movement and posture, touch, facial expressions, eye behavior, and vocal cues or paralanguage. These non- verbal messages vary from culture to culture.

Physical Appearance and Dress Physical appearance and dress are part of the total non- verbal stimuli that influence interpersonal responses, and under some conditions, they are the primary de- terminants of such responses. Body coverings—both dress and hair—are manipulated by the wearer in a manner that conveys a distinct message to the receiver. Dress can be formal or casual, stylish or unkempt. Hair can be long or short, and even the presence or absence

of hair conveys a message about the person. Other body adornments that are also considered potential communicative stimuli include tattoos, masks, cosmet- ics, badges, jewelry, and eyeglasses. Some jewelry worn in specific ways can give special messages (e.g., a gold band or diamond ring worn on the third finger of the left hand, a pin bearing Greek letters worn on the lapel, or the wearing of a ring that is inscribed with the insignia of a college or university). Some individuals convey a specific message with the total absence of any type of body adornment.

Body Movement and Posture The way in which an individual positions his or her body communicates messages regarding self-esteem, gender identity, status, and interpersonal warmth or coldness. The individual whose posture is slumped, with head and eyes pointed downward, conveys a message of low self-esteem. Specific ways of standing or sitting are considered to be either feminine or mas- culine within a defined culture. In the United States, to stand straight and tall with head high and hands on hips indicates a superior status over the person being addressed.

Reece and Whitman (1962) identified response behaviors that were used to designate individuals as either “warm” or “cold” persons. Individuals who were perceived as warm responded to others with a shift of posture toward the other person, a smile, direct eye contact, and hands that remained still. Individuals who responded to others with a slumped posture, by looking around the room, drumming fingers on the desk, and not smiling were perceived as cold.

Touch Touch is a powerful communication tool. It can elicit both negative and positive reactions, depending on the people involved and the circumstances of the interaction. It is a very basic and primitive form of communication, and the appropriateness of its use is culturally determined.

Touch can be categorized according to the mes- sage communicated (Knapp & Hall, 2014):

Functional-professional: This type of touch is imper- sonal and businesslike. It is used to accomplish a task.

EXAMPLE A tailor measuring a customer for a suit or a physician exam- ining a client

Social-polite: This type of touch is still rather imper- sonal, but it conveys an affirmation or acceptance of the other person.

EXAMPLE A handshake

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Friendship-warmth: Touch at this level indicates a strong liking for the other person, a feeling that he or she is a friend.

EXAMPLE Laying one’s hand on the shoulder of another

Love-intimacy: This type of touch conveys an emo- tional attachment or attraction for another person.

EXAMPLE Engaging in a strong, mutual embrace

Sexual arousal: Touch at this level is an expression of physical attraction only.

EXAMPLE Touching another in the genital region

Some cultures encourage more touching of various types than do others. “Contact cultures” (e.g., France, Latin America, Italy) use a greater frequency of touch cues than do those in “noncontact cultures” (e.g., Germany, United States, Canada) (Givens, 2013c). The nurse should understand the cultural meaning of touch before using this method of communication in specific situations.

Facial Expressions Next to human speech, facial expression is the pri- mary source of communication. Facial expressions reveal an individual’s emotional state, such as happi- ness, sadness, anger, surprise, and fear. The face is a complex multimessage system. Facial expressions serve to complement and qualify other communica- tion behaviors and at times even take the place of ver- bal messages. A summary of feelings associated with various facial expressions is presented in Table 8–1.

Eye Behavior Eyes have been called the “windows of the soul.” It is through eye contact that individuals view and are viewed by others in a revealing way, creating an inter- personal connection. In American culture, eye contact conveys a personal interest in the other person. Eye contact indicates that the communication channel is open, and it is often the initiating factor in verbal interaction between two people.

Eye behavior is regulated by social rules. These rules dictate where, when, for how long, and at whom we can look. Staring is often used to register disapproval of the behavior of another. People are extremely sensitive to being looked at, and if the gaz- ing or staring behavior violates social rules, they often assign meaning to it, such as the following statement implies: “He kept staring at me, and I began to wonder if I was dressed inappropriately or had mustard on my face!”

Gazing at another’s eyes arouses strong emotions. Thus, eye contact rarely lasts longer than 3 seconds before one or both viewers experience a powerful urge to glance away. Breaking eye contact lowers stress levels (Givens, 2013a).

Vocal Cues or Paralanguage Paralanguage is the gestural component of the spo- ken word. It consists of pitch, tone, and loudness of

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TA B L E 8 – 1 Summary of Facial Expressions FACIAL EXPRESSION ASSOCIATED FEELINGS

NOSE Nostril flare Anger; arousal

Wrinkling up Dislike; disgust

LIPS Grin; smile Happiness; contentment

Grimace Fear; pain

Compressed Anger; frustration

Canine-type snarl Disgust

Pouted; frown Unhappiness; discontented; disapproval

Pursing Disagreement

Sneer Contempt; disdain

BROWS Frown Anger; unhappiness;

concentration

Raised Surprise; enthusiasm

TONGUE Stick out Dislike; disagree

EYES Widened Surprise; excitement

Narrowed; lids Threat; fear squeezed shut

Stare Threat

Stare, blink, then Dislike; disinterest look away

Eyes downcast; lack Submission; low self-esteem of eye contact

Eye contact (generally Self-confidence; interest intermittent as opposed to a stare)

SOURCES: Givens, D.B. (2013b). Facial expression. In The Nonverbal Dictionary of Gestures, Signs, and Body Language Cues. Retrieved from http://www.nonverbal-dictionary.org/2012/ 12/facial-expression.html; Hughey, J.D. (1990). Speech communi- cation. Stillwater: Oklahoma State University; Simon, M. (2005). Facial expressions: A visual reference for artists. New York: Watson-Guptill.

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spoken messages; the rate of speaking; expressively placed pauses; and emphasis assigned to certain words. These vocal cues greatly influence the way individuals interpret verbal messages. A normally soft-spoken in- dividual whose pitch and rate of speaking increases may be perceived as being anxious or tense.

Different vocal emphases can alter interpretation of the message. Three examples follow:

1. “I felt SURE you would notice the change.” Interpretation: I was SURE you would, but you didn’t.

2. “I felt sure YOU would notice the change.” Interpretation: I thought YOU would, even if no- body else did.

3. “I felt sure you would notice the CHANGE.” Interpretation: Even if you didn’t notice anything else, I thought you would notice the CHANGE.

Verbal cues play a major role in determining re- sponses in human communication situations. How a message is verbalized can be as important as what is verbalized.

Therapeutic Communication Techniques

Hays and Larson (1963) identified a number of tech- niques to assist the nurse in interacting more therapeu- tically with clients. These are important “technical procedures” carried out by the nurse working in psy- chiatry, and they should serve to enhance development of a therapeutic nurse-client relationship. Table 8–2 includes a list of these techniques, a short explanation of their usefulness, and examples of each.

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CORE CONCEPT Therapeutic Communication Caregiver verbal and nonverbal techniques that focus on the care receiver’s needs and advance the promo- tion of healing and change. Therapeutic communication encourages exploration of feelings and fosters under- standing of behavioral motivation. It is nonjudgmental, discourages defensiveness, and promotes trust.

TA B L E 8 – 2 Therapeutic Communication Techniques TECHNIQUE EXPLANATION/RATIONALE EXAMPLES

Using silence

Accepting

Giving recognition

Offering self

Giving broad openings

Offering general leads

Placing the event in time or sequence

Making observations

Silence gives the client the opportunity to collect and organize thoughts, to think through a point, or to consider introducing a topic of greater concern than the one being discussed.

Conveys an attitude of reception and regard.

Acknowledging and indicating awareness is better than complimenting, which reflects the nurse’s judgment.

Making oneself available on an uncondi- tional basis helps to increase the client’s feelings of self-worth.

Allowing the client to take the initiative in introducing the topic emphasizes the impor- tance of the client’s role in the interaction.

General leads, or prompts, offer the client encouragement to continue.

Clarifying the relationship of events in time enables the nurse and client to view them in perspective.

Verbalizing what is observed or perceived encourages the client to recognize specific behaviors and compare perceptions with the nurse.

The client pauses midsentence in answer- ing a question. The nurse remains quiet, does not “rescue” the client with prompts or by moving on to another question, and ensures that his or her body language and facial expression project interest in and willingness to wait for the client to answer.

“Yes, I understand what you said.” Eye contact; nodding.

“Hello, Mr. J. I notice that you made a ceramic ash tray in OT.”

“I see you made your bed.”

“I’ll stay with you awhile.” “We can eat our lunch together.” “I’m interested in talking with you.”

“What would you like to talk about today?”

“Tell me what you are thinking.”

“Yes, I see.” “Go on.” “And after that?”

“What seemed to lead up to . . . ?” “Was this before or after . . . ?” “When did this happen?”

“You seem tense.” “I notice you are pacing a lot.” “You seem uncomfortable when you. . . .”

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C H A P T E R 8 ■ Therapeutic Communication 153

TA B L E 8 – 2 Therapeutic Communication Techniques—cont’d TECHNIQUE EXPLANATION/RATIONALE EXAMPLES

Encouraging description of perceptions

Encouraging comparison

Restating

Reflecting

Focusing

Exploring

Seeking clarification and validation

Presenting reality

Voicing doubt

Asking the client to verbalize what is being perceived is often used with clients experi- encing hallucinations.

Asking the client to compare similarities and differences in ideas, experiences, or interper- sonal relationships helps the client recognize life experiences that tend to recur as well as those aspects of life that are changeable.

Repeating the main idea of what the client has said lets the client know whether an ex- pressed statement has been understood and gives him or her the chance to continue or to clarify if necessary.

Questions and feelings are referred back to the client so that they may be recognized and accepted and so that the client may recognize that his or her point of view has value—a good technique to use when the client asks the nurse for advice.

Taking notice of a single idea or even a sin- gle word works especially well with a client who is moving rapidly from one thought to another. This technique is not therapeutic, however, with the client who is very anxious. Focusing should not be pursued until the anxiety level has subsided.

Delving further into a subject, idea, experi- ence, or relationship is especially helpful with clients who tend to remain on a super- ficial level of communication. However, if the client chooses not to disclose further information, the nurse should refrain from pushing or probing in an area that obviously creates discomfort.

Striving to explain that which is vague or incomprehensible and searching for mutual understanding of what has been said facili- tates and increases understanding for both client and nurse.

When the client has a misperception of the environment, the nurse defines reality or indicates his or her perception of the situation for the client.

Expressing uncertainty as to the reality of the client’s perceptions is a technique often used with clients experiencing delusional thinking.

“Tell me what is happening now.” “Are you hearing the voices again?” “What do the voices seem to be saying?”

“Was this something like . . . ?” “How does this compare with the time

when . . . ?” “What was your response the last time

this situation occurred?”

Cl: “I can’t study. My mind keeps wandering.”

Ns: “You have trouble concentrating.” Cl: “I can’t take that new job. What if I

can’t do it?” Ns: “You’re afraid you will fail in this new

position.”

Cl: “What do you think I should do about my wife’s drinking problem?”

Ns: “What do you think you should do?” Cl: “My sister won’t help a bit with my

mother’s care. I have to do it all!” Ns: “You feel angry when she doesn’t

help.”

“This point seems worth looking at more closely. Perhaps you and I can discuss it together.”

“Please explain that situation in more detail.”

“Tell me more about that particular situation.”

“I’m not sure that I understand. Would you please explain?”

“Tell me if my understanding agrees with yours.”

“Do I understand correctly that you said . . . ?”

“I understand that the voices seem real to you, but I do not hear any voices.”

“There is no one else in the room but you and me.”

“I understand that you believe that to be true, but I see the situation differently.”

“I find that hard to believe (or accept).” “That seems rather doubtful to me.”

Continued

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154 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

TA B L E 8 – 2 Therapeutic Communication Techniques—cont’d TECHNIQUE EXPLANATION/RATIONALE EXAMPLES

Verbalizing the implied

Attempting to translate words into feelings

Formulating a plan of action

SOURCE: Adapted from Hays, J.S., & Larson, K.H. (1963). Interacting with patients. New York: Macmillan.

Putting into words what the client has only implied or said indirectly is a helpful tech- nique to use with clients who are reticent to speak as well as with clients who are mute or are otherwise experiencing impaired verbal communication. This clarifies that which is implicit rather than explicit.

When feelings are expressed indirectly, the nurse tries to “desymbolize” what has been said and to find clues to the underlying true feelings.

When a client has a plan in mind for dealing with what is considered to be a stressful situation, it may serve to prevent anger or anxiety from escalating to an unmanageable level.

Cl: “It’s a waste of time to be here. I can’t talk to you or anyone.”

Ns: “Are you feeling that no one understands?”

Cl: (Mute) Ns: “It must have been very difficult

for you when your husband died in the fire.”

Cl: “I’m way out in the ocean.” Ns: “You must be feeling very lonely

right now.”

“What could you do to let your anger out harmlessly?”

“Next time this comes up, what might you do to handle it more appropriately?”

Nontherapeutic Communication Techniques

Several approaches are considered to be barriers to open communication between the nurse and client. Hays and Larson (1963) identified a number of these techniques, which are presented in Table 8–3. Nurses should recognize and eliminate the use of these patterns in their relationships with clients. Avoiding these communication barriers will maximize the effectiveness of communication and enhance the nurse-client relationship.

Active Listening

To listen actively is to be attentive and really desire to hear and understand what the client is saying, both verbally and nonverbally. Attentive listening creates a climate in which the client can communi- cate. With active listening, the nurse communicates acceptance and respect for the client, and trust is enhanced. A climate is established within the relationship that promotes openness and honest expression.

TA B L E 8 – 3 Nontherapeutic Communication Techniques TECHNIQUE EXPLANATION/RATIONALE EXAMPLES

Giving reassurance

Rejecting

Approving or disapproving

Indicating to the client that there is no cause for anxiety devalues the client’s feelings and may discourage the client from further expression of feelings if he or she believes they will only be down- played or ridiculed.

Refusing to consider or showing contempt for the client’s ideas or behavior may cause the client to discontinue interaction with the nurse for fear of further rejection.

Sanctioning or denouncing the client’s ideas or behavior implies that the nurse has the right to pass judgment on whether the client’s ideas or behaviors are “good” or “bad” and that the client is expected to please the nurse. The nurse’s acceptance of the client is then seen as conditional depending on the client’s behavior.

“I wouldn’t worry about that if I were you.” “Everything will be all right.” Better to say: “We will work on that

together.”

“Let’s not discuss. . . .” “I don’t want to hear about. . . .” Better to say: “Let’s look at that a little

closer.”

“That’s good. I’m glad that you. . . .” “That’s bad. I’d rather you wouldn’t. . . .” Better to say: “Let’s talk about how your

behavior invoked anger in the other clients at dinner.”

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TA B L E 8 – 3 Nontherapeutic Communication Techniques—cont’d TECHNIQUE EXPLANATION/RATIONALE EXAMPLES

Agreeing or disagreeing

Giving advice

Probing

Defending

Requesting an explanation

Indicating the existence of an external source of power

Belittling feelings expressed

Indicating accord with or opposition to the client’s ideas or opinions implies that the nurse has the right to pass judgment on whether the client’s ideas or opinions are “right” or “wrong.” Agreement prevents the client from later modifying his or her point of view without admitting error. Disagree- ment implies inaccuracy, provoking the need for defensiveness on the part of the client.

Telling the client what to do or how to behave implies that the nurse knows what is best and that the client is incapable of any self-direction. It nurtures the client in the dependent role by discouraging indepen - dent thinking.

Persistent questioning of the client and pushing for answers to issues the client does not wish to discuss causes the client to feel used and valued only for what is shared with the nurse and places the client on the defensive.

Attempting to protect someone or some- thing from verbal attack, or defending what the client has criticized, implies that he or she has no right to express ideas, opinions, or feelings. Defending does not change the client’s feelings and may cause the client to think the nurse is taking sides against the client.

Asking the client to provide the reasons for thoughts, feelings, behavior, and events— asking “why” a client did something or feels a certain way—can be very intimidating and implies that the client must defend his or her behavior or feelings.

Attributing the source of thoughts, feelings, and behavior to others or to outside influ- ences encourages the client to project blame for his or her thoughts or behaviors on others rather than accepting the respon- sibility personally.

When the nurse misjudges the degree of the client’s discomfort, a lack of empathy and understanding may be conveyed. Telling the client to “perk up” or “snap out of it” causes the client to feel insignifi- cant or unimportant. When one is experi- encing discomfort, it is no relief to hear that others are or have been in similar situations.

“That’s right. I agree.” “That’s wrong. I disagree.” “I don’t believe that.” Better to say: “Let’s discuss what you

feel is unfair about the new commu- nity rules.”

“I think you should. . . .” “Why don’t you. . . .” Better to say: “What do you think you

should do?” or “What do you think would be the best way to solve this problem?

“Tell me how your mother abused you when you were a child.”

“Tell me how you feel toward your mother now that she is dead.”

“Now tell me about. . . .” Better technique: The nurse should be

aware of the client’s response and discontinue the interaction at the first sign of discomfort.

“No one here would lie to you.” “You have a very capable physician. I’m

sure he has only your best interests in mind.”

Better to say: “I will try to answer your questions and clarify some issues regarding your treatment.”

“Why do you think that?” “Why do you feel this way?” “Why did you do that?” Better to say: “Describe what you were

feeling just before that happened.”

“What makes you say that?” “What made you do that?” “What made you so angry last night?” Better to say: “You became angry when

your brother insulted your wife.”

Cl: “I have nothing to live for. I wish I were dead.”

Ns: “Everybody gets down in the dumps at times. I feel that way myself sometimes.”

Better to say: “You must be very upset. Tell me what you are feeling right now.”

Continued

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156 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

TA B L E 8 – 3 Nontherapeutic Communication Techniques—cont’d TECHNIQUE EXPLANATION/RATIONALE EXAMPLES

Making stereotyped comments

Using denial

Interpreting

Introducing an unrelated topic

SOURCE: Adapted from Hays, J.S., & Larson, K.H. (1963). Interacting with patients. New York: Macmillan.

Clichés and trite expressions are meaning- less in a nurse-client relationship. When the nurse makes empty conversation, it encourages a like response from the client.

Denying that a problem exists blocks discus- sion with the client and precludes helping the client identify and explore areas of difficulty.

With this technique, the therapist seeks to make conscious that which is unconscious, to tell the client the meaning of his or her experience.

Changing the subject causes the nurse to take over the direction of the discussion. This may occur in order to get to something that the nurse wants to discuss with the client or to get away from a topic that he or she prefers not to discuss.

“I’m fine, and how are you?” “Hang in there. It’s for your own good.” “Keep your chin up.” Better to say: “The therapy must be diffi-

cult for you at times. How do you feel about your progress at this point?”

Cl: “I’m nothing.” Ns: “Of course you’re something. Every-

body is somebody.” Better to say: “You’re feeling like no one

cares about you right now.”

“What you really mean is. . . .” “Unconsciously you’re saying. . . .” Better technique: The nurse must leave

interpretation of the client’s behavior to the psychiatrist. The nurse has not been prepared to perform this tech- nique, and in attempting to do so, may endanger other nursing roles with the client.

Cl: “I don’t have anything to live for.” Ns: “Did you have visitors this weekend?” Better technique: The nurse must remain

open and free to hear the client and to take in all that is being conveyed, both verbally and nonverbally.

Several nonverbal behaviors have been designated as facilitative skills for attentive listening. Those listed here can be identified by the acronym SOLER:

S—Sit squarely facing the client. This nonverbal cue gives the message that the nurse is there to listen and is interested in what the client has to say.

O—Observe an open posture. Posture is considered “open” when arms and legs remain uncrossed. This nonverbal cue suggests that the nurse is open to what the client has to say. With a closed position, the nurse can convey a somewhat defensive stance, possibly invoking a similar response in the client.

L—Lean forward toward the client. Leaning forward conveys to the client that the nurse is involved in the interaction, interested in what is being said, and making a sincere effort to be attentive.

E—Establish eye contact. Eye contact, intermittently directed, is another behavior that conveys the nurse’s involvement and willingness to listen to what the client has to say. The absence of eye “contact or the constant shifting of eye contact elsewhere in the environment gives the message that the nurse is not really interested in what is being said.

CLINICAL PEARL Ensure that eye contact conveys warmth and is accompanied by smiling and intermittent nodding of the head and does not come across as staring or glaring, which can create intense discomfort in the client.

R—Relax. Whether sitting or standing during the in- teraction, the nurse should communicate a sense of being relaxed and comfortable with the client. Restlessness and fidgetiness communicate a lack of interest and may convey a feeling of discomfort that is likely to be transferred to the client.

Motivational Interviewing

Patient-centered care has been identified as an important focus in the quest to improve the quality of nurse communication and therapeutic

relationships with clients (Institute of Medicine, 2003). Motivational interviewing is an evidence-based, patient-centered style of communicating that promotes behavior change by guiding clients to explore their own motivation for change and the advantages and disadvan- tages of their decisions. This style of communication

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incorporates active listening and verbal therapeutic communication techniques, but it is focused on what the client wants rather than on what the nurse thinks should be the next steps in behavior change. Motiva- tional interviewing was originally developed for use with clients who were struggling with substance use disorders, primarily because this style of communication may decrease defensive client responses. It has since gained widespread acceptance as a patient-centered communication strategy that promotes behavior change for clients with many different health-care issues. See the “Real People, Real Stories” box for an example of motivational interviewing described in a process recording format.

