psychology

ariannaeliza97

PSYCH5_Rathus_Ch05.pdf

Home >Psychology homework help >psychology

Learning

not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly

accessible website, in whole or in part .

LEARNING OUTCOMES

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

1 Define learning

2 Describe principles and methods of classical conditioning

3 Describe applications of classical conditioning

4 Describe principles and methods of operant conditioning

5 Describe applications of operant conditioning

6 Discuss cognitive factors in learning

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Truth or Fiction?

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Learning

• Behaviorist perspective • Relatively permanent changes in behavior that

result from practice or experience

• Cognitive perspective • Relatively permanent changes in the way one

represents the environment due to experience

LO 1

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Classical Conditioning

• Form of learning in which a neutral stimulus evokes a response • Response is usually evoked by another stimulus

paired repeatedly with the neutral stimulus

• Reflexes are evoked by certain stimuli

- Reflex: Unlearned response

- Stimulus: Environmental condition that evokes response

LO 2

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Classical Conditioning (continued)

• Reflexes can be learned (conditioned) through association

Classroom Demonstration - Classical Conditioning

LO 2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Ivan Pavlov’s Experiments

• Meat powder was placed on a dog’s tongue • Resulted in salivation

• Conditioned reflexes • Dog was trained to salivate at the sound of a

tone or a bell

- Neutral stimulus - Sound of the bell

LO 2

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Ivan Pavlov’s Experiments

- Stimulus - Food

- Target response - Salivation

• Known as conditioned responses

• Student project - Conditioned Reflex

LO 2

https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/johnchay/www/cc.htm

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Explaining Classical Conditioning

• Behaviorist perspective • Dog learned to salivate in response to the tone

because the tone had been paired with meat powder

• Cognitive perspective • Dog salivated in response to the tone since the

tone became mentally connected with the meat

LO 2

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Stimuli and Responses in Classical

Conditioning

LO 2

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Unconditioned response

(UCR)

Orienting reflex

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Figure

PSYCH5 | CH5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

5.1 How Classical Conditioning Works LO 2

Figure

PSYCH5 | CH5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

5.1 How Classical Conditioning Works (continued 1)

LO 2

Figure

PSYCH5 | CH5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

5.1 How Classical Conditioning Works (continued 2)

LO 2

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

• Extinction • CS no longer elicits the CR

• CS is no longer associated with the UCS

• Spontaneous recovery • Time passes

• CS again elicits the CR

• Helps organisms adapt to situations that recur from time to time

LO 2

Figure

PSYCH5 | CH5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

5.2 Learning and Extinction Curves LO 2

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Generalization and Discrimination

• Generalization • Tendency for CR to be evoked by stimuli similar

to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned

• Organisms must learn that:

- Similar stimuli have different functions

- They must respond adaptively to different stimuli

LO 2

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Discrimination

• CR evoked by limited range of stimuli • Caused due to presenting a range of stimuli but

repeatedly pairing only the one CS with the UCS

LO 2

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Higher-Order Conditioning

• Previously neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being repeatedly paired with that CS

• Demonstrated by Pavlov when he conditioned a dog to salivate to a tone • Repeatedly paired a light with the tone

• After several pairings, light evoked salivation

LO 2

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Application of Classical Conditioning: Taste

Aversion

• Adaptive • Motivates organisms to avoid harmful foods

• Differs from other kinds of classical conditioning • May require only a single association

• UCS can occur hours after the CS

LO 3

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Evolution of Taste Aversion

• Research on taste aversion • Challenges view that organisms learn to

associate any stimuli that are linked in time

• Evolutionary perspective • Animals are prepared to develop aversions that

are adaptive in their environments

LO 3

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

1. Truth or Fiction?

• A single nauseating meal can give rise to a taste aversion that lasts for years

• TRUE!

LO 3

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Application of Classical Conditioning

• Little Albert experiment • Albert was conditioned to

fear a rat

• Generalized to other furry organisms

• Showed how humans are biologically prepared by evolutionary forces to develop certain fears

LO 3

History of Psychology—The University of Akron

link—https:/www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Application of Classical Conditioning: Fear-

Reduction Techniques

Counterconditioning Flooding

Systematic desensitization

LO 3

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

2. Truth or Fiction?

• Psychologists helped a young boy overcome his fear of rabbits by having him eat cookies while a rabbit was brought closer and closer

• TRUE!