Process Recordings

Process recordings are written reports of verbal in- teractions with clients. They are verbatim accounts recorded by the nurse or student as a tool for im- proving interpersonal communication techniques. Process recording can take many forms but usually includes the verbal and nonverbal communication of both nurse and client. The exercise provides a means for the nurse to analyze both the content and pattern of the interaction. Process recording, which is not considered documentation, is intended to be used as a learning tool for professional develop- ment. An example of one type of process recording is presented in Table 8–4.

C H A P T E R 8 ■ Therapeutic Communication 157

Real People, Real Stories: A Sample of Motivational Interviewing in a Process Recording Format

Interaction Karyn: You mentioned that you were at an event and you commented that you “needed a drink.” Tell me more about what was happening. (SOLER)

Alan: (nodding) I was perturbed. I felt like I was stuck at this event. There was supposed to be entertainment but it got cancelled due to rain, and sud- denly I noticed people were drinking and smoking. It brought back a lot of memories. (looks down)

Karyn: So you felt perturbed and stuck. . . . (looking up, not making direct eye contact)

Alan: Yeah, but it didn’t last long. Maybe it had something to do with the fact that there was nothing else going on and it seemed like the whole thing became about drinking. But then I just blacked it out.

Nurse’s Thoughts and Feelings I wasn’t sure if Alan was willing to talk about this, but I thought it was impor- tant to facilitate his looking at his be- havior in response to this experience.

I was glad that Alan was open to dis- cussing this experience, but he said so many things in this short statement that I had to be thoughtful about what to follow up on.

I was thinking that I don’t usually ex- plore feelings right off the bat because I believe it’s better to help someone fully describe events and thoughts first (or at least it’s less threatening), but I’ve interacted with Alan many times, he’s been through rehab, sober for seven years, and he’s pretty comfort- able talking about feelings

My immediate thought was that I want to tell him to go to an AA meet- ing or call his sponsor, but I was trying to incorporate a motivational inter- viewing strategy, and that meant it would be better to help him explore his motivation for how to respond to this experience. I didn’t know what he meant by “blacked it out,” but I felt uncomfortable when he said that.

Communication Technique/Evaluation Technique: Exploring

Evaluation: This approach was effective. Alan talked more about the event and was able to articulate some thoughts and feel- ings as well.

Technique: Reflecting Evaluation: This technique was effective.

Alan began to process his thoughts about why he might be feeling perturbed and stuck.

I think I may have been not making direct eye contact because of my perception that feelings can be a little more threatening for some people to talk about.

The following is part of an interaction with Alan, incorporating motivational interviewing communication strategies in a process recording format. Learn more about Alan’s story in the chapter on substance use disorders.

Continued

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158 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

Real People, Real Stories: A Sample of Motivational Interviewing in a Process Recording Format—cont’d Interaction Karyn: What do you mean when you say you blacked it out? (SOLER)

Alan: (silent for several seconds) I do need to go back to an AA meeting. I mean, am I different than other peo- ple? I know there are other people out there that have to be struggling with the same kind of things. When I was in rehab, my mom and her boyfriend were always there taking me to meet- ings. My sister went, too. . . . (silent for several more seconds) I know it’s important ( silence) . . . about 75 per- cent of the people I went to rehab with are back out there using again.

Karyn: You said that you need to go back to a meeting and that they are important. Is it more helpful to go to meetings when you just start thinking about needing a drink, or do you think that meetings are only necessary after you actually take a drink?

Alan: Oh no, you’ve got to go long be- fore you take that first drink. (silence)

People told me when I was in rehab that they could tell I was really listening in meetings . . . the meetings were helpful (silence), and I just recon- nected with my sponsor on Facebook, so I need to get back to a meeting to see him.

Karyn: You’ve identified three reasons why you believe you need to go to a meeting: because they are helpful to you, because you want to find out if others are struggling with the same kinds of thoughts that you are, and be- cause you need to reconnect with your sponsor. Do you have a plan in mind for how to follow through with that?

Alan: Well, I haven’t done it yet. I guess I’m still just thinking about it.

Nurse’s Thoughts and Feelings I thought this was an important state- ment to clarify, since it might help him explore how he behaved in response to this event.

Alan seemed to be thinking a lot about this and was responding with several different thoughts, so I felt like it was important to just use silence and facilitate his reflection.

I thought Alan seemed to be gen- uinely considering a behavior change.

I knew that Alan had not been going to meetings regularly for the last cou- ple of years, even though he acknowl- edges their importance, so I wanted to know more about whether he thought behavior change (such as going to AA meetings) was necessary at this point.

Alan seemed like he was thinking about what is important to him, so I continued to remain silent to facilitate that process.

I was thinking that he talks about needing to go to AA, and I was feeling anxious about wanting him to commit to that, but at the same time, I recog- nized that the motivation for change and commitment to a plan of action has to come from him.

I was appreciating his honesty and thinking that this is the challenge of motivational interviewing: accepting where the client is at while continuing to explore and facilitate his or her motivations for behavior change.

Communication Technique/Evaluation Technique: Clarifying

Evaluation: Asking this question was effective. Alan talked at length about his thoughts and feelings.

Technique: Restating, focusing Evaluation: Restatement was effective.

The way I chose to focus was probably lead- ing Alan to choose the “right” answer, and that makes it harder to evaluate whether he is just telling me what I want to hear or is really motivated. It might have been better to use the technique of formulating a plan of action.

Technique: Summarizing, formulating a plan of action

Evaluation: I think the techniques were effective, although Alan may not be ready to formulate an action plan at present.

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TA B L E 8 – 4 Sample Process Recording NURSE’S THOUGHTS AND

NURSE VERBAL FEELINGS CONCERNING ANALYSIS OF THE (NONVERBAL) CLIENT VERBAL (NONVERBAL) THE INTERACTION INTERACTION

Do you still have thoughts about harming yourself? (Sitting facing the client; looking directly at client.)

Tell me what you were feeling before you took all the pills the other night. (Using SOLER techniques of active listening.)

You wanted to hurt him because you felt betrayed. (SOLER)

Seems like a pretty drastic way to get your point across. (Small frown.)

How are you feeling about the situation now? (SOLER)

Yes, I can understand that you would like things to be the way they were before. (Offer client a tissue.)

What do you think are the chances of your getting back together? (SOLER)

So how are you preparing to deal with this inevitable outcome? (SOLER)

It won’t be easy. But you have come a long way, and I feel you have gained strength in your ability to cope. (Standing. Looking at client. Smiling.)

Not really. I still feel sad, but I don’t want to die. (Looking at hands in lap.)

I was just so angry! To think that my husband wants a divorce now that he has a good job. I worked hard to put him through college. (Fists clenched. Face and neck reddened.)

Yes! If I died, maybe he’d realize that he loved me more than that other woman. (Tears starting to well up in her eyes.)

I know. It was a stupid thing to do. (Wiping eyes.)

I don’t know. I still love him. I want him to come home. I don’t want him to marry her. (Starting to cry again)

(Silence. Continues to cry softly.)

None. He’s refused marriage counseling. He’s already moved in with her. He says it’s over. (Wipes tears. Looks directly at nurse.)

I’m going to do the things we talked about: join a divorced women’s support group, increase my job hours to full time, do some volunteer work, and call the suicide hotline if I feel like taking pills again. (Looks directly at nurse. Smiles.)

Yes, I know I will have hard times. But I also know I have support, and I want to go on with my life and be happy again. (Standing, smiling at nurse.)

Felt a little uncomfortable. Always a hard question to ask.

Beginning to feel more comfortable. Client seems willing to talk, and I think she trusts me.

Starting to feel sorry for her.

Trying hard to remain objective.

Wishing there was an easy way to help relieve some of her pain.

I’m starting to feel some anger toward her husband. Sometimes it’s so hard to remain objective!

Relieved to know that she isn’t using denial about the reality of the situation.

Positive feeling to know that she remembers what we discussed earlier and plans to follow through.

Feeling confident that the session has gone well; hopeful that the client will succeed in what she wants to do with her life.

Therapeutic. Asking a direct, closed-ended question about suicidal intent to elicit specific information.

Therapeutic. Exploring. Delving further into client’s feelings to help her better understand her experience.

Therapeutic. Attempt- ing to translate words into feelings to convey active listening.

Nontherapeutic. Sounds disapproving. Better to have pursued client’s feelings.

Therapeutic. Focusing on client’s current feel- ings to assess current mental status.

Therapeutic. Conveying empathy to support car- ing and connectedness.

Therapeutic. Reflecting on the client’s expressed feelings to encourage client to recognize and clarify their perceptions.

Therapeutic. Formulat- ing a plan of action to set the foundation for problem-solving.

Therapeutic. Presenting reality, making observa- tions, and giving recog- nition to support client’s progress in problem solving.

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Feedback

Feedback is a method of communication for helping the client consider behavior modification by provid- ing information about how he or she is perceived by others. Feedback can be useful to the client if pre- sented with objectivity by a trusted individual in a manner that discourages defensiveness.

Characteristics of useful feedback include the following:

■ Feedback is descriptive rather than evaluative and focuses on the behavior rather than on the client. Avoiding evaluative language reduces the need for the client to react defensively. Objective descrip- tions allow clients to use the information in what- ever way they choose. When the focus of feedback is on the client, the nurse makes judgments about the client.

EXAMPLE Descriptive and focused on behavior

Evaluative

Focus on client

■ Feedback should be specific rather than general. Information that gives details about the client’s be- havior is more effective than a generalized descrip- tion in promoting behavior change.

EXAMPLE Specific

General

■ Feedback should be directed toward behavior that the client has the capacity to modify. To provide feedback about a characteristic or situation that the client cannot change only provokes frustration.

EXAMPLE Can modify

Cannot modify

■ Feedback should impart information rather than offer advice. Giving advice fosters dependence and may convey the message to the client that he or she is not capable of making decisions and solving

problems independently. It is the client’s right and privilege to be as self-sufficient as possible.

EXAMPLE Imparting information

Giving advice

■ Feedback should be well-timed. Feedback is most useful when given at the earliest appropriate op- portunity following the specific behavior.

EXAMPLE Prompt response

Delayed response

Summary and Key Points

■ Interpersonal communication is a transaction between the sender and the receiver.

■ In all interpersonal transactions, the sender and receiver each bring certain preexisting conditions to the exchange that influence both the intended message and the way in which it is interpreted.

■ Examples of these preexisting conditions include one’s value system, internalized attitudes and be- liefs, culture and religion, social status, gender, background knowledge and experience, age or developmental level, and the type of environment in which the communication takes place.

■ Nonverbal expression is a primary communication system in which meaning is assigned to various gestures and patterns of behavior.

■ Some components of nonverbal communication include physical appearance and dress, body move- ment and posture, touch, facial expressions, eye behavior, and vocal cues or paralanguage.

■ Meaning of the nonverbal components of commu- nication is culturally determined.

■ Therapeutic communication is an intentional process that applies both verbal and nonverbal techniques to focus on the care receiver’s needs and advance the promotion of healing and change.

■ Motivational interviewing is an evidence-based, patient-centered style of therapeutic communication

160 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

“Jessica was very upset in group today when you called her ‘a cow’ and laughed at her in front of the others.” “You were very rude and incon- siderate to Jessica in group today.” “You are a very insensitive person.”

“You were talking to Joe when we were deciding on the issue. Now you want to argue about the outcome.” “You just don’t pay attention.”

“I noticed that you did not want to hold your baby when the nurse brought her to you.” “Your baby daughter is mentally retarded because you took drugs when you were pregnant.”

“There are various methods of assistance for people who want to lose weight, such as Overeaters Anonymous, Weight Watchers, regular visits to a dietitian, and the Physician’s Weight Loss Program. You can decide what is best for you.” “You obviously need to lose a great deal of weight. I think the Physician’s Weight Loss Program would be best for you.”

“I saw you hit the wall with your fist just now when you hung up the phone after talking to your mother.” “You need to learn some more appropri- ate ways of dealing with your anger. Last week after group I saw you pounding your fist against the wall.”

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that facilitates clients’ exploration of their own motivations for behavior change and guides the client to explore the advantages and disadvantages of their decisions.

■ Nurses must be aware of and avoid techniques that are considered barriers to effective communication.

■ Active listening is described as attentiveness to what the client is saying through both verbal and nonverbal cues. Skills associated with active listen- ing include sitting squarely facing the client, ob- serving an open posture, leaning forward toward the client, establishing eye contact, and being relaxed.

■ Process recordings are written reports of verbal interactions with clients. They are used as learning tools for professional development.

■ Feedback is a method of communication for help- ing the client consider a modification of behavior.

■ The nurse must be aware of the therapeutic or non- therapeutic value of the communication techniques used with the client because they are the tools of psychosocial intervention.

Additional info available at www.davisplus.com

Review Questions Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

Select the answer that is most appropriate for each of the following questions.

1. A client states, “I refuse to shower in this room. I must be very cautious. The FBI has placed a camera in here to monitor my every move.” Which of the following is the most therapeutic response? a. “That’s not true.” b. “I have a hard time believing that is true.” c. “Surely you don’t really believe that.” d. “I will help you search this room so that you can see there is no camera.”

2. Simone, a depressed client who has been unkempt and untidy for weeks, today comes to group therapy wearing makeup and a clean dress with hair washed and combed. Which of the following responses by the nurse is most appropriate? a. “Simone, I see you have put on a clean dress and combed your hair.” b. “Simone, you look wonderful today!” c. “Simone, I’m sure everyone will appreciate that you have cleaned up for the group today.” d. “Now that you see how important it is, I hope you will do this every day.”

3. Dorothy was involved in an automobile accident while under the influence of alcohol. She swerved her car into a tree and narrowly missed hitting a child on a bicycle. She is in the hospital with multiple abrasions and contusions. She is talking about the accident with the nurse. Which of the following statements by the nurse is most appropriate? a. “Now that you know what can happen when you drink and drive, I’m sure you won’t let it happen again.” b. “You know that was a terrible thing you did. That child could have been killed.” c. “I’m sure everything is going to be okay now that you understand the possible consequences of such

behavior.” d. “How are you feeling about what happened?”

4. Judy has been in the hospital for 3 weeks. She has used Valium “to settle her nerves” for the past 15 years. She was admitted by her psychiatrist for safe withdrawal from the drug. She has passed the physical symp- toms of withdrawal at this time but states to the nurse, “I don’t know if I will be able to make it without Valium after I go home. I’m already starting to feel nervous. I have so many personal problems.” Which is the most appropriate response by the nurse? a. “Why do you think you need drugs to deal with your problems?” b. “Everybody has problems, but not everybody uses drugs to deal with them. You’ll just have to do the

best that you can.” c. “Let’s explore some things you can do to decrease your anxiety without resorting to drugs.” d. “Just hang in there. I’m sure everything is going to be okay.”

Continued

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162 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

5. Mrs. S. asks the nurse, “Do you think I should tell my husband about my affair with my boss?” Which is the most appropriate response by the nurse? a. “What do you think would be best for you to do?” b. “Of course you should. Marriage has to be based on truth.” c. “Of course not. That would only make things worse.” d. “I can’t tell you what to do. You have to decide for yourself.”

6. Abby, an adolescent, just returned from group therapy and is crying. She says to the nurse, “All the other kids laughed at me! I try to fit in, but I always seem to say the wrong thing. I’ve never had a close friend. I guess I never will.” Which is the most appropriate response by the nurse? a. “What makes you think you will never have any friends?” b. “You’re feeling pretty down on yourself right now.” c. “I’m sure they didn’t mean to hurt your feelings.” d. “Why do you feel this way about yourself?”

7. Walter is angry with his psychiatrist and says to the nurse, “He doesn’t know what he is doing. That medication isn’t helping a thing!” The nurse responds, “He has been a doctor for many years and has helped many people.” This is an example of what nontherapeutic technique? a. Rejecting b. Disapproving c. Probing d. Defending

8. The client says to the nurse, “I’ve been offered a promotion, but I don’t know if I can handle it.” The nurse replies, “You’re afraid you may fail in the new position.” This is an example of which therapeutic technique? a. Restating b. Making observations c. Focusing d. Verbalizing the implied

9. The environment in which the communication takes place influences the outcome of the interaction. Which of the following are aspects of the environment that influence communication? (Select all that apply.) a. Territoriality b. Density c. Dimension d. Distance e. Intensity

10. The nurse says to a client, “You are being readmitted to the hospital. Why did you stop taking your medication?” What communication technique does this represent? a. Disapproving b. Requesting an explanation c. Disagreeing d. Probing

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References Givens, D.B. (2013a). Eye contact. In The Nonverbal Dictionary

of Gestures, Signs, and Body Language Cues. Retrieved from: http://www.nonverbal-dictionary.org/2012/12/eyes- contact.html

Givens, D.B. (2013b). Facial expression. In The Nonverbal Dic- tionary of Gestures, Signs, and Body Language Cues. Retrieved from: http://www.nonverbal-dictionary.org/2012/12/ facial-expression.html

Givens, D.B. (2006c). Touch cue. In The Nonverbal Dictionary of Gestures, Signs, and Body Language Cues. Retrieved from http:// web.archive.org/web/20060627081330/members.aol.com/ doder1/touch1.htm

Institute of Medicine. (2003). Health professions education: A bridge to quality. Washington, DC: Institute of Medicine.

Hughey, J.D. (1990). Speech communication. Stillwater: Oklahoma State University.

Khan, A. (2014). Principles for personal growth. Bellevue, WA: YouMe Works.

Knapp, M.L., & Hall, J.A. (2014). Nonverbal communication in human interaction (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Simon, M. (2005). Facial expressions: A visual reference for artists. New York: Watson-Guptill.

Classical References Hall, E.T. (1966). The hidden dimension. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Hays, J.S., & Larson, K.H. (1963). Interacting with patients. New York:

Macmillan. Reece, M., & Whitman, R. (1962). Expressive movements,

warmth, and verbal reinforcement. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 64, 234-236. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ h0039792

Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

11. Joe has been in rehabilitation for alcohol dependence. When he returns from a visit to his home, he tells the nurse, “We were having a celebration and I did have one drink, but it really wasn’t a problem.” The nurse notices that his breath smells of alcohol. Which of the following responses by the nurse demonstrates a motivational interviewing style of communication? a. “You are obviously not motivated to change, so perhaps we should discuss your discharge from the

treatment program.” b. “You need to abstain from alcohol in order to recover, so let me talk to the doctor about the con-

sequences of your behavior.” c. “Why would you destroy everything you’ve worked so hard to achieve?” d. “What do you mean when you say, ‘It really wasn’t a problem’?”

12. Bill, who has been diagnosed with schizophrenia and has been on medication for several months, states, “I’m not taking that stupid medication anymore.” Which of the following responses by the nurse demonstrates a motivational interviewing style of communication? a. “Don’t you know that if you don’t take your medication you will never recover?” b. “Why won’t you cooperate with the treatment your doctor prescribed?” c. “Bill, the medication is not stupid.” d. “Tell me more about why you don’t want to take the medication.”

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9 The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Objectives

Homework Assignment

The Nursing Process

Why Nursing Diagnosis?

Nursing Case Management

Applying the Nursing Process in the Psychiatric Setting

Concept Mapping

Documentation of the Nursing Process

Summary and Key Points

Review Questions

K EY T E R M S

case management

case manager

concept mapping

critical pathways of care

Focus Charting®

interdisciplinary

managed care

Nursing Interventions Classification (NIC)

Nursing Outcomes Classification (NOC)

nursing process

PIE charting

problem-oriented recording

O B J EC T I V E S After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Define nursing process. 2. Identify six steps of the nursing process,

and describe nursing actions associated with each.

3. Describe the benefits of using nursing diagnosis.

4. Discuss the list of nursing diagnoses ap- proved by NANDA International for clinical use and testing.

5. Define and discuss the use of case manage- ment and critical pathways of care in the clinical setting.

6. Apply the six steps of the nursing process in caring for a client in the psychiatric setting.

7. Document client care that validates use of the nursing process.

H O M E W O R K A S S I G N M E N T Please read the chapter and answer the following questions:

1. Nursing outcomes (sometimes referred to as goals) are derived from the nursing diag- nosis. Name two essential aspects of an acceptable outcome or goal.

2. Define managed care. 3. The American Nurses Association identifies

certain interventions that may be performed

only by psychiatric nurses in advanced practice. What are they?

4. In Focus Charting®, one item cannot be used as the focus for documentation. What is this item?

CORE CONCEPTS Assessment Evaluation Nursing Diagnosis Outcomes

164

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For many years, the nursing process has provided a systematic framework for the delivery of nursing care. This framework fulfills the requirement for a scientific methodology in order for nursing to be considered a profession.

This chapter examines the steps of the nursing process as they are set forth by the American Nurses Association (ANA) in Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice (ANA, 2015). An explanation is provided for the implementation of case management and the crit- ical pathways of care tool used with this methodology. A description of concept mapping is included, and documentation that validates the use of the nursing process is discussed.

The Nursing Process

Definition The nursing process consists of six steps and uses a problem-solving approach that has come to be accepted as nursing’s scientific methodology. It is goal-directed with the objective of quality client care delivery.

The nursing process is dynamic, not static. It is an ongoing process that continues for as long as the nurse and client have interactions directed toward change in the client’s physical or behavioral responses. Figure 9–1 presents a schematic of the ongoing nurs- ing process.

Standards of Practice The ANA, in collaboration with the American Psychi- atric Nurses Association (APNA) and the Interna- tional Society of Psychiatric-Mental Health Nurses

(ISPN) (2014) has delineated a set of standards that psychiatric-mental health nurses are expected to fol- low as they provide care for their clients. The ANA (2015) describes a standard of practice as an author- itative statement that is defined and promoted by the profession and that provides the foundation for evaluating quality of nursing practice. The nursing process is a critical thinking model that integrates professional standards of practice to assess, diagnose, identify outcomes, plan, implement, and evaluate nursing care.

Following is a discussion of the standards of practice for psychiatric-mental health nurses as set forth by the ANA, APNA, and ISPN (2014). Many of these standards outline the registered nurse’s role in each step of the nursing process and apply them to the psychiatric- mental health nurse. Three changes in the current standards of practice reflect issues and trends that have evolved more recently.

First, patients are now referred to as health-care consumers. This term reflects the trend toward patient-centered care and conceptualizing that

relationship as a collaborative partnership.

Second, counseling interventions (performed by psychiatric-mental health registered nurses) are now differentiated from psychotherapy (performed by psychiatric-mental health advanced practice registered nurses). The third change, in Standard 5G. Therapeutic Relationship and Counseling, adds the phrase “assist- ing healthcare consumers in their individual recovery journeys.” This language supports the recovery model of intervention, a current trend toward focus on a collaborative recovery process rather than health-care provider–prescribed treatment alone. (See Chapter 21, The Recovery Model, for more information.)

C H A P T E R 9 ■ The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 165

CORE CONCEPT Assessment A systematic, dynamic process by which the regis- tered nurse, through interaction with the patient, family, groups, communities, populations, and healthcare providers, collects and analyzes data. Assessment may include the following dimensions: physical, psy- chological, sociocultural, spiritual, cognitive, functional abilities, developmental, economic, and lifestyle (ANA et al., 2014, p. 87).

FIGURE 9–1 The ongoing nursing process.

Standard 1. Assessment The psychiatric-mental health registered nurse collects and synthesizes comprehensive health data that are pertinent to the healthcare consumer’s health and/or situation (ANA et al., 2014. p. 44).

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In this first step, a database to determine the best possible client care is established. Information for this database is gathered from a variety of sources, in- cluding interviews with the client and/or family, ob- servation of the client and his or her environment,

consultation with other health team members, review of the client’s records, and a nursing physical exam- ination. A biopsychosocial assessment tool based on the stress-adaptation framework is included in Box 9–1.

166 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

BOX 9–1 Nursing History and Assessment Tool

I. General Information Client name: Allergies: Room number: Diet: Doctor: Height/weight: Age: Vital signs: TPR/BP Sex: Name and phone no. of significant other: Race: Dominant language: City of residence: Marital status: Diagnosis (admitting & current): Chief complaint:

Conditions of admission: Date: Time: Accompanied by: Route of admission (wheelchair; ambulatory; cart): Admitted from:

II. Predisposing Factors A. Genetic Influences

1. Family configuration (use genograms): Family of origin: Present family:

Family dynamics (describe significant relationships between family members):

2. Medical/psychiatric history: a. Client:

b. Family members:

3. Other genetic influences affecting present adaptation. This might include effects specific to gender, race, appearance, such as genetic physical defects, or any other factor related to genetics that is affecting the client’s adaptation that has not been mentioned elsewhere in this assessment.

B. Past Experiences 1. Cultural and social history:

a. Environmental factors (family living arrangements, type of neighborhood, special working conditions):

(Text continued on page 172)

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C H A P T E R 9 ■ The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 167

BOX 9–1 Nursing History and Assessment Tool—cont’d

b. Health beliefs and practices (personal responsibility for health; special self-care practices):

c. Religious beliefs and practices:

d. Educational background:

e. Significant losses/changes (include dates):

f. Peer/friendship relationships:

g. Occupational history:

h. Previous pattern of coping with stress:

i. Other lifestyle factors contributing to present adaptation:

C. Existing Conditions 1. Stage of development (Erikson):

a. Theoretically: b. Behaviorally: c. Rationale:

2. Support systems:

3. Economic security:

4. Avenues of productivity/contribution: a. Current job status:

b. Role contributions and responsibility for others:

III. Precipitating Event Describe the situation or events that precipitated this illness/hospitalization:

Continued

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168 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

BOX 9–1 Nursing History and Assessment Tool—cont’d

IV. Client’s Perception of the Stressor Client’s or family member’s understanding or description of stressor/illness and expectations of hospitalization:

V. Adaptation Responses A. Psychosocial

1. Anxiety level (circle one of the 4 levels and check the behaviors that apply): Mild Moderate Severe Panic calm friendly passive alert perceives environment correctly cooperative

impaired attention “jittery” unable to concentrate hypervigilant tremors rapid speech withdrawn confused disoriented fearful hyperventilating misinterpreting the environment (hallucinations or delusions) depersonalization obsessions compulsions somatic complaints excessive hyperactivity other

2. Mood/affect (circle as many as apply): happiness sadness dejection despair elation euphoria suspi- ciousness apathy (little emotional tone) anger/hostility

3. Ego defense mechanisms (describe how used by client): Projection Suppression Undoing Displacement Intellectualization Rationalization Denial Repression Isolation Regression Reaction Formation Splitting Religiosity Sublimation Compensation

4. Level of self-esteem (circle one): low moderate high Things client likes about self

Things client would like to change about self

Objective assessment of self-esteem: Eye contact General appearance

Personal hygiene Participation in group activities and interactions with others

5. Stage and manifestations of grief (circle one): Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance

Describe the client’s behaviors that are associated with this stage of grieving in response to loss or change.

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C H A P T E R 9 ■ The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 169

BOX 9–1 Nursing History and Assessment Tool—cont’d

6. Thought processes (circle as many as apply): clear logical easy to follow relevant confused blocking delusional rapid flow of thoughts slowness in thought suspicious

Recent memory (circle one): loss intact Remote memory (circle one): loss intact Other:

7. Communication patterns (circle as many as apply): clear coherent slurred speech incoherent neologisms loose associations flight of ideas aphasic perseveration rumination tangential speech loquaciousness slow, impov- erished speech speech impediment (describe) Other

8. Interaction patterns (describe client’s pattern of interpersonal interactions with staff and peers on the unit, e.g., manipulative, withdrawn, isolated, verbally or physically hostile, argumentative, passive, assertive, aggressive, passive- aggressive, other):

9. Reality orientation (check those that apply): Oriented to: Time Person

Place ______________________________ Situation

10. Ideas of destruction to self/others? Yes No If yes, consider plan; available means

B. Physiological 1. Psychosomatic manifestations (describe any somatic complaints that may be stress-related):

2. Drug history and assessment: Use of prescribed drugs:

Name Dosage Prescribed for Results

Use of over-the-counter drugs:

Name Dosage Used for Results

Continued

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170 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

BOX 9–1 Nursing History and Assessment Tool—cont’d

Use of street drugs or alcohol:

Amount How Often When Last Effects Name Used Used Used Produced

3. Pertinent physical assessments: a. Respirations: normal labored

Rate Rhythm

b. Skin: warm dry moist cool clammy pink cyanotic poor turgor edematous Evidence of: rash bruising needle tracks hirsutism loss of hair other _____________________________________________________________________________________________

c. Musculoskeletal status: weakness tremors Degree of range of motion (describe limitations) _____________________________________________________________________________________________

Pain (describe) _____________________________________________________________________________________________

Skeletal deformities (describe) Coordination (describe limitations)

d. Neurological status: History of (check all that apply): seizures (describe method of control) _____________________________________________________________________________________________ headaches (describe location and frequency) fainting spells dizziness tingling/numbness (describe location)

e. Cardiovascular: B/P Pulse History of (check all that apply): hypertension palpitations heart murmur chest pain shortness of breath pain in legs phlebitis ankle/leg edema numbness/tingling in extremities varicose veins

f. Gastrointestinal: Usual diet pattern: Food allergies: Dentures? Upper Lower Any problems with chewing or swallowing? Any recent change in weight? Any problems with: Indigestion/heartburn? Relieved by

Nausea/vomiting? Relieved by

History of ulcers? Usual bowel pattern Constipation? Diarrhea? Type of self-care assistance provided for either of the above problems ____________________________________________________________________________________________

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C H A P T E R 9 ■ The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 171

BOX 9–1 Nursing History and Assessment Tool—cont’d

g. Genitourinary/Reproductive: Usual voiding pattern Urinary hesitancy? Frequency? Nocturia? Pain/burning? Incontinence? Any genital lesions? Discharge? Odor?

History of sexually transmitted disease? If yes, please explain: ____________________________________________________________________________________________

Any concerns about sexuality/sexual activity? ____________________________________________________________________________________________

Method of birth control used Females: Date of last menstrual cycle Length of cycle Problems associated with menstruation? ____________________________________________________________________________________________

Breasts: Pain/tenderness? Swelling? Discharge? Lumps? Dimpling?

Practice breast self-examination? Frequency?

Males: Penile discharge? Prostate problems?

h. Eyes: Yes No Explain Glasses? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________ Contacts? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________ Swelling? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________ Discharge? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________ Itching? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________ Blurring? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________ Double vision? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________

i. Ears Yes No Explain Pain? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________ Drainage? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________ Difficulty hearing? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________ Hearing aid? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________ Tinnitus? ____________________ ________________ _________________________________________

j. Medication side effects: What symptoms is the client experiencing that may be attributed to current medication usage? ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________

k. Altered lab values and possible significance: ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________

l. Activity/rest patterns: Exercise (amount, type, frequency) ______________________________________________________________________________________________ Leisure time activities: ______________________________________________________________________________________________

Continued

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An example of a simple and quick mental status evaluation is presented in Table 9–1. Sometimes the term mental status assessment is used to describe an as- sessment of the cognitive aspects of functioning, as is the case with tools such as Folstein’s Mini-Mental State Evaluation (Folstein, Folstein, & McHugh, 1975). Likewise, the tool in Table 9–1 focuses strictly on a brief assessment of the cognitive aspects of mental functioning. In psychiatry and psychiatric-mental health nursing, mental status assessment assumes a much broader definition and includes assessment of mood, affect, behavior, relationships, speech, percep- tual disturbances, insight, and judgment in addition to cognitive function. A comprehensive mental status assessment guide, with explanations and selected sam- ple interview questions, is provided in Appendix C, Mental Status Assessment.

172 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

BOX 9–1 Nursing History and Assessment Tool—cont’d

Patterns of sleep: Number of hours per night Use of sleep aids? Pattern of awakening during the night? ______________________________________________________________________________________________ Feel rested upon awakening?

m. Personal hygiene/activities of daily living: Patterns of self-care: independent _________________________________________________________________ Requires assistance with: mobility _________________________________________________________________

hygiene _________________________________________________________________ toileting _________________________________________________________________ feeding __________________________________________________________________ dressing _________________________________________________________________ other ____________________________________________________________________

Statement describing personal hygiene and general appearance _________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________

n. Other pertinent physical assessments: ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________

VI. Summary of Initial Psychosocial/Physical Assessment:

Knowledge Deficits Identified:

Nursing Diagnoses Indicated:

CORE CONCEPT Nursing Diagnosis Clinical judgments about individual, family, or community experiences/responses to actual or potential health problems/life processes. A nursing diagnosis provides the basis for selection of nursing interventions to achieve outcomes for which the nurse has accountability (NANDA International [NANDA-I], 2015a).

Standard 2. Diagnosis The psychiatric-mental health registered nurse analyzes the assessment data to determine diagnoses, problems, and areas of focus for care and treatment, including level of risk (ANA et al., 2014, p. 46).

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In the second step, data gathered during the assess- ment are analyzed. Diagnoses and potential problem statements are formulated and prioritized. Diagnoses are congruent with available and accepted classifica- tion systems (e.g., NANDA International Nursing Diag- noses: Definitions and Classification [see Appendix E, Assigning NANDA International Nursing Diagnoses to Client Behaviors]).

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TA B L E 9 – 1 Brief Mental Status Evaluation AREA OF MENTAL FUNCTION EVALUATED

Orientation to time

Orientation to place

Attention and immediate recall

Abstract thinking

Recent memory

Naming objects

Ability to follow simple verbal command

Ability to follow simple written command

Ability to use language correctly

Ability to concentrate

Understanding spatial relationships

Scoring: 30–21 = normal; 20–11 = mild cognitive impairment; 10–0 = severe cognitive impairment (scores are not absolute and must be considered within the comprehensive diagnostic assessment). SOURCES: Beers, M.H. (2005). The Merck manual of health & aging. New York: Ballentine; Kaufman, D.M., & Zun, L. (1995). A quantifi- able, brief mental status examination for emergency patients. Journal of Emergency Medicine, 13(4), 440-456; Kokman, E., Smith, G.E., Petersen, R.C., Tangalos, E., & Ivnik, R.C. (1991). The short test of mental status: Correlations with standardized psychometric testing. Archives of Neurology, 48(7), 725-728; Folstein, M.F., Folstein, S.E., & McHugh, P.R. (1975). Mini-mental state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189-198; Pfeiffer, E. (1975). A short portable mental status questionnaire for the assessment of organic brain deficit in elderly patients. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 23(10), 433-441.

EVALUATION ACTIVITY

“What year is it?” “What month is it?” “What day is it?” (3 points)

“Where are you now?” (1 point)

“Repeat these words now: bell, book, & candle.” (3 points) “Remember these words, and I will ask you to repeat them in a few minutes.”

“What does this mean: No use crying over spilled milk.” (3 points)

“Say the 3 words I asked you to remember earlier.” (3 points)

Point to eyeglasses and ask, “What is this?” Repeat with 1 other item (e.g., calendar, watch, pencil). (2 points possible)

“Tear this piece of paper in half and put it in the trash container.” (2 points)

Write a command on a piece of paper (e.g., TOUCH YOUR NOSE), give the paper to the client, and say, “Do what it says on this paper.” (1 point for correct action)

Ask the patient to write a sentence. (3 points if sentence has a subject, a verb, and valid meaning)

“Say the months of the year in reverse, starting with December.” (1 point each for correct answers from November through August; 4 points possible)

Instruct client to draw a clock, put in all the numbers, and set the hands on 3 o’clock. (clock circle = 1 pt; numbers in correct sequence = 1 pt; numbers placed on clock correctly = 1 pt; two hands on the clock = 1 pt; hands set at correct time = 1 pt; 5 points possible)

CORE CONCEPT Outcomes Client behaviors and responses that are collaboratively agreed upon, measurable, desired results of nursing interventions.

Standard 3. Outcomes Identification The psychiatric-mental health registered nurse identifies expected outcomes and the healthcare consumer’s goals for a plan individualized to the healthcare consumer or to the situation (ANA et al., 2014, p. 48).

Expected outcomes are derived from the diagno- sis. They must be measurable and include a time esti- mate for attainment. They must be realistic for the client’s capabilities, and they are most effective when formulated cooperatively by the interdisciplinary team members, the client, and significant others.

Nursing Outcomes Classification The Nursing Outcomes Classification (NOC) is a comprehensive, standardized classification of client outcomes developed to evaluate the effects of nursing

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interventions (Moorhead et al., 2013). The outcomes have been linked to NANDA International (NANDA-I) diagnoses and to the Nursing Interventions Classifi- cation (NIC). NANDA-I, NIC, and NOC represent all domains of nursing and can be used together or sep- arately (Moorhead & Dochterman, 2012). Each of the NOC outcomes has a label name, a definition, a list of indicators to evaluate client status in relation to the outcome, and a five-point Likert scale to measure client status (Moorhead et al., 2013).

Standard 4. Planning The psychiatric-mental health registered nurse develops a plan that prescribes strategies and alternatives to assist the healthcare consumer in attainment of expected outcomes (ANA et al., 2014, p. 50).

The care plan is individualized to the client’s mental health problems, condition, or needs and is developed in collaboration with the client, significant others, and interdisciplinary team members if possible. For each diagnosis identified, the most appropriate interven- tions are selected on the basis of current psychiatric- mental health nursing practice, standards, relevant statutes, and research evidence. Client education and necessary referrals are included. Priorities for delivery of nursing care are determined on the basis of safety needs and the client’s risk for harm to self or others. Elements of the plan should be prioritized with input from the client, the family, and others as appropriate (ANA et al., 2014).

Nursing Interventions Classification NIC is a comprehensive, standardized language de- scribing treatments that nurses perform in all settings and specialties (Bulechek, Butcher, Dochterman, & Wagner, 2013). NIC includes both physiological and psychosocial interventions as well as those for illness treatment, illness prevention, and health promotion. NIC interventions are comprehensive, based on re- search, and reflect current clinical practice. They were developed inductively on the basis of existing practice.

Each NIC intervention has a definition and a de- tailed set of activities that describe what a nurse does to implement the intervention. The use of standard- ized language is thought to enhance continuity of care and facilitate communication among nurses and between nurses and other providers.

Standard 5. Implementation The psychiatric-mental health registered nurse implements the identified plan (ANA et al., 2014, p. 52).

Interventions selected during the planning stage are executed, taking into consideration the nurse’s level of practice, education, and certification. The care plan serves as a blueprint for delivery of safe, eth- ical, and appropriate interventions. Documentation

of interventions also occurs at this step in the nursing process.

Several specific interventions are included among the standards of psychiatric-mental health clinical nursing practice (ANA et al., 2014):

Standard 5A. Coordination of Care The psychiatric-mental health registered nurse coordinates care delivery (ANA et al., 2014, p. 54).

Standard 5B. Health Teaching and Health Promotion The psychiatric-mental health registered nurse employs strate- gies to promote health and a safe environment (ANA et al., 2014, p. 55).

Standard 5C. Consultation The psychiatric-mental health advanced practice registered nurse provides consultation to influence the identified plan, enhance the abilities of other clinicians to provide services for healthcare consumers, and effect change (ANA et al., 2014, p. 57).

Standard 5D. Prescriptive Authority and Treatment The psychiatric-mental health advanced practice registered nurse uses prescriptive authority, procedures, referrals, treat- ments, and therapies in accordance with state and federal laws and regulations (ANA et al., 2014, p. 58).

Standard 5E. Pharmacological, Biological, and Integrative Therapies The psychiatric-mental health registered nurse incorporates knowledge of pharmacological, biological, and complemen- tary interventions with applied clinical skills to restore the healthcare consumer’s health and prevent further disability (ANA et al., 2014, p. 59).

Standard 5F. Milieu Therapy The psychiatric-mental health registered nurse provides, structures, and maintains a safe, therapeutic, recovery- oriented environment in collaboration with healthcare consumers, families, and other healthcare clinicians (ANA et al., 2014, p. 60).

Several models have been developed to identify what constitutes a therapeutic environment. These are discussed further in Chapter 12, Milieu Therapy— The Therapeutic Community. Incorporation of the health-care environment and the community of clients, their families, and health-care providers is a unique aspect of treatment for the client with a psychiatric- mental health disorder.

Standard 5G. Therapeutic Relationship and Counseling The psychiatric-mental health registered nurse (PMH-RN) uses the therapeutic relationship and counseling interventions

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to assist healthcare consumers in their individual recovery journeys by improving and regaining their previous coping abilities, fostering mental health, and preventing mental disorder and disability (ANA et al., 2014, p. 62).

As mentioned previously, therapeutic relationship and counseling interventions are part of the role of registered nurses practicing in psychiatric-mental health settings. These are basic psychoeducational and problem discussion interventions and are differ- entiated from psychotherapy that requires advanced practice education and competency.

Standard 5H. Psychotherapy The psychiatric-mental health advanced practice registered nurse conducts individual, couples, group, and family psychotherapy using evidence-based psychotherapeutic frame- works and the nurse-client therapeutic relationship (ANA et al., 2014, p. 63).

was initiated in 1973 with the convening of the First Task Force to Name and Classify Nursing Diagnoses. The Task Force of the National Conference Group on the Classification of Nursing Diagnoses was developed during this conference and charged with the task of identifying and classifying nursing diagnoses.

Also in the 1970s, the ANA began to write stan- dards of practice around the steps of the nursing process, of which nursing diagnosis is an inherent part. This format encompassed both the general and specialty standards outlined by the ANA.

From this progression, a policy statement that includes a definition of nursing was published in 1980. The ANA defined nursing as “the diagnosis and treatment of human responses to actual or potential health problems” (ANA, 2010). This defi- nition has been expanded to describe more appro- priately nursing’s commitment to society and to the profession. The ANA (2017) defines nursing as follows:

Nursing is the protection, promotion, and optimiza- tion of health and abilities, prevention of illness and injury, alleviation of suffering through the diagnosis and treatment of human response, and advocacy in the care of individuals, families, communities, and populations.

Nursing diagnosis is an inherent component of both the original and expanded definitions.

Decisions regarding professional negligence are made on the basis of the standards of practice defined by the ANA and the individual state nurse practice acts. A number of states have incorporated the steps of the nursing process, including nursing diagnosis, into the scope of nursing practice described in their nurse practice acts. When this is the case, it is the legal duty of the nurse to show that nursing process and nursing diagnosis were accurately implemented in the delivery of nursing care.

NANDA-I evolved from the original 1973 task force to name and classify nursing diagnoses. The major purpose of NANDA-I is to “to develop, refine and promote terminology that accurately reflects nurses’ clinical judgments. NANDA-I will be a global force for the development and use of nursing’s standardized terminology to ensure patient safety through evidence-based care, thereby improving the health care of all people” (NANDA-I, 2015b). The list of NANDA-I-approved diagnoses is by no means all-inclusive. In an effort to maintain a common language within nursing and encourage clinical test- ing, most of the nursing diagnoses used in this text are taken from the 2015–2017 list approved by NANDA-I. However, in a few instances, nursing diag- noses that have been retired by NANDA-I for various reasons will continue to be used because of their

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CORE CONCEPT Evaluation The process of determining the healthcare consumer’s progress toward attainment of expected outcomes, and the effectiveness of the registered nurse’s care and interventions (ANA et al., 2014, p. 88).