LO 3

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Edward L. Thorndike’s Law of Effect

• Response is strengthened by a reward

• Response is stamped out by a punishment • Organisms learn to avoid behaviors that would

result in punishment

LO 4

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

B. F. Skinner and Reinforcement

• Skinner taught pigeons to engage in operant behavior • Operant behavior (operant): Behavior that

operates on, or manipulates, the environment

• Operant conditioning: Organisms learn to engage in behavior that is reinforced • Voluntary responses are acquired or conditioned

LO 4

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

B. F. Skinner and Reinforcement (continued)

• Skinner focused on measurable behaviors

• Skinner box • Animal cage (operant chamber) devised to study

operant behavior

• Permits careful introduction and removal of experimental conditions

• Provides observable effects on laboratory animals

LO 4

Figure

PSYCH5 | CH5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

5.4 A Rat in a Skinner Box LO 4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOgowRy2WC0

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

3. Truth or Fiction?

• During World War II, psychologist B. F. Skinner proposed that pigeons be trained to guide missiles to their targets

• TRUE!

LO 4

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Types of Reinforcers LO 4

Positive and negative reinforcers

Immediate and delayed reinforcers

Primary and secondary reinforcers

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Positive and Negative Reinforcers

• Increase the probability of a behavior to occur when applied

Positive reinforcers

• Increase the probability of a behavior to occur when removed

Negative reinforcers

LO 4

Figure

PSYCH5 | CH5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

5.5 Positive versus Negative

Reinforcers

LO 4

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Immediate versus Delayed Reinforcers

• Immediate reinforcers are more effective than delayed reinforcers • Short-term consequences of a behavior provide

more of an incentive than the long-term consequences

LO 4

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers LO 4

• Effective due to the biological makeup of an organism

• Examples - Food, water, warmth, and pain

Primary reinforcers

• Acquire value due to association with established reinforcers

• Example - Money

Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery in

Operant Conditioning

• Extinction • Results from repeated performance of behavior

without reinforcement

• People can reinforce themselves for desired behavior by telling themselves they did a good job

• Spontaneous recovery • Adaptive in operant and classical conditioning

• Reinforcers are available after time elapses

LO 4

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Reinforcers versus Rewards and Punishment

• Reinforcers are known by their effects • Rewards and punishments are known by how

they feel

• Reinforcers increase the frequency of the behavior followed • Punishments decrease the frequency of the

behavior and suppress undesirable behavior

LO 4

Figure

PSYCH5 | CH5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

5.6 Negative Reinforcers versus

Punishments

LO 4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LhI5h5JZi-U

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Positive and Negative Punishments

• Aversive events that decrease the frequency of a behavior • Positive punishment - Application of aversive

stimulus

• Negative punishment - Removal of pleasant stimulus

LO 4

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Discriminative Stimuli

• Stimuli that indicate whether a behavior will be reinforced • Behavior that is not reinforced tends to be

extinguished

• Example - Answering a telephone only when it rings

LO 4

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement of every correct response

• Partial reinforcement: Not every correct response is reinforced • Partially reinforced responses are more resistant

to extinction

LO 4

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Interval Schedules of Reinforcement LO 4

• Fixed amount of time must elapse before the correct response will result in a reinforcer

• Response rate falls after each reinforcement and picks up as reinforcement time approaches

Fixed-interval schedule

• Reinforcement is unpredictable

• Variable amount of time elapses

• Response rate tends to be low but steady

Variable-interval schedule

Figure

PSYCH5 | CH5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

5.7 The Fixed-Interval Scallop LO 4

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

4. Truth or Fiction?

• Slot-machine players pop coins into the machines most rapidly when they have no idea when they might win

• TRUE!

LO 4

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement LO 4

• Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of correct responses • Response rate tends to be high

- Enables organisms to make several responses before the next reinforcement

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement (continued) LO 4

• Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcement is provided after an indefinite number of correct responses • High response rate is maintained through

unpredictability

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Applications of Operant Conditioning LO 5

Biofeedback training

Shaping

Behavior modification

Programmed learning

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Shaping

• Reinforces progressive steps toward a behavioral goal • As training proceeds, successive approximations

to the goal are reinforced

- Successive approximations: Behaviors that are progressively closer to a target behavior

LO 5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

5. Truth or Fiction?

• You can train a rat to climb a ramp, cross a bridge, climb a ladder, pedal a toy car, and do several other tasks—all in proper sequence

• TRUE!