Standard 6. Evaluation The psychiatric-mental health registered nurse evaluates progress toward attainment of expected outcomes (ANA et al., 2014, p. 65).

During the evaluation step, the nurse measures the success of the interventions in meeting the outcome criteria. The client’s response to treatment is docu- mented, validating use of the nursing process in the delivery of care. The diagnoses, outcomes, and plan of care are reviewed and revised as need is deter- mined by the evaluation.

Why Nursing Diagnosis?

The concept of nursing diagnosis is not new. For centuries, nurses have identified specific client re- sponses for which nursing interventions were used in an effort to improve quality of life. Historically, however, the autonomy of practice to which nurses were entitled by virtue of their licensure was lacking in the provision of nursing care. Nurses assisted physicians as required and performed a group of specific tasks that were considered within their scope of responsibility.

The term diagnosis in relation to nursing first began to appear in the literature in the early 1950s. The formalized organization of the concept, however,

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appropriateness and suitability in describing specific behaviors.

The use of nursing diagnosis affords a degree of autonomy that historically has been lacking in the practice of nursing. Nursing diagnosis describes the client’s condition, facilitating the prescription of interventions and establishment of parameters for outcome criteria based on unique components of the nursing profession. The ultimate benefit is to the client, who receives effective and consistent nursing care based on knowledge of the problems that he or she is experiencing and of the most beneficial nursing interventions to resolve them.

Nursing Case Management

The concept of case management evolved with the ad- vent of diagnosis-related groups (DRGs) and shorter hospital stays. Case management is a model of care delivery that can result in improved client care. In this model, clients are assigned a manager who negotiates with multiple providers to obtain diverse services. This type of health-care delivery process serves to decrease fragmentation of care while striving to con- tain cost of services.

Case management in the acute care setting aims to organize client care through an episode of illness so that specific clinical and financial outcomes are achieved within an allotted time frame. Commonly, the allotted time frame is determined by the estab- lished protocols for length of stay as defined by the DRGs.

Case management has been shown to be an effec- tive method of treatment for individuals with a severe and persistent mental illness. This type of care strives to improve functioning by assisting the individual to solve problems, improve work and socialization skills, promote leisure-time activities, and enhance overall independence.

Ideally, case management incorporates concepts of care at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of prevention. Various definitions have emerged and should be clarified, as follows.

Managed care refers to a strategy employed by purchasers of health services who make determina- tions about various services in order to maintain quality and control costs. In a managed care pro- gram, individuals receive health care based on need as assessed by coordinators of the providership. Man- aged care exists in many settings, including (but not limited to):

■ Insurance-based programs ■ Employer-based medical providerships ■ Social service programs ■ The public health sector

Managed care may exist in virtually any setting in which a private or government-based organization is responsible for payment of health-care services for a group of people. Examples of managed care are health maintenance organizations (HMOs) and pre- ferred provider organizations (PPOs).

Case management, the method used to achieve managed care, is the actual coordination of services required to meet the needs of a client within the frag- mented health-care system. Case management strives to help at-risk clients prevent avoidable episodes of illness while controlling health-care costs for the con- sumer and third-party payers.

Types of clients who benefit from case manage- ment include (but are not limited to):

■ The frail elderly ■ Individuals with developmental disabilities ■ Individuals with physical disabilities ■ Individuals with mental disabilities ■ Individuals with long-term, medically complex

problems that require multifaceted, costly care (e.g., high-risk infants, those who are HIV positive or who have AIDS, and transplant clients)

■ Individuals who are severely compromised by an acute episode of illness or an acute exacerbation of a severe and persistent illness (e.g., schizophrenia)

The case manager is responsible for negotiating with multiple health-care providers to obtain a variety of services for the client. Nurses are exceptionally qualified to serve as case managers. The very nature of nursing, which incorporates knowledge about the biological, psychological, and sociocultural aspects re- lated to human functioning, makes nurses highly ap- propriate for this role. Several years of experience as a registered nurse is usually required for employment as a case manager. Some case management programs prefer advanced practice registered nurses who have experience working with the specific populations for whom the service will be rendered. The American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC) offers an exam- ination for nurses to become board certified in nurs- ing case management.

Critical Pathways of Care Critical pathways of care (CPCs) may be used as the tools for provision of care in a case management system. A critical pathway is an abbreviated care plan that pro- vides outcome-based guidelines for goal achievement within a designated length of stay. A sample CPC is pre- sented in Table 9–2. Only one nursing diagnosis is used in this sample, but a comprehensive CPC may have nurs- ing diagnoses for several individual problems and incor- porates responsibilities of other team members as well.

CPCs are intended to be used by the entire inter- disciplinary team, which may include a nurse case

176 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

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C H A P T E R 9 ■ The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 177

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6054_Ch09_164-187 27/07/17 5:19 PM Page 177

manager, clinical nurse specialist, social worker, psy- chiatrist, psychologist, dietitian, occupational thera- pist, recreational therapist, chaplain, and others. The team decides what categories of care are to be per- formed, by what date, and by whom. Each member of the team is then expected to carry out his or her functions according to the time line designated on the CPC.

Unlike a nursing care plan, CPCs have the benefit of describing what an episode of care will look like when implemented by team members in

collaboration with one another. Clarity about how team members collaborate is important not only for providing efficient patient care but also for improving quality and safety.

As case manager, the nurse is ultimately responsi- ble for ensuring that each assignment is carried out. If variations occur in any of the categories of care, rationale must be documented in the progress notes. For example, with the sample CPC presented in Table 9–2, the nurse case manager may admit the client into the detoxification center. The nurse contacts the psychiatrist to inform him or her of the admission. The psychiatrist performs additional assessments to determine if other consultations are required and writes the orders for the initial diag- nostic work-up and medication regimen. Within 24 hours, the interdisciplinary team meets to decide on other categories of care, complete the CPC, and make individual care assignments from the CPC. This particular sample CPC relies heavily on nursing care of the client through the critical withdrawal period. However, other problems for the same client, such as imbalanced nutrition, impaired physical mobility, or spiritual distress, may involve other mem- bers of the team to a greater degree. Each member of the team stays in contact with the nurse case man- ager regarding individual assignments. Ideally, team meetings are held daily or every other day to review progress and modify the plan as required.

CPCs can be standardized, as they are intended to be used with uncomplicated cases. A CPC can be viewed as protocol for clients who have specific problems for which a designated outcome can be predicted.

Applying the Nursing Process in the Psychiatric Setting

Based on the definition of mental health set forth in Chapter 2, Mental Health and Mental Illness: Historical and Theoretical Concepts, the nurse’s role in psychia- try is to help the client successfully adapt to stressors in the environment. Goals are directed toward changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are age appro- priate and congruent with local and cultural norms.

Therapy in the psychiatric setting is very often team oriented, or interdisciplinary. Therefore, it is important to delineate nursing’s involvement in the treatment regimen. Nurses are valuable members of the team. Having progressed beyond the role of cus- todial caregiver in the psychiatric setting, they provide defined services within the scope of nursing practice. Nursing diagnosis is helping to define these nursing boundaries, providing the degree of autonomy and professionalism that has for so long been unrealized.

For example, a newly admitted client with the med- ical diagnosis of schizophrenia may be demonstrating the following behaviors:

■ Inability to trust others ■ Hearing voices ■ Refusal to interact with staff and peers ■ Fear of failure ■ Poor personal hygiene

From these assessments, the treatment team may determine that the client has the following problems:

■ Paranoid delusions ■ Auditory hallucinations ■ Social withdrawal ■ Developmental regression

Team goals would be directed toward the following:

■ Reducing suspiciousness ■ Terminating auditory hallucinations ■ Increasing feelings of self-worth

From this team treatment plan, nursing may iden- tify the following nursing diagnoses:

■ Disturbed sensory perception, auditory (evidenced by hearing voices)*

■ Disturbed thought processes (evidenced by delusions)*

■ Low self-esteem (evidenced by fear of failure and social withdrawal)

■ Self-care deficit (evidenced by poor personal hygiene)

Nursing diagnoses are prioritized according to life- threatening potential. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is an appropriate model to follow when prioritizing nurs- ing diagnoses. In this instance, Disturbed sensory per- ception (auditory) is identified as the priority nursing diagnosis because the client may be hearing voices that command him or her to harm self or others. Psychi- atric nursing, regardless of the setting—hospital (inpa- tient or outpatient), office, home, community—is

178 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

*Disturbed sensory perception and Disturbed thought processes have been removed from the NANDA-I list of approved nursing diagnoses (NANDA-I, 2012). However, they will continue to be used in this textbook because of their appropriateness to certain behaviors.

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goal-directed care. The goals (or expected outcomes) are client-oriented, mea surable, and focused on prob- lem resolution (if this is realistic) or on a more short- term outcome (if resolution is unrealistic). For example, in the previous situation, expected outcomes for the identified nursing diagnoses might be as follows:

The client:

■ Demonstrates trust in one staff member within 3 days ■ Verbalizes understanding that the voices are not

real (not heard by others) within 5 days ■ Completes one simple craft project within 5 days ■ Takes responsibility for own self-care and performs

activities of daily living independently by time of discharge

Nursing’s contribution to the interdisciplinary treatment regimen will focus on establishing trust on a one-to-one basis (thus reducing the level of anxiety that may be promoting hallucinations), giving positive feedback for small day-to-day accomplishments in an effort to build self-esteem, and assisting with and en- couraging independent self-care. These interventions describe independent nursing actions and goals that are evaluated apart from, while also being directed toward achievement of, the team’s treatment goals.

In this manner of collaboration with other team members, nursing provides a unique service based on sound knowledge of psychopathology, scope of prac- tice, and legal implications of the role. Although there is no question that implementing physician’s orders is an important aspect of nursing care, nursing interventions that enhance achievement of the over- all goals of treatment are important contributions as well. The nurse who administers a medication prescribed by the physician to decrease anxiety may also choose to stay with the anxious client and offer reassurance of safety and security, thereby providing an independent nursing action that is distinct from, yet complementary to, the medical treatment.

Concept Mapping∗

Concept mapping is a diagrammatic teaching and learning strategy that allows students and faculty to visualize interrelationships between medical diag- noses, nursing diagnoses, assessment data, and treat- ments. Basically, it is a diagram of client problems and interventions. Compared to the commonly used col- umn format care plans, concept map care plans are more succinct. They primarily serve to enhance critical-thinking skills and clinical reasoning ability by creating a holistic picture of various client problems and their interconnectedness to one another.

The nursing process is foundational to develop- ing and using the concept map care plan, just as with all types of nursing care plans. Client data are col- lected and analyzed, nursing diagnoses are formu- lated, outcome criteria are identified, nursing actions are planned and implemented, and the success of the interventions in meeting the outcome criteria is evaluated.

The concept map care plan may be presented in its entirety on one page, or the assessment data and nurs- ing diagnoses may appear in diagram format on one page, with outcomes, interventions, and evaluation written on a second page. Alternatively, the diagram may appear in circular format, with nursing diagnoses and interventions branching off the “client” in the center of the diagram. Or, it may begin with the “client” at the top of the diagram, with branches ema- nating in a linear fashion downward.

Whatever format is chosen to visualize the concept map, the diagram should reflect the nursing process in a stepwise fashion, beginning with the client and his or her reason for needing care, nursing diagnoses with subjective and objective clinical evidence for each, nurs- ing interventions, and outcome criteria for evaluation.

Figure 9–2 presents one example of a concept map care plan. It is assembled for the hypothetical client with schizophrenia discussed in the previous section, “Applying the Nursing Process in the Psychiatric Set- ting.” Different colors may be used in the diagram to designate various components of the care plan. Con- necting lines are drawn between components to indi- cate any relationships that exist. For example, there may be a relationship between two nursing diagnoses (e.g., between the nursing diagnoses of Pain or Anx- iety and Disturbed sleep pattern). A line between these nursing diagnoses should be drawn to show the relationship.

Concept map care plans permit viewing the “whole picture” without generating a great deal of paper- work. Because they reflect the steps of the nursing process, concept map care plans also are valuable guides for documentation of client care. Doenges, Moorhouse, and Murr (2016) note that traditional care plans fail to clarify how all the client’s identified needs are related, so the user may not develop a ho- listic view. The concept map clarifies those linkages. Whether these care-planning strategies are used for learning or in actual practice, both the concept map and traditional care plan are useful tools for develop- ing and visualizing the critical-thinking process that goes into planning client care.

Documentation of the Nursing Process

Equally as important as using the nursing process in the delivery of care is documenting its use in writing.

C H A P T E R 9 ■ The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 179

*Content in this section is adapted from Doenges, Moorhouse, & Murr (2016) and Schuster (2015).

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Some contemporary nursing leaders advocate that with solid standards of practice and procedures in place within the institution, nurses need only chart when there has been a deviation in the care as out- lined by that standard. This method of documenta- tion, known as charting by exception, is not widely accepted, as many legal decisions are still based on the precept that “if it was not charted, it was not done.”

Because nursing process and diagnosis are man- dated by nurse practice acts in some states, documen- tation of their use is considered evidence in those states when determining certain cases of negligence by nurses. Some health-care organization accrediting agencies also require that nursing process be re- flected in the delivery of care.

A variety of documentation methods can be used to reflect use of the nursing process in the delivery of

180 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

Clinical Vignette: Harry has been admitted to the psychiatric unit with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. He is socially isolated and stays in his room unless strongly encouraged by the nurse to come out. He says to the nurse, “You have to be your own boss. You can’t trust anybody.” He refuses to eat any food from his tray, stating that the voice of his deceased grandfather is telling him it is poisoned. His clothes are dirty, and he has an objectionable body odor. The nurse develops the following concept map care plan for Harry.

Disturbed thought processes

Disturbed sensory perception (auditory)

Low self-esteem Self-care deficit (hygiene)

• Delusional thinking

• Suspiciousness

• Verbalizes hearing voices

• Listening pose

• Social withdrawal

• Expresses fear of failure

• Offensive body odor

• Soiled clothing • Unkempt

appearance

• Do not whisper to others in client's presence. • Serve food family style. • Perform mouth checks for meds. • Be cautious with touch. • Use same staff. • Meet client needs and keep promises to promote trust.

• Observe for signs of hallucinations. • Be cautious with touch. • Use “the voices” instead of “they” when asking for content of hallucinations. • Use distraction to bring client back to reality.

• Spend time with client and develop trust. • Attend groups with client at first to offer support. • Encourage simple methods of achievement. • Teach effective communication techniques. • Encourage verbalization

of fears.

• Encourage independence in ADLs, but intervene as needed. • Offer recognition and positive reinforcement for independent accomplishments.

Medical Rx: Risperidone 2 mg bid

• Demonstrates ability to trust • Differentiates between delusional thinking and reality

• Discusses content of hallucinations

with nurse • Hallucinations are eliminated

• Attends groups willingly and without being accompanied

by nurse • Interacts appropriately with others

• Performs ADLs independently • Maintains personal hygiene at an acceptable level

Signs and Symptoms

Signs and Symptoms

Signs and Symptoms

Signs and Symptoms

Nursing Diagnosis

Nursing Diagnosis

Nursing Diagnosis

Nursing Diagnosis

Nursing Actions Nursing Actions Nursing Actions Nursing Actions

Outcomes Outcomes Outcomes Outcomes

FIGURE 9–2 Example of a concept map care plan for a client with schizophrenia.

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nursing care. Three examples are presented here: problem-oriented recording (POR); Focus Charting®; and the problem, intervention, evaluation (PIE) sys- tem of documentation.

Problem-Oriented Recording Problem-oriented recording, based on a list of prob- lems, follows the subjective, objective, assessment, plan, implementation, and evaluation (SOAPIE) for- mat. When used in nursing, the problems (nursing diagnoses) are identified on a written plan of care, with appropriate nursing interventions described for each. Documentation written in the SOAPIE format includes the following:

S = Subjective data: Information gathered from what the client, family, or other source has said or reported

O = Objective data: Information gathered through di- rect observation by the person performing the

assessment; may include a physiological measure- ment such as blood pressure or a behavioral re- sponse such as affect

A = Assessment: The nurse’s interpretation of the sub- jective and objective data

P = Plan: The actions or treatments to be carried out (may be omitted in daily charting if the plan is clearly explained in the written nursing care plan and no changes are expected)

I = Intervention: Those nursing actions that were ac- tually carried out

E = Evaluation: Evaluation of the problem following nursing intervention (some nursing interventions cannot be evaluated immediately, so this section may be optional)

Table 9–3 shows how POR corresponds to the steps of the nursing process. Following is an example of a three-column documentation in the POR format.

C H A P T E R 9 ■ The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 181

EXAMPLE DATE/TIME PROBLEM PROGRESS NOTES

9-12-17 Social isolation S: States he does not want to sit with or talk to others; “they frighten me.” 1000 O: Stays in room alone unless strongly encouraged to come out; no group involvement;

at times listens to group conversations from a distance but does not interact; some hypervigilance and scanning noted

A: Inability to trust; panic level of anxiety; delusional thinking I: Initiated trusting relationship by spending time alone with the client; discussed his

feelings regarding interactions with others; accompanied client to group activities; provided positive feedback for voluntarily participating in assertiveness training

TA B L E 9 – 3 Validation of the Nursing Process With Problem-Oriented Recording PROBLEM-ORIENTED RECORDING

S and O (Subjective and Objective data)

A (Assessment)

P (Plan) (Omitted in charting if written plan describes care to be given)

I (Intervention)

E (Evaluation)

NURSING PROCESS

Assessment

Diagnosis and outcome identification

Planning

Implementation

Evaluation

WHAT IS RECORDED

Verbal reports to, and direct observation and examination by, the nurse

Nurse’s interpretation of S and O

Description of appropriate nursing actions to resolve the identified problem

Description of nursing actions actually carried out

A reassessment of the situation to determine results of nursing actions implemented

Focus Charting Another type of documentation that reflects use of the nursing process is Focus Charting®. Focus Charting dif- fers from POR in that the main perspective has been changed from “problem” to “focus,” and a data, action, and response (DAR) format has replaced SOAPIE.

Lampe (1985) suggested that a focus for documen- tation can be any of the following:

■ Nursing diagnosis ■ Current client concern or behavior ■ Significant change in the client status or behavior ■ Significant event in the client’s therapy

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The focus cannot be a medical diagnosis. The doc- umentation is organized in the format of DAR. These categories are defined as follows:

D = Data: Information that supports the stated focus or describes pertinent observations about the client

A = Action: Immediate or future nursing actions that address the focus, and evaluation of the present care plan along with any changes required

R = Response: Description of client’s responses to any part of the medical or nursing care

Table 9–4 shows how Focus Charting corresponds to the steps of the nursing process. Following is an ex- ample of a three-column documentation in the DAR format.

182 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

EXAMPLE DATE/TIME FOCUS PROGRESS NOTES

9-12-17 D: States he does not want to sit with or talk to others; they “frighten” 1000 him; stays in room alone unless strongly encouraged to come

out; no group involvement; at times listens to group conversations from a distance, but does not interact; some hypervigilance and scanning noted

A: Initiated trusting relationship by spending time alone with client; discussed his feelings regarding interactions with others; accom- panied client to group activities; provided positive feedback for voluntarily participating in assertiveness training

R: Cooperative with therapy; still acts uncomfortable in the presence of a group of people; accepted positive feedback from nurse

Social isolation related to mistrust, panic anxiety, delusions

TA B L E 9 – 4 Validation of the Nursing Process With Focus Charting FOCUS CHARTING

D (Data)

Focus

A (Action)

R (Response)

NURSING PROCESS

Assessment

Diagnosis and outcome identification

Plan and implementation

Evaluation

WHAT IS RECORDED

Information that supports the stated focus or describes pertinent observations about the client

A nursing diagnosis; current client concern or behavior; signifi- cant change in client status; significant event in the client’s ther- apy (Note: If outcome appears on written care plan, it need not be repeated in daily documentation unless a change occurs.)

Immediate or future nursing actions that address the focus; appraisal of the care plan along with any changes required

Description of client responses to any part of the medical or nursing care

The PIE Method The PIE method, or more specifically, “APIE” (as- sessment, problem, intervention, evaluation), is a systematic approach of documenting to nursing process and nursing diagnosis. A problem-oriented system, PIE charting uses accompanying flow sheets that are individualized by each institution. Criteria for documentation are organized in the following manner:

A = Assessment: A complete client assessment is con- ducted at the beginning of each shift. Results are

documented under this section in the progress notes. Some institutions elect instead to use a daily client assessment sheet designed to meet specific needs of the unit. Explanation of any de- viation from the norm is included in the progress notes.

P = Problem: A problem list, or list of nursing diag- noses, is an important part of the APIE method of charting. The name or number of the problem being addressed is documented in this section.

I = Intervention: Nursing actions are performed, directed at resolution of the problem.

6054_Ch09_164-187 27/07/17 5:19 PM Page 182

E = Evaluation: Outcomes of the implemented inter- ventions are documented, including an evaluation of client responses to determine the effectiveness of nursing interventions and the presence or absence of progress toward resolution of a problem.

Table 9–5 shows how APIE charting corresponds to the steps of the nursing process. Following is an example of a three-column documentation in the APIE format.

C H A P T E R 9 ■ The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 183

EXAMPLE DATE/TIME PROBLEM PROGRESS NOTES

9-12-17 Social isolation A: States he does not want to sit with or talk to others; they “frighten” him; 1000 stays in room alone unless strongly encouraged to come out; no group

involvement; at times listens to group conversations from a distance but does not interact; some hypervigilance and scanning noted

P: Social isolation related to inability to trust, panic level of anxiety, and delusional thinking

I: Initiated trusting relationship by spending time alone with client; discussed his feelings regarding interactions with others; accompanied client to group activities; provided positive feedback for voluntarily participating in assertive- ness training

E: Cooperative with therapy; still uncomfortable in the presence of a group of people; accepted positive feedback from nurse

TA B L E 9 – 5 Validation of the Nursing Process With APIE Method APIE CHARTING

A (Assessment)

P (Problem)

I (Intervention)

E (Evaluation)

NURSING PROCESS

Assessment

Diagnosis and outcome identification

Plan and implementation

Evaluation

WHAT IS RECORDED

Subjective and objective data about the client that are gathered at the beginning of each shift

Name (or number) of nursing diagnosis being addressed from written problem list, and identified outcome for that problem (Note: If outcome appears on written care plan, it need not be repeated in daily documentation unless a change occurs.)

Nursing actions performed, directed at problem resolution

Appraisal of client responses to determine effectiveness of nursing interventions

Electronic Documentation Most health-care facilities have implemented an elec- tronic health record (EHR) or electronic documen- tation system. Federal regulations and programs have incentivized the move to EHR systems by requiring health-care organizations to use them in order to re- ceive Medicare and Medicaid reimbursement; as of 2015, progressive reductions in reimbursement have been initiated for health-care providers who are not demonstrating meaningful use of EHRs.

The rationale for this move is that EHR systems have been shown to improve both the quality of client care and the efficiency of the health-care

system (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2010). In 2003, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services commissioned the Institute of Medicine (IOM) to study the capabilities of an EHR system. The IOM

identified a set of eight core functions that EHR systems should perform in the delivery of safer, higher-quality, and more efficient health care (Institute of Medicine, 2003):

1. Health information and data: EHRs would provide more rapid access to important patient informa- tion (e.g., allergies, laboratory test results, a med- ication list, demographic information, and clinical narratives), thereby improving care providers’ abil- ities to make sound clinical decisions in a timely manner.

2. Results management: Computerized results of all types (e.g., laboratory test results, radiology proce- dure result reports) can be accessed more easily by the provider at the time and place they are needed.

3. Order entry and order management: Computer- based order entries improve workflow processes by

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eliminating lost orders and ambiguities caused by illegible handwriting, generating related orders automatically, monitoring for duplicate orders, and improving the speed with which orders are executed.

4. Decision support: Computerized decision sup- port systems enhance clinical performance for many aspects of health care. Using reminders and prompts, improvement in regular screenings and other preventive practices can be accomplished. Other aspects of health-care support include iden- tifying possible drug interactions and facilitating diagnosis and treatment.

5. Electronic communication and connectivity: Im- proved communication among care associates, such as medicine, nursing, laboratory, pharmacy, and radiology team members, can enhance client safety and quality of care. Efficient communication among providers improves continuity of care, allows for more timely interventions, and reduces the risk of adverse events.

6. Patient support: Computer-based interactive client education, self-testing, and self-monitoring have been shown to improve control of chronic illnesses.

7. Administrative processes: Electronic scheduling systems (e.g., for hospital admissions and outpa- tient procedures) increase the efficiency of health- care organizations and provide more timely service to patients.

8. Reporting and population health management: Health-care organizations are required to report health-care data to government and private sectors for patient safety and public health. Uniform elec- tronic data standards facilitate this process at the provider level, reduce the associated costs, and in- crease the speed and accuracy of the data reported.

Table 9–6 lists some of the advantages and disad- vantages of paper records and EHRs.

184 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

TA B L E 9 – 6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Paper Records and EHR Systems PAPER*

ADVANTAGES ■ People know how to use it. ■ It is fast for current practice. ■ It is portable. ■ It is nonbreakable. ■ It accepts multiple data types, such as graphs,

photographs, drawings, and text. ■ Legal issues and costs are understood.

DISADVANTAGES ■ It can be lost. ■ It is often illegible and incomplete. ■ It has no remote access. ■ It can be accessed by only one person at a time. ■ It is often disorganized. ■ Information is duplicated. ■ It is hard to store. ■ It is difficult to research, and continuous quality

improvement is laborious. ■ Same client has separate records at each facility

(physician’s office, hospital, home care). ■ Records are shared only through hard copy.

*From Young, K.M., & Catalano, J. T. (2015). Nursing informatics. In J.T. Catalano (Ed.), Nursing now! Today’s issues, tomorrow’s trends (7th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis. With permission.

EHR SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES ■ Can be accessed by multiple providers from remote

sites. ■ Facilitates communication between disciplines. ■ Provides reminders about completing information. ■ Provides warnings about incompatibilities of medica-

tions or variances from normal standards. ■ Reduces redundancy of information. ■ Requires less storage space and is more difficult to

lose. ■ Easier to research for audits, quality assurance, and

epidemiological surveillance. ■ Provides immediate retrieval of information (e.g., test

results). ■ Provides links to multiple databases of health-care

knowledge, thus providing diagnostic support. ■ Decreases charting time. ■ Reduces errors due to illegible handwriting. ■ Facilitates billing and claims procedures.

DISADVANTAGES ■ Excessive expense to initiate the system. ■ Substantial learning curve involved for new users;

training and retraining required. ■ Stringent requirements to maintain security and

confidentiality. ■ Technical difficulties are possible. ■ Legal and ethical issues involving privacy and access to

client information. ■ Requires consistent use of standardized terminology to

support information sharing across wide networks.

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Summary and Key Points

■ The nursing process provides a methodology by which nurses may deliver care using a systematic, scientific approach.

■ The focus of the nursing process is goal directed and based on a decision-making or problem-solving model consisting of six steps: assessment, diagnosis, outcome identification, planning, implementation, and evaluation.

■ Assessment is a systematic, dynamic process by which the nurse, through interaction with the client, significant others, and health-care providers, collects and analyzes data about the client.

■ Nursing diagnoses are clinical judgments about in- dividual, family, or community responses to actual or potential health problems and life processes.

■ Outcomes are measurable, expected, patient- focused goals that translate into observable behaviors.

■ Evaluation is the process of determining both the client’s progress toward the attainment of expected outcomes and the effectiveness of nursing care.

■ The psychiatric nurse uses the nursing process to assist clients to adapt successfully to stressors within the environment.

■ The nurse serves as a valuable member of the in- terdisciplinary treatment team, working both inde- pendently and cooperatively with other team members.

■ Case management is an innovative model of care delivery that serves to provide quality client care while controlling health-care costs. Critical path- ways of care serve as the tools for provision of care in a case management system.

■ Nurses may serve as case managers, who are re- sponsible for negotiating with multiple health-care providers to obtain a variety of services for the client.

■ Concept mapping is a diagrammatic teaching and learning strategy that allows students and faculty to visualize interrelationships between medical diagnoses, nursing diagnoses, assessment data, and treatments. The concept map care plan is an innovative approach to planning and organizing nursing care.

■ Nurses must document that the nursing process has been used in the delivery of care. Three methods of documentation that reflect use of the nursing process are POR, Focus Charting, and the PIE method.

■ Many health-care facilities have implemented the use of EHRs or electronic documentation systems. EHRs have been shown to improve both the quality of client care and the efficiency of the healthcare system.

C H A P T E R 9 ■ The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 185

Additional info available at www.davisplus.com

Review Questions Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

Select the answer that is most appropriate for each of the following questions.

1. The nurse is using nursing process to care for a client who is suicidal. Which of the following nursing actions is a part of the assessment step of the nursing process? a. Identifies nursing diagnosis: Risk for suicide b. Notes that client’s family reports recent suicide attempt c. Prioritizes the necessity of maintaining a safe client environment d. Obtains a short-term contract from the client to seek out staff if feeling suicidal

2. The nurse is using nursing process to care for a client who is suicidal. Which of the following nursing actions is a part of the diagnosis step of the nursing process? a. Identifies nursing diagnosis: Risk for suicide b. Notes that client’s family reports recent suicide attempt c. Prioritizes the necessity for maintaining a safe environment for the client d. Obtains a short-term contract from the client to seek out staff if feeling suicidal

Continued

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186 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

3. The nurse is using nursing process to care for a client who is suicidal. Which of the following nursing actions is a part of the outcome identification step of the nursing process? a. Prioritizes the necessity for maintaining a safe environment for the client b. Determines if nursing interventions have been appropriate to achieve desired results c. Obtains a short-term contract from the client to seek out staff if feeling suicidal d. Establishes goal of care: Client will not harm self during hospitalization

4. The nurse is using nursing process to care for a client who is suicidal. Which of the following nursing actions is a part of the planning step of the nursing process? a. Prioritizes the necessity for maintaining a safe environment for the client b. Determines if nursing interventions have been appropriate to achieve desired results c. Obtains a short-term contract from the client to seek out staff if feeling suicidal d. Establishes goal of care: Client will not harm self during hospitalization

5. The nurse is using nursing process to care for a client who is suicidal. Which of the following nursing actions is a part of the implementation step of the nursing process? a. Prioritizes the necessity for maintaining a safe environment for the client b. Determines if nursing interventions have been appropriate to achieve desired results c. Collaborates with the client to develop a plan for ongoing safety and suicide prevention d. Establishes goal of care: Client will not harm self during hospitalization

6. The nurse is using nursing process to care for a client who is suicidal. Which of the following nursing actions is a part of the evaluation step of the nursing process? a. Prioritizes the necessity for maintaining a safe environment for the client b. Determines if nursing interventions have been appropriate to achieve desired results c. Obtains a short-term contract from the client to seek out staff if feeling suicidal d. Establishes goal of care: Client will not harm self during hospitalization

7. S.T. is a 15-year-old girl who has just been admitted to the adolescent psychiatric unit with a diagnosis of anorexia nervosa. She is 5 feet 5 inches tall and weighs 82 pounds. She was selected to join the cheer- leading squad for the fall but states that she is not as good as the others on the squad. The treatment team has identified the following problems: refusal to eat, occasional purging, refusing to interact with staff and peers, and fear of failure. Which of the following nursing diagnoses would be appropriate for S.T.? (Select all that apply.) a. Social isolation b. Disturbed body image c. Low self-esteem d. Imbalanced nutrition: Less than body requirements

8. S.T. is a 15-year-old girl who has just been admitted to the adolescent psychiatric unit with a diagnosis of anorexia nervosa. She is 5 feet 5 inches tall and weighs 82 pounds. She was selected to join the cheer- leading squad for the fall but states that she is not as good as the others on the squad. The treatment team has identified the following problems: refusal to eat, occasional purging, refusing to interact with staff and peers, and fear of failure. Which of the following nursing diagnoses would be the priority diagnosis for S.T.? a. Social isolation b. Disturbed body image c. Low self-esteem d. Imbalanced nutrition: Less than body requirements

9. Nursing diagnoses are prioritized according to which of the following? a. Degree of potential for resolution b. Legal implications associated with nursing intervention c. Life-threatening potential d. Client and family requests

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C H A P T E R 9 ■ The Nursing Process in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing 187

Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

10. Which of the following describe advantages of electronic health records (EHRs)? (Select all that apply.) a. They reduce redundancy of information. b. They reduce privacy issues. c. They decrease charting time. d. They facilitate communication between disciplines.

References American Nurses Association (2017). What is nursing? Retrieved

from http://www.nursingworld.org/EspeciallyForYou/ What-is-Nursing

American Nurses Association (ANA). (2015). Nursing: Scope and standards of practice (3rd ed.). Silver Spring, MD: ANA.

American Nurses Association (ANA). (2010). Nursing’s social policy statement: The essence of the profession (3rd ed.). Silver Spring, MD: ANA.

American Nurses Association (ANA), American Psychiatric Nurses Association (APNA), & International Society of Psychiatric-Mental Health Nurses (ISPN). (2014). Psychiatric- mental health nursing: Scope and standards of practice (2nd ed.). Silver Spring, MD: ANA.

Beers, M.H. (2005). Merck manual of health & aging. New York: Ballentine.

Doenges, M.E., Moorhouse, M.F., & Murr, A.C. (2016). Nursing diagnosis manual: Planning, individualizing, and documenting client care (5th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

Institute of Medicine. 2003. Key capabilities of an electronic health record system: Letter report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.17226/10781.

Kaufman, D.M., & Zun, L. (1995). A quantifiable, brief mental status examination for emergency patients. Journal of Emer- gency Medicine, 13(4), 440-456. doi:10.1016/0736-4679(95) 80000-X

Kokman, E., Smith, G.E., Petersen, R.C., Tangalos, E., & Ivnik, R.C. (1991). The short test of mental status: Correlations with standardized psychometric testing. Archives of Neurology, 48(7), 725-728. doi:10.1001/archneur.1991.00530190071018

Lampe, S.S. (1985). Focus charting: Streamlining documenta- tion. Nursing Management, 16(7), 43-46.

Moorhead, S., & Dochterman, J.M. (2012). Languages and devel- opment of the linkages. In M. Johnson, S. Moorhead, G. Bulechek, M. Butcher, M. Maas, & E. Swanson, NOC and NIC linkages to NANDA-I and clinical conditions: Supporting critical reasoning and quality care (3rd ed., pp. 1-10). Maryland Heights, MO: Mosby.

Moorhead, S., Johnson, M., Maas, M., & Swanson, E. (2013). Nursing Outcomes Classification (NOC) (5th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier.

NANDA International. (2015a). Nursing diagnoses: Definitions and classification, 2015–2017. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

NANDA International. (2015b). About NANDA International. Retrieved from www.nanda.org/AboutUs.aspx

Pfeiffer, E. (1975). A short portable mental status questionnaire for the assessment of organic brain deficit in elderly patients. Jour- nal of the American Geriatric Society, 23(10), 433-441. doi:10.1111/ j.1532-5415.1975.tb00927.x

Schuster, P.M. (2015). Concept mapping: A critical-thinking approach to care planning (4th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). (2010). Features of integrated systems support patient care strategies and access to care, but systems face challenges. GAO-11-49. Washington, DC: GAO.

Young, K.M., & Catalano, J. T. (2015). Nursing informatics. In J.T. Catalano (Ed.), Nursing now! Today’s issues, tomorrow’s trends (7th ed., pp. 429-451). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

Classical References Folstein, M.F., Folstein, S.E., & McHugh, P.R. (1975). Mini-mental

state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189-198. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6

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10 Therapeutic Groups C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Objectives

Homework Assignment

Functions of a Group

Types of Groups

Physical Conditions That Influence Group Dynamics

Therapeutic Factors

Phases of Group Development

Leadership Styles

Member Roles

Psychodrama

The Role of the Nurse in Therapeutic Groups

Summary and Key Points

Review Questions

K EY T E R M S

altruism

autocratic

catharsis

democratic

laissez-faire

psychodrama

universality

O B J EC T I V E S After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Define a group. 2. Discuss eight functions of a group. 3. Identify various types of groups. 4. Describe physical conditions that influence

groups. 5. Discuss therapeutic factors that occur in groups. 6. Describe the phases of group development.

7. Identify various leadership styles in groups. 8. Identify various roles that members assume

within a group. 9. Discuss psychodrama as a specialized form

of group therapy. 10. Describe the role of the nurse in group

therapy.

H O M E W O R K A S S I G N M E N T Please read the chapter and answer the following questions:

1. What is the difference between therapeutic groups and group therapy?

2. What are the expectations of the leader in the initial or orientation phase of group development?

3. How does an autocratic leadership style affect member enthusiasm and morale?

4. How does size of the group influence group dynamics?

CORE CONCEPTS Group Group Therapy

188

Human beings are complex creatures who share their activities of daily living with various groups of people. As Forsyth (2010) stated, “The tendency to join with others in groups is perhaps the single most important characteristic of humans and the processes that unfold within these groups leave

an indelible imprint on their members and on society” (p. 1).

Health-care professionals share their personal lives with groups of people and encounter multiple group situations in their professional operations. Team con- ferences, committee meetings, grand rounds, and

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inservice sessions are but a few instances in which this occurs. In psychiatry, work with clients and families often takes the form of groups. With group work, not only does the nurse have the opportunity to reach out to a greater number of people at one time, but those individuals also assist each other by sharing their feel- ings, opinions, ideas, and behaviors with the group. Clients learn from each other in a group setting.

This chapter explores various types and methods of therapeutic groups that can be used with psychiatric clients and the role of the nurse in group intervention.

7. Empowerment: Groups help to bring about improve- ment in existing conditions by providing support to individual members who seek to bring about change. Groups have power that individuals alone do not.

8. Governance: Groups that provide governance functions oversee and direct activities often within the context of a larger group organization. "For example, groups or committees that oversee strate- gic planning, ensure compliance with quality stan- dards, or establish rules and policies" within a larger organization.

Types of Groups

The functions of a group vary depending on the reason the group was formed. Clark (2009) identified three types of groups in which nurses most often participate: task, teaching, and supportive/therapeutic groups.

Task Groups The function of a task group is to accomplish a specific outcome or task. The focus is on solving problems and making decisions to achieve this outcome. Often, a deadline is placed on completion of the task, and such importance is placed on a satisfactory outcome that conflict in the group may be smoothed over or ignored in order to focus on the priority at hand.

Teaching Groups Teaching, or educational, groups exist to convey knowl- edge and information to a number of individuals. Nurses can be involved in many types of teaching groups, such as medication education, childbirth edu- cation, breast self-examination, and effective parenting classes. These groups usually have a set time frame or specified number of meetings. Members learn from each other as well as from the designated instructor. The objective of teaching groups is verbalization or demonstration by the learner of the material presented by the end of the designated period.

Supportive/Therapeutic Groups Supportive or therapeutic groups are primarily con- cerned with preventing future upsets by teaching par- ticipants effective ways to deal with emotional stress arising from situational or developmental crises.

C H A P T E R 10 ■ Therapeutic Groups 189

CORE CONCEPT Group A group is a collection of individuals whose association is founded on commonalities of interest, values, norms, or purpose. Membership in a group is generally by chance (born into the group), by choice (voluntary affil- iation), or by circumstance (the result of life-cycle events over which an individual may or may not have control).

Functions of a Group

Sampson and Marthas (1990) outlined the following eight functions that groups serve for their members. They contend that groups may serve more than one function and usually serve different functions for dif- ferent members of the group.

1. Socialization: The cultural group into which indi- viduals are born begins the process of teaching so- cial norms. This process is continued throughout their lives by members of other groups with which they become affiliated.

2. Support: One’s fellow group members are avail- able in time of need. Individuals derive a feeling of security from group involvement.

3. Task completion: Group members provide assis- tance in endeavors that are beyond the capacity of one individual alone or when results can be achieved more effectively as a team.

4. Camaraderie: Members of a group provide the joy and pleasure that individuals seek from interac- tions with significant others.

5. Information sharing: Learning takes place within groups. Knowledge is gained when individual members learn how others in the group have re- solved situations similar to those with which they are currently struggling.

6. Normative influence: This function relates to the ways in which groups enforce the established norms. As group members interact, they influence each other about expected norms for communica- tion and behavior.

CORE CONCEPT Group Therapy A form of psychosocial treatment in which a number of clients meet together with a therapist for purposes of sharing, gaining personal insight, and improving inter- personal coping strategies.

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For the purposes of this text, it is important to dif- ferentiate between therapeutic groups and group therapy. Leaders of group therapy generally have advanced degrees in psychology, social work, nursing, or medi- cine. They often have additional training or experience in conducting group psychotherapy based on various theoretical frameworks such as psychoanalytic, psycho- dynamic, interpersonal, or family dynamics, under the supervision of accomplished professionals. Approaches based on these theories are used by group therapy leaders to encourage improvement in group members’ abilities to function on an interpersonal level.

Therapeutic groups, on the other hand, are not designed for psychotherapy. They focus instead on group relations, interactions among group members, and the consideration of selected issues. Like group therapists, individuals who lead therapeutic groups must be knowledgeable in group process; that is, the way in which group members interact with each other. Interruptions, silences, judgments, glares, and scape- goating are examples of group processes (Clark, 2009). These interactions may occur whether or not there is a designated group leader, but nurses acting as group leaders can guide the ways in which mem- bers interact to facilitate accomplishing the group’s goals or tasks. This is one reason that group leaders are often referred to as group facilitators. They must also have thorough knowledge of group content, the topic or issue being discussed by the group, and the ability to present the topic in language that can be understood by all members. Many nurses who work in psychiatry lead supportive/therapeutic groups.

Self-Help Groups Nurses may also be involved in self-help groups, a type of group that has grown in number and in cred- ibility in recent years. They allow clients to talk about their fears and relieve feelings of isolation while re- ceiving comfort and advice from others undergoing similar experiences. Examples of self-help groups for clients and families dealing with disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease or anorexia nervosa, Weight Watchers, Alcoholics Anonymous, Reach to Recovery, Parents Without Partners, Overeaters Anonymous, Adult Children of Alcoholics, and many others related to specific needs or illnesses. These groups may or may not have a professional leader or consultant. They are run by the members, and leadership often rotates from member to member.