LO 5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

6. Truth or Fiction?

• You have to make mistakes in order to learn

• TRUE!

LO 5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Latent Learning

• Learning that is hidden or concealed

• In an experiment conducted by E. C. Tolman, it was found that rats could build a cognitive map of a maze • Cognitive map: Mental representation of the

layout of one’s environment

LO 6

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Contingency Theory

• Learning only occurs when CS provides information about the UCS

• In an experiment, Rescorla concluded that learning occurs only when the CS provides information about the US

LO 6

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Observational Learning

• Acquisition of skills by observing others • One is vicariously reinforced when one sees

modeled behavior being reinforced

• Can occur without engaging in overt responses • Paying attention to the behavior is sufficient

• Practice is required to refine acquired skills that may be latent

• Mirror neurons stimulate imitative behavior

LO 6

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Risk Factors of Violence and Aggression in

Media

Video games Television Music and

music videos

Movies Advertisements Comic books

LO 6

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Consensus on the Effects of Violence in the

Media

• Depiction of violence contributes to aggression via: • Observational learning

• Disinhibition

• Increased emotional arousal

• Priming of aggressive thoughts and memories

• Habituation

• Provision of aggressive scripts

LO 6

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Consensus on the Effects of Violence in the

Media (continued 1)

• Contributors to media violence • Cultural stereotyping of males and females

• Possible biological sex differences

• Moderating variables

- Social connectedness

- Academic achievement

LO 6

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Consensus on the Effects of Violence in the

Media (continued 2)

• Circular relationship exists between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior

• Family factors may influence imitation of media violence • Parental rejection and use of physical

punishment

• Children who believe violence is inappropriate will be less aggressive

LO 6

Figure

PSYCH5 | CH5

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

5.8 What Are the Connections between Media Violence and Aggressive Behavior?

LO 6

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Teaching Children Not to Imitate Media

Violence

• Children should be informed that: • Violent behavior in the media does not

represent the behavior of most people and is not real

• Most people resolve conflicts by nonviolent means

• Real-life consequences of violence are harmful to the victim and often to the aggressor

LO 6

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Albert Bandura’s Study of Imitation of

Aggressive Models

• Questioned whether viewing aggressive behavior in the media would stimulate children to behave aggressively • Children imitated the aggressive behavior they

observed

LO 6

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

Albert Bandura’s Study of Imitation of

Aggressive Models (continued)

LO 6

S ta

n fo

rd U

n iv

e rsity

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

7. Truth or Fiction?

• Despite all the media hoopla, no scientific connection has been established between violence in the media and real-life aggression

• FICTION!

LO 6

KEY TERMS

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

• Learning

• Classical conditioning

• Reflex

• Stimulus

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

• Unconditioned response (UCR)

• Orienting reflex

• Conditioned stimulus (CS)

• Conditioned response (CR)

• Extinction

• Spontaneous recovery

• Generalization

• Discrimination

• Higher-order conditioning

KEY TERMS

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

• Biological preparedness

• Counterconditioning

• Flooding

• Systematic desensitization

• Law of effect

• Reinforce

• Operant behavior

• Operant conditioning

• Operant

• Positive reinforcer

• Negative reinforcer

• Primary reinforcer

• Secondary reinforcer

• Conditioned reinforcer

• Discriminative stimulus

KEY TERMS

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

• Continuous reinforcement

• Partial reinforcement

• Fixed-interval schedule

• Variable-interval schedule

• Fixed-ratio schedule

• Variable-ratio schedule

• Shaping

• Successive approximations

• Cognitive map

• Latent learning

• Contingency theory

• Observational learning

• Model

SUMMARY

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

• Behaviorist and cognitive views of learning differ

• Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which organisms come to anticipate or associate events with one another

• Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which an organism learns to engage in behavior because it is reinforced

SUMMARY

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .

• Cognitive factors in learning include: • Latent learning

• Contingency theory

• Observational learning

publicly accessible website, in whole or in part .