Nurses may become involved with self-help groups either voluntarily or because their advice or participa- tion has been requested by the members. The nurse may function as a referral agent, resource person, mem- ber of an advisory board, or leader of the group. Self- help groups are a valuable source of referral for clients

with specific problems. However, nurses must be knowl- edgeable about the purposes of the group, member- ship, leadership, benefits, and problems that might threaten the success of the group before making refer- rals to their clients for a specific self-help group. The nurse may find it necessary to attend several meetings of a particular group, if possible, to assess its effective- ness of purpose and appropriateness for client referral.

Physical Conditions That Influence Group Dynamics

Seating When preparing the setting for a group, there should be no barrier between members. For example, a circle of chairs is better than chairs set around a table. Mem- bers should be encouraged to sit in different chairs at each meeting. This openness and change creates a feel- ing of discomfort that encourages anxious and unsettled behaviors that can then be explored within the group.

Size Various authors have suggested different ranges of size as ideal for group interaction: 5 to 10 (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005), 2 to 15 (Sampson & Marthas, 1990), and 4 to 12 (Clark, 2009). Group size does make a difference in the interaction among members. The larger the group, the less time is available to devote to individual members. In larger groups, more aggres- sive individuals are most likely to be heard, whereas quieter members may be left out of the discussions altogether. Understanding this dynamic alerts the nurse group leader to this possibility and allows him or her to facilitate interaction that promotes greater involvement for all members. Conversely, larger groups provide more opportunities for individuals to learn from other members. The wider range of life experiences and knowledge provides a greater poten- tial for effective group problem-solving. Studies have indicated that a composition of 7 or 8 members pro- vides a favorable climate for optimal group interac- tion and relationship development.

Membership Whether the group is open or closed is another condi- tion that influences the dynamics of group process. Open groups are those in which members leave and others join at any time while the group is active. The continuous movement of members in and out of the group creates the type of discomfort described previ- ously that encourages unsettled behaviors in individual members and fosters the exploration of feelings. These are the most common types of groups held on short- term inpatient units, although they are used in outpa- tient and long-term care facilities as well. Closed groups

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usually have a predetermined, fixed time frame. All members join at the time the group is organized and terminate at the end of the designated time period. Closed groups are often composed of individuals with common issues or problems they wish to address.

Therapeutic Factors

Why are therapeutic groups helpful? Yalom and Leszcz (2005) described 11 therapeutic factors that individuals can achieve through interpersonal inter- actions within the group, some of which are present in most groups in varying degrees:

1. Instillation of hope: By observing the progress of others in the group with similar problems, a group member garners hope that his or her problems can also be resolved.

2. Universality: Through universality, individuals come to realize that they are not alone in the prob- lems, thoughts, and feelings they are experiencing. Anxiety is relieved by the support and understand- ing of others in the group who share similar (uni- versal) experiences.

3. Imparting of information: Knowledge is gained through formal instruction as well as sharing of ad- vice and suggestions among group members.

4. Altruism: Altruism is assimilated by group members through mutual sharing and concern for each other. Providing assistance and support to others creates a positive self-image and promotes self-growth.

5. Corrective recapitulation of the primary family group: Group members are able to reexperience early family conflicts that remain unresolved. At- tempts at resolution are promoted through feed- back and exploration.

6. Development of socializing techniques: Through interaction with and feedback from other mem- bers within the group, individuals are able to cor- rect maladaptive social behaviors and learn and develop new social skills.

7. Imitative behavior: In this setting, one who has mastered a particular psychosocial skill or devel- opmental task can be a valuable role model for others. Individuals may imitate selected behaviors that they wish to develop in themselves.

8. Interpersonal learning: The group offers many and varied opportunities for interacting with other people. Insight is gained regarding how one per- ceives and is being perceived by others.

9. Group cohesiveness: Members develop a sense of belonging that separates the individual (“I am”) from the group (“we are”). Out of this alliance emerges a common feeling that both individual members and the total group are of value to each other.

10. Catharsis: Within the group, members are able to express both positive and negative feelings—perhaps feelings that have never been expressed before—in a nonthreatening atmo - sphere. This catharsis, or open expression of feelings, is beneficial for the individual within the group.

11. Existential factors: The group is able to help in- dividual members take direction of their own lives and accept responsibility for the quality of their existence.

It may be helpful for a group leader to explain these therapeutic factors to members. Positive responses are experienced by individuals who understand and are able to recognize therapeutic factors as they occur within the group.

Phases of Group Development

Groups, like individuals, move through phases of life-cycle development. Ideally, groups progress from the phase of infancy to advanced maturity in an effort to fulfill the objectives set forth by the membership. Unfortunately, as with individuals, some groups be- come fixed in early developmental levels and never progress, or they experience periods of regression in the developmental process. Three phases of group development are discussed here.

Phase I. Initial or Orientation Phase Group Activities Leader and members work together to establish the rules that will govern the group (e.g., when and where meetings will occur, the importance of confidentiality, how meetings will be structured). Goals of the group are established. Members are introduced to each other.

Leader Expectations The leader is expected to orient members to specific group processes, encourage members to participate without disclosing too much too soon, promote an environment of trust, and ensure that rules estab- lished by the group do not interfere with fulfillment of the goals.

Member Behaviors In phase I, members have not yet established trust and will respond to this lack of trust by being overly polite. There is a fear of not being accepted by the group. They may try to “get on the good side” of the leader with compliments and conforming behav- iors. A power struggle may ensue as members com- pete for their position in the “pecking order” of the group.

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Phase II. Middle or Working Phase Group Activities Ideally, during the working phase, cohesiveness has been established within the group. This phase is when productive work toward completion of the task is undertaken. Problem-solving and decision-making occur within the group. In the mature group, coop- eration prevails, and differences and disagreements are confronted and resolved.

Leader Expectations The leader becomes less of a leader and more of a facilitator during the working phase. Some leadership functions are shared by certain members of the group as they progress toward resolution. The leader helps to resolve conflict and continues to foster cohesive- ness among the members while ensuring that they do not deviate from the intended task or purpose for which the group was organized.

Member Behaviors At this point, trust has been established among the members. They turn more often to each other and less often to the leader for guidance. They accept crit- icism from each other, using it in a constructive man- ner to create change. Occasionally, subgroups form in which two or more members conspire with each other to the exclusion of the rest of the group. To maintain group cohesion, these subgroups must be confronted and discussed by the entire membership. Conflict is managed by the group with minimal assis- tance from the leader.

Phase III. Final or Termination Phase Group Activities The longer a group has existed, the more difficult ter- mination is likely to be for the members. Termination should be mentioned from the outset of group forma- tion and be discussed in depth for several meetings prior to the final session. A sense of loss that precipitates the grief process may be evident, particularly in groups that have been successful in their stated purpose.

Leader Expectations In the termination phase, the leader encourages the group members to reminisce about what has oc- curred within the group, review the goals and discuss the actual outcomes, and provide feedback to each other about individual progress within the group. The leader encourages members to discuss feelings of loss associated with termination of the group.

Member Behaviors Members may express surprise over the actual materi- alization of the end. This represents the grief response

of denial, which may then progress to anger. Anger toward other group members or toward the leader may reflect feelings of abandonment (Sampson & Marthas, 1990). These feelings may lead to individual members’ discussions of previous losses for which similar emotions were experienced. Successful termi- nation of the group may help members develop the skills needed when losses occur in other dimensions of their lives.

Leadership Styles

Lippitt and White (1958) identified three of the most common group leadership styles: autocratic, demo- cratic, and laissez-faire. Table 10–1 outlines various similarities and differences among the three leader- ship styles.

Autocratic Autocratic leaders have personal goals for the group. They withhold information from group members, particularly issues that may interfere with achieve- ment of their own objectives. The message that is conveyed to the group is: “We will do it my way. My way is best.” The focus in this style of leadership is on the leader. Members are dependent on the leader for problem-solving, decision-making, and permission to perform. The approach of the autocratic leader is one of persuasion, striving to convince others in the group that his or her ideas and methods are superior. Productivity is high with this type of leadership, but often morale within the group is low because of lack of member input and creativity.

Democratic The democratic leadership style focuses on the members of the group. Information is shared with members in an effort to allow them to make decisions regarding group goals. Members are encouraged to participate fully in solving problems that affect the group, including taking action to effect change. The message that is conveyed to the group is: “Decide what must be done, consider the alternatives, make a selection, and proceed with the actions required to complete the task.” The leader provides guidance and expertise as needed. Productivity is lower than it is with autocratic leadership, but morale is much higher because of the extent of input allowed all members of the group and the potential for individual creativity.

Laissez-Faire This leadership style allows people to do as they please. There is no direction from the leader. In fact, the laissez-faire leader’s approach is noninvolvement. Goals for the group are undefined. No decisions are made, no problems are solved, and no action is taken.

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Members become frustrated and confused, and pro- ductivity and morale are low.

Member Roles

Benne and Sheats (1948) identified three major types of roles that individuals play within the membership of the group. These are roles that serve to

1. Complete the task of the group. 2. Maintain or enhance group processes. 3. Fulfill personal or individual needs.

Task roles and maintenance roles contribute to the success or effectiveness of the group. Personal roles satisfy needs of the individual members, sometimes to the extent of interfering with the effectiveness of the group.

Table 10–2 outlines specific roles within these three major types and the behaviors associated with each.

Psychodrama

A specialized type of therapeutic group, called psy- chodrama, was introduced by Jacob L. Moreno, a Viennese psychiatrist. Moreno’s method employs a dramatic approach in which clients become “actors” in life-situation scenarios.

The group leader is called the director, group mem- bers are the audience, and the set or stage may be specially designed or just a room or area selected for this pur- pose. Actors are members from the audience who agree to take part in the “drama” by role-playing a situation about which they have been informed by the director. Usually, the situation is an issue with which an individ- ual client has been struggling. The client plays the role of himself or herself and is called the protagonist. In this role, he or she is able to express true feelings toward individuals (represented by group members) with whom unresolved conflicts exist.

C H A P T E R 10 ■ Therapeutic Groups 193

TA B L E 10 – 1 Leadership Styles—Similarities and Differences CHARACTERISTICS AUTOCRATIC DEMOCRATIC LAISSEZ-FAIRE

Focus

Task strategy

Member participation

Individual creativity

Member enthusiasm and morale

Group cohesiveness

Productivity

Individual motivation and commitment

Leader

Members are persuaded to adopt leader’s ideas

Limited

Stifled

Low

Low

High

Low (tend to work only when leader is present to urge them to do so)

Members

Members engage in group problem-solving

Unlimited

Encouraged

High

High

High (may not be as high as autocratic)

High (satisfaction derived from personal input and participation)

Undetermined

No defined strategy exists

Inconsistent

Not addressed

Low

Low

Low

Low (feelings of frustration from lack of direction or guidance)

TA B L E 10 – 2 Member Roles Within Groups ROLE BEHAVIORS

TASK ROLES Coordinator

Evaluator

Elaborator

Energizer

Initiator

Orienter

Clarifies ideas and suggestions that have been made within the group; brings relationships together to pursue common goals

Examines group plans and performance, measuring against group standards and goals

Explains and expands upon group plans and ideas

Encourages and motivates group to perform at its maximum potential

Outlines the task at hand for the group and proposes methods for solution

Maintains direction within the group

Continued

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194 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

TA B L E 10 – 2 Member Roles Within Groups—cont’d ROLE BEHAVIORS

MAINTENANCE ROLES Compromiser

Encourager

Follower

Gatekeeper

Harmonizer

INDIVIDUAL (PERSONAL) ROLES Aggressor

Blocker

Dominator

Help-seeker

Monopolizer

Mute or silent member

Recognition seeker

Seducer

SOURCES: Benne, K.D., & Sheats, P. (1948, Spring). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 4(2), 41-49; Hobbs, D.J., & Powers, R.C. (1981). Group member roles: For group effectiveness. Ames: Iowa State University, Cooperative Extension Service; Larson, M.L., & Williams, R.A. (1978). How to become a better group leader? Learn to recognize the strange things that happen to some people in groups. Nursing, 8(8), 65-72.

Relieves conflict within the group by assisting members to reach a compromise agreeable to all

Offers recognition and acceptance of others’ ideas and contributions

Listens attentively to group interaction; is a passive participant

Encourages acceptance of and participation by all members of the group

Minimizes tension within the group by intervening when disagreements produce conflict

Expresses negativism and hostility toward other members; may use sarcasm in effort to degrade the status of others

Resists group efforts; demonstrates rigid and sometimes irrational behaviors that impede group progress

Manipulates others to gain control; behaves in authoritarian manner

Uses the group to gain sympathy from others; seeks to increase self-confidence from group feedback; lacks concern for others or for the group as a whole

Maintains control of the group by dominating the conversation

Does not participate verbally; remains silent for a variety of reasons—may feel uncomfortable with self-disclosure or may be seeking attention through silence

Talks about personal accomplishments in an effort to gain attention for self

Shares intimate details about self with group; is the least reluctant of the group to do so; may frighten others in the group and inhibit group progress with excessive premature self-disclosure

In some instances, the group leader may ask for a client to volunteer as protagonist for that session. The client may choose a situation he or she wishes to enact and select the audience members to portray the roles of others in the life situation. The psychodrama set- ting provides the client with a safer and less-threatening atmosphere than the real situation, facilitating the expression of true feelings and resolution of interper- sonal conflicts.

When the drama has been completed, group members from the audience discuss the situation they have observed, offer feedback, express their feelings, and relate their own similar experiences. In this way, all group members benefit from the session, either directly or indirectly.

Nurses often serve as actors or role players in psy- chodrama sessions. Leaders of psychodrama have grad- uate degrees in psychology, social work, nursing, or

medicine with additional training in group therapy and specialty preparation to become a psychodramatist.

The Role of the Nurse in Therapeutic Groups

Nurses participate in group situations on a daily basis. In health-care settings, nurses serve on or lead task groups that create policy, describe procedures, and plan client care. They are also involved in a variety of other groups aimed at the institutional effort of serving the consumer. Nurses are encouraged to use the steps of the nursing process as a framework for task group leadership.

In psychiatry, nurses may lead various types of ther- apeutic groups, such as client education, assertiveness training, grief support, parenting, and transition to discharge groups, among others. To function effectively in the leadership capacity for these groups, nurses

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must recognize the various processes that occur in groups, such as the phases of group development, the roles that people play within groups, and the motiva- tion behind these behaviors. They also need to be able to select the most appropriate leadership style for the type of group. Generalist nurses may develop these skills as part of their undergraduate educations, or they may pursue additional study while serving and learning as the coleader of a group with a more expe- rienced nurse leader.

Generalist nurses in psychiatry should not serve as leaders of psychotherapy groups. The Psychiatric- Mental Health Nursing Scope and Standards of Practice (American Nurses Association, American Psychiatric Nurses Association, & International Society of Psychi- atric Nurses, 2014) specifies that nurses who serve as group psychotherapists should have a minimum of a master’s degree in psychiatric nursing. Educational preparation in group theory, extended practice as a group coleader or leader under the supervision of an experienced psychotherapist, and participation in group therapy on an experiential level are also recommended. Additional specialist training is re- quired beyond the master’s level to prepare nurses to become family therapists or psychodramatists.

Leading therapeutic groups is within the realm of nursing practice. Because group work is such a com- mon therapeutic approach in the discipline of psychi- atry, nurses working in this field must continually strive to expand their knowledge and use of group process as a significant psychiatric nursing intervention.

CLINICAL PEARL Knowledge of human behavior in general and the group process in particular is essential to effective group leadership.

Summary and Key Points

■ A group has been defined as a collection of individ- uals whose association is founded on shared com- monalities of interest, values, norms, or purpose.

■ Eight group functions have been identified: socializa- tion, support, task completion, camaraderie, informa- tional, normative, empowerment, and governance.

■ The three major types of group are task groups, teaching groups, and supportive/therapeutic groups.

■ The function of task groups is to solve problems, make decisions, and achieve a specific outcome.

■ In teaching groups, knowledge and information are conveyed to a number of individuals.

■ The function of supportive/therapeutic groups is to educate people to deal effectively with emotional stress in their lives.

■ In self-help groups, members share the same type of problem and help each other to prevent decom- pensation related to that problem.

■ Therapeutic groups differ from group therapy in that the focus is not on psychotherapy but rather on interaction and relationships among group members with regard to a selected issue. Group therapy is more focused on specific mod- els of psychotherapy, and the leaders generally have advanced degrees in psychology, social work, nursing, or medicine. Placement of the seating and size of the group can influence group interaction.

■ Groups can be open (when members leave and others join at any time while the group is active) or closed (when groups have a predetermined, fixed time frame and all members join at the same time and leave when the group disbands).

■ Yalom and Leszcz (2005) describe the following therapeutic factors that individuals derive from participation in therapeutic groups: instillation of hope, universality, imparting of information, altruism, corrective recapitulation of the primary family group, development of socializing tech- niques, imitative behavior, interpersonal learn- ing, group cohesiveness, catharsis, and existential factors.

■ Groups progress through three phases: the initial (orientation) phase, the working phase, and the termination phase.

■ Group leadership styles include autocratic, demo- cratic, and laissez-faire.

■ Members play various roles within groups. These roles are categorized as task, maintenance, and personal roles.

■ Psychodrama is a specialized type of group therapy that uses a dramatic approach in which clients become “actors” in life-situation scenarios.

■ The psychodrama setting provides the client with a safer and less-threatening atmosphere than the real situation in which to express and work through unresolved conflicts.

■ Nurses lead various types of therapeutic groups in the psychiatric setting. Knowledge of human behavior in general and the group process in par- ticular is essential to effective group leadership.

■ Specialized training, in addition to a master’s degree, is required for nurses to serve as group psychothera- pists or psychodramatists.

C H A P T E R 10 ■ Therapeutic Groups 195

Additional info available at www.davisplus.com

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196 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

Review Questions Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

Select the answer that is most appropriate for each of the following questions:

1. Nicole is the nurse leader of a childbirth preparation group. Each week she shows films and sets out reading materials. She expects the participants to utilize their time on a topic of their choice or practice skills they have observed on the films. Two couples have dropped out of the group, stating, “This is a big waste of time.” Which type of group and style of leadership is described in this situation? a. Task group, democratic leadership b. Teaching group, laissez-faire leadership c. Self-help group, democratic leadership d. Supportive-therapeutic group, autocratic leadership

2. Aisha is a psychiatric nurse who has been selected to lead a group for women who desire to lose weight. The criterion for membership is that they must be at least 20 pounds overweight. All have tried to lose weight on their own many times in the past without success. At their first meeting, Aisha provides sug- gestions as the members determine what their goals will be and how they plan to go about achieving those goals. They decided how often they wanted to meet and what they planned to do at each meeting. Which type of group and style of leadership is described in this situation? a. Task group, autocratic leadership b. Teaching group, democratic leadership c. Self-help group, laissez-faire leadership d. Supportive-therapeutic group, democratic leadership

3. Erik is a staff nurse on a surgical unit. He has been selected as leader of a newly established group of staff nurses organized to determine ways to decrease the number of medication errors occurring on the unit. Erik has definite ideas about how to bring this about. He has also applied for the position of Head Nurse on the unit and believes that if he is successful in leading the group toward achievement of its goals, he can also facilitate his chances for promotion. At each meeting, he addresses the group in an effort to convince the members to adopt his ideas. Which type of group and style of leadership is described in this situation? a. Task group, autocratic leadership b. Teaching group, autocratic leadership c. Self-help group, democratic leadership d. Supportive-therapeutic group, laissez-faire leadership

4. The nurse leader is explaining about group “therapeutic factors” to members of the group. She tells the group that group situations are beneficial because members can see that they are not alone in their experiences. Nurse Carol appropriately identifies this as evidence of which therapeutic factor? a. Altruism b. Imitative behavior c. Universality d. Imparting of information

5. Nurse Carol is the leader of a bereavement group for widows. Elena is a new member who listens to the group and learns that Jane has been a widow for 5 years now. Jane has adjusted well and Elena thinks maybe she can too. Nurse Carol appropriately identifies this as evidence of which therapeutic factor? a. Universality b. Imitative behavior c. Installation of hope d. Imparting of information

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C H A P T E R 10 ■ Therapeutic Groups 197

Review Questions—cont’d Self-Examination/Learning Exercise

6. Paul is a member of an anger management group. He knew that people did not want to be his friend because of his violent temper. In the group, he has learned to control his temper and form satisfactory interpersonal relationships with others. This is an example of which therapeutic factor? a. Catharsis b. Altruism c. Imparting of information d. Development of socializing techniques

7. Benjamin is a member of an Alcoholics Anonymous group. He learned about the effects of alcohol on the body when a nurse from the chemical dependency unit spoke to the group. This is an example of which therapeutic factor? a. Catharsis b. Altruism c. Imparting of information d. Universality

8. Sandra is the nurse leader of a supportive-therapeutic group for individuals with anxiety disorders. In this group, Helen talks incessantly. When someone else tries to make a comment, she refuses to allow him or her to speak. What type of member role is Helen assuming in this group? a. Aggressor b. Monopolizer c. Blocker d. Seducer

9. Sandra is the nurse leader of a supportive-therapeutic group for individuals with anxiety disorders. On the first day the group meets, Valerie speaks first and begins by sharing the intimate details of her incestuous relationship with her father. What type of member role is Valerie assuming in this group? a. Aggressor b. Monopolizer c. Blocker d. Seducer

10. Sandra is the nurse leader of a supportive-therapeutic group for individuals with anxiety disorders. Violet, who is beautiful but lacks self-confidence, states to the group, “Maybe if I became a blond my boyfriend would love me more.” Larry responds, “Listen, dummy, you need more than blond hair to keep the guy around. A bit more in the brains department would help!” What type of member role is Larry assuming in this group? a. Aggressor b. Monopolizer c. Blocker d. Seducer

11. A nurse on the psychiatric unit is asked to lead a psychoeducational group on self-esteem for the in- patients on the unit. It is an open group, and the nurse is aware that the attendees are multicultural. Which of the following evidence-based skills are important for the nurse to possess to effectively lead this group? (Select all that apply.) a. Awareness that contact alone with people of different cultures will improve their intercultural com-

munication b. Skills of emotional intelligence c. Training in culturally specific language interpretation and communication styles d. Recognition that people from cultures that do not value self-esteem will need to be prohibited

from attending the group e. An attitude of willingness to identify and correct intercultural misunderstandings when they occur

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IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH FOR EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE

Atieno-Okech, J.E., Pimpleton, A.M., Vannatta, R., & Champe, J. (2015). Intercultural communication: An application to group work. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 40(3), 268-293. doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2015.1056568

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY: Interdisciplinary literature on intercultural communication was reviewed to serve as a source of evidence-based strategies for improving intercultural communication. The authors note that as the diversity of the U.S. population continues to grow, counseling and therapy groups will grow in diversity and demand attention to intercultural communication in order to remain an effective tool for support, psychoeducation, and therapy.

RESULTS OF THE STUDY: The literature supports that discrepancies in communication style, differing cultural values, and ethnocentrism have been identified as major intercultural barriers in communication. “Languaculture,” a concept developed by Agar (1994), refers to culturally specific ways of interpreting language and is identified as an important knowledge base for group leaders. The case study presented by the authors describes a white female group leader who was using the communication technique of reflection with an African American male who perceived this reflection of his feelings as a taunt rather than as helpful. Attempting to “curiously and respectfully” seek understanding when these miscommunications occur is identified as a group leader’s responsibility.

Other studies found that contact alone did not translate into improved communication and relationships in an inter- cultural group. The biggest deterrents were apathy, ethno- centrism, and inexperience. The group leader therefore must be aware of and attend to cues that may indicate a breakdown in communication between members before conflict or outright hostility arises. Studies showed that emotional intelligence is associated with the ability to read verbal and nonverbal cues, so this is an important skill for group leaders.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING PRACTICE: Nurses will likely be engaged in intercultural groups among peers in the workplace as well as when leading therapeutic patient groups. The following skills are identified as important to evidence-based practice when leading groups:

1. Awareness of one’s own cultural values and biases to evaluate and counter ethnocentrism as a barrier to communication

2. Training in culturally specific ways of interpreting language and communication

3. Emotional intelligence skills to recognize when commu- nication breakdowns are surfacing

4. An attitude of wanting to understand and correct inter- cultural miscommunication when it occurs

References Agar, M. (1994). Language shock: Understanding the culture of conver-

sation. New York: William Morrow. American Nurses Association (ANA), American Psychiatric Nurses

Association (APNA), & International Society of Psychiatric Nurses (ISPN). (2014). Psychiatric-mental health nursing: scope and standards of practice (2nd ed.). Silver Spring, MD: ANA.

Atieno-Okech, J.E., Pimpleton, A.M., Vannatta, R., & Champe, J. (2015). Intercultural communication: An application to group work. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 40(3), 268-293. doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2015.1056568

Clark, C.C. (2009). Group leadership skills for nurses and health professionals (5th ed.). New York: Springer.

Forsyth, D.R. (2010). Group dynamics (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

Sampson, E.E., & Marthas, M. (1990). Group process for the health professions (3rd ed.). Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers.

Yalom, I.D., & Leszcz, M. (2005). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (5th ed.). New York: Basic Books.

Classical References Benne, K.D., & Sheats, P. (1948, Spring). Functional roles of

group members. Journal of Social Issues, 4(2), 41-49. doi:10. 1111/j.1540-4560.1948.tb01783.x

Hobbs, D.J., & Powers, R.C. (1981). Group member roles: For group effectiveness. Ames: Iowa State University, Cooperative Exten- sion Service.

Larson, M.L., & Williams, R.A. (1978). How to become a better group leader? Learn to recognize the strange things that happen to some people in groups. Nursing, 8(8), 65-72. doi:10.1007/s10912-015-9346-4

Lippitt, R., & White, R.K. (1958). An experimental study of lead- ership and group life. In E.E. Maccoby, T.M. Newcomb, & E.L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

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11Intervention With Families C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Objectives

Homework Assignment

Stages of Family Development

Major Variations

Family Functioning

Therapeutic Modalities With Families

The Nursing Process—A Case Study

Summary and Key Points

Review Questions

K EY T E R M S

boundaries

disengagement

double-bind communication

enmeshment

family structure

family system

genograms

marital schism

marital skew

paradoxical intervention

pseudohostility

pseudomutuality

reframing

scapegoating

subsystems

triangles

O B J EC T I V E S After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Define the term family. 2. Identify stages of family development. 3. Describe major variations to the American

middle-class family life cycle. 4. Discuss characteristics of adaptive family

functioning. 5. Describe behaviors that interfere with adaptive

family functioning.

6. Discuss the essential components of family systems, structural, and strategic therapies.

7. Construct a family genogram. 8. Apply the steps of the nursing process in

therapeutic intervention with families.

H O M E W O R K A S S I G N M E N T Please read the chapter and answer the following questions:

1. Describe the concept of reframing. 2. Describe the process of triangulation in a

dysfunctional family pattern.

3. How are genograms helpful in family therapy? 4. What behaviors are indicative of a positive

family climate?

CORE CONCEPTS Family Family Therapy

199

What is a family? Wright and Leahey (2013) propose the following definition: a family is who they say they are. Many family structures exist within society today, such as the biological family of procreation, the nu- clear family that incorporates one or more members of the extended family (family of origin), the sole- parent family, the stepfamily, the communal family,

and the same-sex couple or family. Labeling individu- als as “families” based on their group composition may not be the best characterization, however. Instead, family consideration may be more appropriately de- termined on the basis of attributes of affection, strong emotional ties, a sense of belonging, and durability of membership (Wright & Leahey, 2013).

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Many nurses have interactions with family members on a daily basis. A client’s illness or hospitalization affects all members of the family, and nurses must understand how to work with the family as a unit, know- ing that family members can have a profound effect on the client’s healing process.

Nurse generalists should be familiar with the tasks associated with adaptive family functioning. With this knowledge, they are able to assess family interaction and recognize problems when they arise. They can provide support to families with ill members and make referrals to other professionals when assistance is required to restore adaptive functioning.

Nurse specialists usually possess an advanced degree in nursing. Some nurse specialists have education or experience that qualifies them to perform family ther- apy. Family therapy is an approach that incorporates theories and models designed to explore family dynam- ics, dysfunctional patterns, and methods for adaptive change within the context of the family. This chapter explores the stages of family development and compares the “typical” family within various subcultures. Charac- teristics of adaptive family functioning and behaviors that interfere with this adaptation are discussed. Theo- retical components of selected therapeutic approaches are described. Instructions for construction of a family genogram are included. Nursing process provides the framework for nursing intervention with families.

200 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

CORE CONCEPT Family Two or more individuals who depend on one another for emotional, physical, and economical support. The members of the family are self-defined (Kaakinen & Hanson, 2015, p. 5).

Stages of Family Development

McGoldrick, Garcia-Preto, and Carter (2015) dis- cuss stages and developmental tasks that describe the traditional family life cycle and acknowledge that this is only one of many trajectories for family development in today’s society. It is clear that accom- plishment of these tasks would vary among diverse cultural groups and among the various forms of family structure previously described. These stages, however, provide a valuable framework from which the nurse may study families, emphasizing expan- sion (the addition of members), contraction (the loss of members), and realignment of relationships as members experience developmental changes. These stages of family development are described in the following paragraphs and summarized in Table 11–1.

TA B L E 11– 1 Stages of the Traditional Family Life Cycle EMOTIONAL PROCESS OF CHANGES REQUIRED IN FAMILY STATUS TO PROCEED

FAMILY LIFE-CYCLE STAGES TRANSITION: KEY PRINCIPLES DEVELOPMENTALLY

The single young adult

The family joined through marriage/union

The family with young children

Accepting separation from parents and emotional and financial responsibility for self

Commitment to new system

Accepting new members into the system

■ Differentiation of self in relation to family of origin ■ Development of intimate peer relationships ■ Establishment of self in respect to work and

financial independence ■ Establishment of self in community and larger

society

■ Formation of partner systems ■ Realignment of relationships with extended

family, friends, and larger community and social system to include new partners

■ Adjustment of couple system to make space for children

■ Collaboration in child rearing, financial and housekeeping tasks

■ Realignment of relationships with extended family to include parenting and grandparenting roles

■ Realignment of relationships with community and larger social system to include new family structure and relationships

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C H A P T E R 11 ■ Intervention With Families 201

TA B L E 11– 1 Stages of the Traditional Family Life Cycle—cont’d EMOTIONAL PROCESS OF CHANGES REQUIRED IN FAMILY STATUS TO PROCEED

FAMILY LIFE-CYCLE STAGES TRANSITION: KEY PRINCIPLES DEVELOPMENTALLY

The family with adolescents

The family launching children and moving on in midlife

The family in later life (late middle age to end of life)

Adapted from McGoldrick, M., Garcia-Preto, N. & Carter, B. (2015). Overview: The life cycle in its changing context. In M. McGoldrick, N. Garcia-Preto, & B. Carter. (2015). The expanding family life cycle: Individual, family, and social perspectives (5th ed., pp.1-19). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Reprinted by permission.

The Single Young Adult This model begins with the launching of the young adult from the family of origin. This is a difficult stage because young adults must decide what social stan- dards from the family of origin will be preserved and what standards they will eventually incorporate into a new family. Tasks of this stage include forming an identity separate from the parents, establishing inti- mate peer relationships, and advancing toward finan- cial independence. Problems can arise when either the young adults or the parents encounter difficulty

terminating the interdependent relationship that has existed in the family of origin.

The Family Joined Through Marriage/ Union Uniting as a couple is a difficult transition that must include the integration of contrasting issues that each partner brings to the relationship and issues they may have redefined for themselves as a couple. In addi- tion, the new couple must renegotiate relationships with parents, siblings, and other relatives in view of

Increasing flexibility of family boundaries to permit chil- dren’s independence and grandparents’ frailties

Accepting a multitude of exits from and entries into the family system

■ Accepting the shifting of generational roles

■ Accepting the realities of limitations and death

■ Shifting of parent-child relationships to permit adolescents to move in and out of system

■ Refocus on midlife couple and career issues ■ Beginning shift toward caring for older generation ■ Realignment with community and larger social

system to include shifting family of emerging adolescent and parents in new formation patterns of relating

■ Renegotiation of couple system as a dyad ■ Development of adult-to-adult relationships

between parents and grown children ■ Realignment of relationships to include in-laws

and grandchildren ■ Realignment of relationships with community

and larger social system to include new structure and constellation of family relationships

■ Exploration of new interests/career given the freedom from child-care responsibilities

■ Dealing with care needs, disabilities and death of parents (grandparents)

■ Maintaining own and/or couple functioning and interests in face of physiological decline; exploration of new familial and social role options

■ Supporting more central role of middle generations

■ Realignment of the system in relation to commu- nity and larger social system to acknowledge changed pattern of family relationships of this stage

■ Making room in the system for the wisdom and experience of the elders; supporting the older generation without overfunctioning for them

■ Dealing with loss of spouse, siblings, and other peers and preparation for own death; life review and integration

■ Managing reversed roles in caretaking between middle and older generations

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the new partnership. Tasks of this stage include estab- lishing a new identity as a couple, realigning relation- ships with members of extended family, and making decisions about having children. Problems can arise if either partner remains too enmeshed with their family of origin or when the couple chooses to cut themselves off completely from extended family.

The Family With Young Children Adjustments in relationships must occur with the ar- rival of children. The entire family system is affected, and role realignments are necessary for both new par- ents and new grandparents. Tasks of this stage include making adjustments within the marital system to meet the responsibilities associated with parenthood while maintaining the integrity of the couple relationship, sharing equally in the tasks of child rearing, and inte- grating the roles of extended family members into the newly expanded family organization. Problems can arise when parents lack knowledge about normal childhood development and adequate patience to allow children to express themselves through behavior.

The Family With Adolescents This stage of family development is characterized by a great deal of turmoil and transition. Parents are approaching a midlife stage, and adolescents are undergoing biological, emotional, and sociocultural changes that place demands on each individual and on the family unit. Grandparents, too, may require assistance with the tasks of later life. These develop- ments can create a “sandwich” effect for the parents, who must deal with issues confronting three genera- tions. Tasks of this stage include redefining the level of dependence so that adolescents are provided with greater autonomy while parents remain responsive to the teenager’s dependency needs. Midlife issues related to marriage, career, and aging parents must also be resolved during this period. Problems can arise when parents are unable to relinquish control and allow the adolescent greater autonomy and freedom to make independent decisions or when parents are unable to agree and support each other in this effort.

The Family With Children Leaving Home A great deal of realignment of family roles occurs during this stage, characterized by the intermittent exiting and entering of various family members. Chil- dren leave home for further education and careers; marriages occur, and new spouses, in-laws, and chil- dren enter the system; and new grandparent roles are established. Adult-to-adult relationships among grown children and their parents are renegotiated. Tasks associated with this stage include reestablish- ing the bond of the dyadic marital relationship;

realigning relationships to include grown children, in-laws, and new grandchildren; and accepting the additional caretaking responsibilities and eventual death of elderly parents. Problems can arise when feelings of loss and depression become overwhelming in response to the departure of children from the home, when parents are unable to accept their chil- dren as adults or cope with the disability or death of their own parents, and when the marital bond has deteriorated.

The Family in Later Life (Late Middle Age to End of Life) This stage can begin with retirement and last until the death of both spouses (Wright & Leahey, 2013). How- ever, many older people who have the opportunity to do so are choosing to retire early, while large numbers of those over age 65 are remaining in the workforce and delaying retirement. Thus, the beginning of this stage varies widely. Most adults in their later years are still a prominent part of the family system, and many are able to offer support to their grown children in the middle generation. Tasks traditionally associated with this stage include exploring new social roles related to retirement and possible change in socio - economic status; accepting some decline in physio- logical functioning; dealing with the deaths of spouse, siblings, and friends; and confronting and preparing for one’s own death. A growing trend is an increasing number of older adults living with and in many cases assuming primary responsibility for their grandchil- dren. Currently, 10 percent of all children under the age of 18 in the United States are living with a grand- parent (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). When older adults have failed to fulfill the tasks associated with earlier levels of development and are dissatisfied with the way their lives have gone, they may be unable to find happiness in retirement or emotional satisfaction with children and grandchildren and have difficulty accepting the deaths of loved ones or preparing for their own impending deaths.

Major Variations

Divorce McGoldrick, Garcia-Preto, and Carter (2015) also dis- cuss stages and tasks of families experiencing divorce and remarriage. Data on marriage, divorce, and remar- riage in the United States show that about half of first marriages end in divorce (Centers for Disease Control [CDC], 2015). Whether related to single, never mar- ried, or divorced parents, the number of children who live with one parent has tripled since 1960 from 9 percent to 27 percent (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). Stages in the family life cycle of divorce include

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deciding to divorce, planning the breakup of the sys- tem, separation, and divorce. Tasks include accepting one’s own part in the failure of the marriage, working cooperatively on problems related to finances and child custody and visitation, realigning relationships with extended family, and mourning the loss of the marriage relationship and the intact family.

After the divorce, the custodial parent must adjust to functioning as the single leader of an ongoing family while working to rebuild a new social network. The noncustodial parent must find ways to continue to be an effective parent in a different kind of parent- ing role.

Remarriage Approximately 75 percent of people who divorce even- tually remarry (Stepfamily Foundation, 2016). Cur- rently, less than half (46%) of children are living in a family with two parents in their first marriage (Pew Research Center, 2015). The challenges that face the joining of two established families are immense, and statistics reveal that the rate of divorce for remarried couples is even higher than the divorce rate following first marriages (Cory, 2013). Stages in the remarried family life cycle include entering the new relationship, planning the new marriage and family, and remarriage and reestablishment of family. Tasks include making a firm commitment to confronting the complexities of combining two families, maintaining open communi- cation, facing fears, realigning relationships with ex- tended family to include new spouse and children, and encouraging healthy relationships with biological (noncustodial) parents and grandparents.

Problems can arise when there is a blurring of boundaries between the custodial and noncustodial families. Children may contemplate issues such as

■ Who is the boss now? ■ Who is most important, the child or the new spouse? ■ Mom loves her new husband more than she

loves me. ■ Dad lets me do more than my new stepdad does. ■ I don’t have to mind him; he’s not my real dad.

Confusion and distress for both the children and the parents can be minimized with the establishment of clear boundaries and open communication.

Cultural Variations It is difficult to generalize about variations in family life-cycle development according to culture. Most families have become acculturated to the U.S. society and conform to the life-cycle stages previously de- scribed. However, cultural diversity does exist, and nurses must be aware of possible differences in family expectations related to sociocultural beliefs. The following are possible variations to consider.

Marriage A number of U.S. subcultures maintain traditional values in terms of marriage. These views, along with the influence of Roman Catholicism, exert important influences on attitudes toward marriage in many Italian American and Latino American families. Although the tradition of arranged marriages is disappearing in Asian American families, there is still frequently a strong influence by the family on mate selection in this culture. In most of these subcultures, the father is considered the authority figure and head of the household, and the mother assumes the role of homemaker and caretaker. Family loyalty is intense, and a breach of this loyalty brings considerable shame to the family.

Jewish families have traditionally valued marriage and have prohibited marriage to non-Jews, but that cultural value has shifted in recent years. Valley (2005) makes the following statement about Jewish families:

The Jewish family today encompasses a wide variety of textures and forms. Decades of high intermarriage have diversified the customs and complexions of the family. High divorce rates, meanwhile, have altered the very definition of what is “normal.” Whereas single-parent households were once a rare exception, they now account for an increasing proportion of American Jewish families. Some in the community have interpreted the changing family in strident and judgmental terms: it is a sign of rampant assimilation, loss of tradition, or moral permissiveness. But such scolding does nothing to respond to the new realities and to the changing needs of Jews today. (p. 2)

Children In traditional Latino American and Italian American cultures, children are central to the family system. Many of these individuals have strong ties to Roman Catholicism, which historically has promoted marital relations for procreation only and encouraged fami- lies to have large numbers of children. Regarding birth control, the Catechism of the Catholic Church pronounces as immoral any means that interferes with or hinders procreation (U.S. Catholic Church, 2016).

In the traditional Jewish community, having children is seen as a scriptural and social obligation. “You shall be fruitful and multiply” is a commandment of the Torah.

In some traditional Asian American cultures, sons are more highly valued than daughters (Earp, 2017; Chang, 2017). Younger siblings are expected to follow the guidance of the oldest son throughout their lives, and when the father dies, the oldest son takes over the leadership of the family.

In all of these cultures, children are expected to be respectful of their parents and not bring shame to the family. Especially in the Asian culture, children

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learn a sense of obligation to their parents for bring- ing them into this world and caring for them when they were helpless. This is viewed as a debt that can never be truly repaid, and no matter what the parents may do, the child is still obligated to give respect and obedience.

Extended Family The concept of extended family varies among societies (Purnell, 2013). The extended family is extremely important in the Western European, Latino, and Asian cultures, playing a central role in all aspects of life, including decision-making.

In some U.S. subcultures, such as Asian, Latino, Italian, and Iranian, it is not uncommon to find several generations living together. Older family members are valued for their experience and wisdom. Because extended families often share living quarters or at least live nearby, tasks of child rearing may be shared by several generations.

Divorce In the Jewish community, divorce is often seen as a violation of family togetherness. Some Jewish par- ents take their child’s divorce personally, with a re- sponse that reflects, “How could you possibly do this to me?”

Because Roman Catholicism has traditionally op- posed divorce, those cultures that are largely Catholic have followed this dictate. Historically, a low divorce rate has existed among Italian Americans, Irish Amer- icans, and Latino Americans. The number of divorces among these subcultures is on the rise, however, particularly in successive generations that have be- come acculturated into a society where divorce is more acceptable.

Family Functioning

Boyer and Jeffrey (1994) describe six elements on which families are assessed to be either functional or dysfunctional. Each can be viewed on a continuum, although families rarely fall at extreme ends of the continuum. Rather, they tend to be dynamic and fluc- tuate from one point to another within the different areas. These six elements of assessment are described below and summarized in Table 11–2.

Communication Functional communication patterns are those in which verbal and nonverbal messages are clear, direct, and congruent between sender and intended receiver. Fam- ily members are encouraged to express honest feelings and opinions, and all members participate in decisions that affect the family system. Each member is an active listener to the other members of the family.

Behaviors that interfere with functional communi- cation include the following:

Making Assumptions With this behavior, one assumes that others will know what is meant by an action or an expression (or some- times even what one is thinking); or, conversely, assumes to know what another member is thinking or feeling without checking to make certain.

EXAMPLE A mother says to her teenaged daughter, “You should have known that I expected you to clean up the kitchen while I was gone!”

Belittling Feelings This behavior involves ignoring or minimizing an- other’s feelings when they are expressed. Belittling a

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TA B L E 11– 2 Family Functioning: Elements of Assessment ELEMENTS OF ASSESSMENT CONTINUUM

FUNCTIONAL DYSFUNCTIONAL Communication

Self-concept reinforcement

Family members’ expectations

Handling differences

Family interactional patterns

Family climate

SOURCE: Adapted from Boyer, P.A., & Jeffrey, R.J. (1994). A guide for the family therapist. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.

Clear, direct, open, honest, with congruence between verbal and nonverbal

Supportive, loving, praising, approving, with behaviors that instill confidence

Flexible, realistic, individualized

Tolerant, dynamic, negotiating

Workable, constructive, flexible, promoting the needs of all members

Trusting, growth-promoting, caring, general feeling of well-being

Indirect, vague, controlled, with many double-bind messages

Unsupportive, blaming, put-downs, refusing to allow self-responsibility

Judgmental, rigid, controlling, ignoring individuality

Attacking, avoiding, surrendering

Contradictory, rigid, self-defeating, destructive

Distrusting, emotionally painful, with absence of hope for improvement

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person’s feelings encourages the individual to with- hold honest feelings to avoid being hurt by the nega- tive response.

EXAMPLE When the young woman confides to her mother that she is angry because the grandfather has touched her breast, the mother responds, “Oh, don’t be angry. He doesn’t mean any- thing by that.”

Failing to Listen With this behavior, one does not hear what the other individual is saying. Failing to listen can mean not hearing the words by “tuning out” the message, or it can be “selective” listening, in which a person hears only a selective part of the message or interprets it in a selective manner.

EXAMPLE The father explains to Johnny, “If the contract comes through and I get this new job, we’ll have a little extra money and we will consider sending you to State U.” Johnny relays the message to his friend, “Dad says I can go to State U!”

Communicating Indirectly Indirect communication usually means that an indi- vidual does not or cannot present a message to a re- ceiver directly, so he or she seeks to communicate through a third person.

EXAMPLE A father does not want his teenage daughter to see a certain boyfriend but wants to avoid the angry response he expects from his daughter if he tells her so. He expresses his feel- ings to his wife, hoping she will share them with their daughter.

Presenting Double-Bind Messages Double-bind communication conveys a “damned if I do and damned if I don’t” message. A family mem- ber may respond to a direct request by another fam- ily member, only to be rebuked when the request is fulfilled. This concept appears again in the section on the strategic model of family therapy later in this chapter.

EXAMPLE The father tells his son he is spending too much time play- ing football, and as a result, his grades are falling. The son is expected to bring his grades up over the next 9 weeks or his car will be taken away. When the son tells the father he has quit the football team so he can study more, Dad responds angrily, “I won’t allow any son of mine to be a quitter!”

Self-Concept Reinforcement Functional families strive to reinforce and strengthen each member’s self-concept, with the positive result

that family members feel loved and valued. Boyer and Jeffrey (1994) stated:

The manner in which children see and value them- selves is influenced most significantly by the mes- sages they receive concerning their value to other members of the family. Messages that convey praise, approval, appreciation, trust, and confidence in decisions and that allow family members to pursue individual needs and ultimately to become inde- pendent are the foundation blocks of a child’s feel- ings of self-worth. Adults also need and depend heavily on this kind of reinforcement for their own emotional well-being. (p. 27)

Behaviors that interfere with self-concept rein- forcement include the following:

Expressing Denigrating Remarks These remarks are commonly called “put-downs.” Individuals receive messages that they are worthless or unloved.

EXAMPLE A child spills a glass of milk at the table. The mother responds, “You are hopeless! How could anybody be so clumsy?!”

Withholding Supportive Messages Some family members find it very difficult to provide others with reinforcing and supportive messages. This difficulty may occur because they themselves have not been the recipients of reinforcement from significant others and have not learned how to provide support to others.

EXAMPLE A 10-year-old boy playing Little League baseball retrieves the ball and throws it to second base for an out. After the game he says to his Dad, “Did you see my play on second base?” Dad responds, “Yes, I did, son, but if you had been paying better attention, you could have caught the ball for a direct and immediate out.”

Taking Over Taking over occurs when one family member fails to permit another member to develop a sense of re- sponsibility and self-worth. Instead, the person who takes over does things for the individual and thereby prevents him or her from managing the situation independently.

EXAMPLE Twelve-year-old Eric has a job delivering the evening paper, which he usually begins right after school. Today he must serve a 1-hour detention after school for being late to class yesterday. He tells his Mom, “Tommy said he would throw my papers for me today if I help him wash his Dad’s car on Saturday.” Mom responds, “Never mind. Tell Tommy to forget it. I’ll take care of your paper route today.”

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Family Members’ Expectations All individuals have some expectations about the out- comes of the life situations they experience. These expectations are related to and significantly influenced by earlier life experiences. In functional families, expec- tations are realistic, thereby avoiding setting up mem- bers for failure. In functional families, expectations are also flexible. Life situations are full of extraneous and unexpected interferences. Flexibility allows for changes and interruptions to occur without creating conflict. Finally, in functional families, expectations are individ- ualized. Each family member is different, with different strengths and limitations. The outcome of a life situa- tion for one family member may not be realistic for another. Each member must be valued independently, and comparison among members must be avoided.

Behaviors that interfere with adaptive functioning in terms of member expectations include the following:

Ignoring Individuality When family members are expected to perform or behave in ways that undermine their individuality or do not suit their current life situation, their individu- ality is being ignored. This sometimes happens when parents expect their children to fulfill the hopes and dreams the parents have failed to achieve, yet the children have their own, different hopes and dreams.

EXAMPLE Bob, an only child, leaves for college next year. Bob’s father, Robert, inherited a hardware store that was founded by Bob’s great-grandfather and has been in the family for three genera- tions. Robert expects Bob to major in business, work in the store after college, and take over the business when Robert retires. Bob, however, has a talent for writing, wants to major in communication, and wants to work in television news when he graduates. Robert sees this plan as a betrayal of the family.

Demanding Proof of Love Boyer and Jeffrey (1994) state:

Family members place expectations on others’ behav- ior that are used as standards by which the expecting member determines how much the other members care for him or her. The message attached to these expectations is: “If you will not be as I wish you to be, you don’t love me.” (p. 32)

EXAMPLE “If you don’t take over the hardware store, you don’t love me” is the message that Bob receives from his father in the previous example.

Handling Differences It is difficult to conceive of two or more individuals living together who agree on everything all of the time. Serious problems in a family’s functioning appear

when differences become equated with disapproval or when disagreement is perceived as offensive. Members of a functional family understand that it is acceptable to disagree and deal with differences in an open, nonattacking manner. Members are willing to hear the other person’s position, respect the other person’s right to hold an opposing position, and work to mod- ify the expectations on both sides of the issue in order to negotiate a workable solution.

Behaviors that interfere with successful family negotiations include the following:

Attacking Personal attacks can occur when a difference of opin- ion deteriorates. One person may blame the other with insulting remarks, reminders of past transgres- sions may occur, and the situation intensifies with destructive expressions of anger and hurt.

EXAMPLE When Nadya’s husband, Denis, buys an expensive set of golf clubs, Nadya responds, “How could you do such a thing? You know we can’t afford those! No wonder we don’t have a nice house like all our friends. You spend all our money before we can save for a down payment. You’re so selfish! We’ll never have anything nice, and it’s all your fault!”

Avoiding With this tactic, differences are never acknowledged openly. The individual who disagrees avoids dis- cussing it for fear that the other person will withdraw love or approval or become angry in response to the disagreement. Avoidance also occurs when an indi- vidual fears loss of control of his or her temper if the disagreement is brought out into the open.

EXAMPLE Vicki and Clint have been married 6 months. This is Vicki’s sec- ond marriage, and she has a 4-year-old son from her first mar- riage, Derek, who lives with her and Clint. Both Vicki and Clint work, and Derek goes to day care. Since the marriage 6 months ago, Derek cries every night continuously unless Vicki spends all her time with him, which she does in order to keep him quiet. Clint resents this but says nothing for fear he will come across as interfering; however, he has started going back to work in his office in the evenings to avoid the family situation.

Surrendering The person who surrenders in the face of disagree- ment does so at the expense of denying his or her own needs or rights. The individual avoids expressing a difference of opinion for fear of angering another person or of losing approval and support.

EXAMPLE Elaine is the only child of wealthy parents. She attends an exclusive private college in a small New England town, where

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she met Andrew, the son of a farming couple from the area. Andrew attended the local community college for 2 years but chose to work on his parents’ farm rather than continue college. Elaine and Andrew love each other and want to be married, but Elaine’s parents say they will disown her if she marries Andrew, who they believe is below her social status. Elaine breaks off her relationship with Andrew rather than challenge her parents’ wishes.

Family Interactional Patterns Interactional patterns have to do with the ways in which families “behave.” All families develop recur- ring, predictable patterns of interaction over time. These are often thought of as family rules. The men- tality conveys, “This is the way we have always done it,” and provides a sense of security and stability for family members that comes from predictability. These inter- actions may have to do with communication, self- concept reinforcement, expressing expectations, and handling differences (all of the behaviors that were discussed previously), but because they are repetitive and recur over time, they become the rules that gov- ern patterns of interaction among family members.

Family rules are functional when they are workable, constructive, and promote the needs of all family mem- bers. They are dysfunctional when they become contra- dictory, self-defeating, and destructive. Family therapists often find that individuals are unaware that dysfunc- tional family rules exist and may vehemently deny their existence even when confronted with a specific behav- ioral interaction. The development of dysfunctional interactional patterns occurs through a habituation process and out of fear of change or reprisal or through a lack of knowledge as to how a given situation might be handled differently. Many are derived from the parents’ own childhood experiences.

Patterns of interaction that interfere with adaptive family functioning include the following:

Patterns That Cause Emotional Discomfort Interactions can promote hurt and anger in family members. This is particularly true of emotions that individuals feel uncomfortable expressing or are not permitted (according to family rules) to express openly. These interactional patterns include behav- iors such as never apologizing or never admitting that one has made a mistake, forbidding flexibility in life situations (“You must do it my way, or you will not do it at all”), making statements that devalue the worth of others, or withholding statements that promote increased self-worth.

EXAMPLE Priscilla and Bill had been discussing buying a new car but could not agree on the make or model to buy. One day, Bill appeared at Priscilla’s office over the lunch hour and said,

“Come outside and see our new car.” In front of the building, Bill had parked a brand new sports car that he explained he had purchased with their combined savings. Priscilla was furious but kept quiet and proceeded to finish her workday. At home she expressed her anger to Bill for making the pur- chase without consulting her. Bill refused to apologize or admit to making a mistake. They both remained cool and hardly spoke to each other for weeks.

Patterns That Perpetuate or Intensify Problems When problems go unresolved over a long period of time, it sometimes appears to be easier just to ignore them. If problems of the same nature occur, the ten- dency to ignore them then becomes the safe and pre- dictable pattern of interaction for dealing with this type of situation. This may occur until the problem in- tensifies to a point when it can no longer be ignored.

EXAMPLE Dan works hard in the automobile factory and demands peace and quiet from his family when he comes home from work. His children have learned over the years not to share their problems with him because they fear his explosive tem- per. Their mother attempts to handle unpleasant situations alone as best she can. When son Ron was expelled from school for being caught smoking pot for the third time, Dan yelled, “Why wasn’t I told about this before?”

Patterns That Are in Conflict With Each Other Some family rules may appear to be functional—very workable and constructive—on the surface, but in practice they may serve to destroy healthy interac- tional patterns. Boyer and Jeffrey (1994) describe the following scenario as an example.

EXAMPLE Dad insists that all members of the family eat dinner together every evening. No one may leave the table until everyone is finished because dinnertime is one of the few times left when the family can be together. Yet Dad frequently uses the time to reprimand Bobby about his poor grades in math, to scold Ann for her sloppy room, or to make not-so-subtle gibes at Mom for “spending all day on the telephone and never getting anything accomplished.”

Family Climate The atmosphere or climate of a family is composed of a blend of the feelings and experiences that result from family members’ verbal and nonverbal sharing and in- teracting. A positive family climate is founded on trust and reflected in open communication, joyfulness and laughter, expressions of caring and mutual respect, the valuing of each individual as unique, and a general feeling of security and well-being. In a dysfunctional family, the climate is evidenced by tension, frustration, guilt, anger and resentment, depression, and despair.

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Therapeutic Modalities With Families

While family therapy is reserved for the advanced practice psychiatric nurse, the theoretical foundations for family therapy are useful to the generalist nurse for understanding and assessing family dynamics and making appropriate referrals when family dysfunction is identified.

The Family as a System General systems theory is a way of organizing thought according to the holistic perspective. A system is con- sidered greater than the sum of its parts. A system is considered dynamic and ever changing. A change in one part of the system causes a change in the other parts of the system and in the system as a whole. When studying families, it is helpful to conceptualize a hier- archy of systems.

The family can be viewed as a system composed of various subsystems, such as the marital subsystem, parent-child subsystems, and sibling subsystems. Each of these subsystems is further divided into subsystems of individuals. The family system is also a subsystem of a larger suprasystem, such as the neighborhood or community. A schematic of a hierarchy of systems is presented in Figure 11–1.

Major Concepts Bowen (1978) did a great deal of work with families using a systems approach. Bowen’s theoretical ap- proach to family therapy is composed of eight major concepts: (1) differentiation of self, (2) triangles, (3) nuclear family emotional process, (4) family pro- jection process, (5) multigenerational transmission process, (6) sibling position, (7) emotional cutoff, and (8) societal emotional process.

Differentiation of Self Differentiation of self is the ability to define oneself as a separate being. The Bowen theory suggests that “a person with a well-differentiated self recognizes his [or her] realistic dependence on others, but can stay calm and clear headed enough in the face of conflict, criticism, and rejection to distinguish thinking rooted in a careful assessment of the facts

from thinking clouded by emotionality” (Bowen Center, 2016a).

The degree of differentiation of self can be viewed on a continuum from high levels, in which an indi- vidual manifests a clearly defined sense of self, to low or undifferentiated levels, in which emotional fusion exists and the individual is unable to function sepa- rately from a relationship system. Healthy families en- courage differentiation, and the process of separation from the family ego mass is most pronounced during the ages of 2 to 5 and again between the ages of 13 and 15. Families that do not understand the child’s need to be different during these times may perceive the child’s behavior as objectionable.

Bowen (1971) used the term stuck-togetherness to describe the family with the fused ego mass. When fam- ily fusion occurs, none of the members has a true sense of self as an independent individual. Boundaries be- tween members are blurred, and the family becomes enmeshed without individual distinguishing character- istics. In this situation, family members can neither gain true intimacy nor separate and become individuals.

Triangles The concept of triangles refers to a three-person emo- tional configuration that is considered a significant element in evaluating the communication, behavior, and relationships within the family system. Bowen (1978) offers the following description of triangles:

The basic building block of any emotional system is the triangle. When emotional tension in a two-person system exceeds a certain level, it triangles in a third person, permitting the tension to shift about within the triangle. Any two in the original triangle can add

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CORE CONCEPT Family Therapy A type of therapeutic modality in which the focus of treatment is on the family as a unit. It represents a form of intervention in which members of a family are assisted to identify and change problematic, maladaptive, self- defeating, repetitive relationship patterns (Goldenberg, Goldenberg, & Pelavin, 2013).

A B

C D

The community suprasystem

The family subsystem

Sibling subsystem Parent-child subsystem Parent-child subsystem Parent-child subsystem Parent-child subsystem

Key: A = Father subsystem B = Mother subsystem C = Child subsystem D = Child subsystem

CD = AD = BC = AC = BD =AB = Marital subsystem

FIGURE 11–1 A hierarchy of systems.

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a new triangle. An emotional system is composed of a series of interlocking triangles. (p. 306)

Triangles are dysfunctional in that they offer relief from anxiety through diversion rather than through resolution of the issue. To diffuse stress and conflict in a two-person relationship, one or both individuals may draw a third person into the mix either for sym- pathy or to deflect from the issues that are creating the stress between them (Nichols & Davis, 2017). When the dynamics within a triangle stabilize, a fourth per- son may be brought in to form additional triangles in an effort to reduce tension. This triangulation can continue almost indefinitely as extended family and people outside the family, including the family thera- pist, may become entangled in the process. The ther- apist working with families must strive to remain “de-triangled” from this emotional system.

Nuclear Family Emotional Process The nuclear family emotional process describes the patterns of emotional functioning in a single genera- tion. The nuclear family begins with a relationship between two people who form a couple. The most open relationship usually occurs during courtship, when most individuals choose partners with similar levels of differentiation. The lower the level of differ- entiation, the greater the possibility of problems in the future. A degree of fusion occurs with permanent commitment. This fusion results in anxiety and must be dealt with by each partner in an effort to maintain a healthy degree of differentiation.

Family Projection Process Spouses who are unable to work through the undif- ferentiation or fusion that occurs with permanent commitment may project the resulting anxiety onto the children when they become parents. This occur- rence is manifested as a father-mother-child triangle. These triangles are common and exist in various gradations of intensity in most families with children.

The child who becomes the target of the projection may be selected for various reasons:

■ A particular child reminds one of the parents of an unresolved childhood issue.

■ The child is of a particular gender or position in the family.

■ The child is born with special needs. ■ The parent has a negative attitude about the

pregnancy.

This behavior is called scapegoating. It is harmful to both the child’s emotional stability and his or her ability to function outside the family. A child who is scapegoated may become identified as “the problem child” and is vulnerable to accepting this label as his or her identity. The potential outcomes are risk for

poor self-esteem, difficulty developing healthy rela- tionships, and other emotional problems.

Multigenerational Transmission Process Bowen (1978) described the multigenerational trans- mission process as the manner in which interactional patterns are transferred from one generation to an- other. Attitudes, values, beliefs, behaviors, and pat- terns of interaction are passed along from parents to children over many lifetimes, so that it becomes possible to show in a family assessment that a certain behavior has existed within a family through multiple generations. Genograms A convenient way to plot a multigenera- tional assessment is with the use of genograms. Genograms offer the convenience of a great deal of information in a small amount of space. They can also be used as teaching tools with the family itself. An overall picture of the life of the family over several generations can be conveyed, including roles that various family members play as well as emotional dis- tance between specific individuals. Areas for change can be easily identified. A sample genogram is pre- sented in Figure 11–2.

Sibling Position This view suggests that birth order in a family influ- ences the development of predictable personality characteristics. For example, firstborn children are thought to be perfectionistic, reliable, and conscien- tious; middle children are described as independent, loyal, and intolerant of conflict; and youngest children tend to be charming, precocious, and gregarious (Leman, 2009). Bowen used this thesis to help deter- mine levels of differentiation within a family and the possible direction of the family projection process. For example, if an oldest child exhibits characteris- tics more representative of a youngest child, there is evidence that this child may be the product of trian- gulation. Sibling position profiles are also used when studying multigenerational transmission processes and verifiable data are missing for certain family members.

Is there evidence to support profiled sibling per- sonality traits based on birth order? The answer is complex. Hartshorne (2010) states that the majority of the 65,000 research studies on this topic are flawed and the remainder show no significant effect. Eckstein and Kaufman’s work (2012) suggests that perceptions about roles and personality character- istics may be influenced by parents’ expectations and stereotypes about birth-order related roles. Family size has been identified as a variable that matters; in two studies that were controlled for fam- ily size, Kristensen and Bjerkedal (2007) found a small but significant difference in IQ based on

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birth order, and Hartshorne, Salem-Hartshorne, and Hartshorne (2009) found that birth order in- fluenced how individuals choose their friends and their spouses. When assessing a family to identify dysfunctions based on profiling sibling position, the nurse needs to consider many variables to make the best clinical judgment.

Emotional Cutoff Emotional cutoff describes differentiation of self from the perception of the child. All individuals have some degree of unresolved emotional attachment to their parents, and the lower the level of differentia- tion, the greater the degree of unresolved emotional attachment.

Emotional cutoff has very little to do with how far away one lives from the family of origin. Individuals who live great distances from their parents can still be undifferentiated, whereas some individuals are emo- tionally cut off from their parents who live in the same town or even the same neighborhood.

Bowen (1976) suggests that emotional cutoff is the result of dysfunction within the family of origin in which fusion has occurred and that emotional cutoff promotes the same type of dysfunction in the new

nuclear family. He contends that maintaining some emotional contact with the family of origin promotes healthy differentiation.

Societal Emotional Process The Bowen theory views society as an emotional sys- tem. The concept of societal emotional process com- pares society’s response to stress to the same type of response seen in individuals and families in response to emotional crisis: stress creates uncomfortable levels of anxiety that lead to hasty solutions, which add to the problems, and the cycle continues. This concept of Bowen’s theory is explained as follows (Bowen Center, 2016b):

Human societies undergo periods of regression and progression in their history. The current regression seems related to factors such as the population explo- sion, a sense of diminishing frontiers, and the deple- tion of natural resources. The “symptoms” of societal regression include a growth of crime and violence, an increasing divorce rate, a more litigious attitude, a greater polarization between racial groups, less principled decision-making by leaders, the drug abuse epidemic, an increase in bankruptcy, and a focus on rights over responsibilities.

210 U N I T 3 ■ Therapeutic Approaches in Psychiatric Nursing Care

A

Male

Female

Separated (s)

Offspring

Conflictual relationship

Miscarriage or abortion

Adopted (boy)

Pregnant

Unmarried relationship

Overclose relationship

Married (m)

Divorced (d)

Twins (boys)

Death

KEY

50

71

72

33

5252

23 2321

16 16

3232

1956 CA

1945 CA

1976 MI 1968 CA

1985 MI

1983 CA

1982 MI

1984 CVA

43 A 42

Abortion 1989

(m) 1958 (d) 1960

(m) 1961 (s) 1991

(Patient)

86 92 100

80