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What is

Psychology?

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LEARNING OUTCOMES

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1. Define psychology and describe what psychologists do

2. Describe the origins of psychology and discuss people who have made significant contributions to the field

3. Identify the theoretical perspectives from which psychologists today view behavior and mental processes

4. Explain how psychologists study behavior and mental processes, focusing on the scientific method and samples and populations

LEARNING OUTCOMES (continued)

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5. Explain how psychologists engage in research—including methods of observation, correlation, and experimentation—to learn about behavior and mental processes

6. Discuss ethical standards that govern psychological research with humans and animals

7. Identify and discuss principles of critical thinking

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Truth or Fiction?

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Psychology

• Scientific study of behavior and mental processes

• Goal • To describe, explain, predict, and control

behavior and mental processes

Classroom demonstration - Using Popular Media in Instruction

LO 1

http://www.psychologicalscience.org/teaching/tips/tips_0500.html

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Theory

• Allows one to: • Propose reasons for relationships among events

• Derive explanations

• Make predictions

• Psychological theories combine statements about behavior, mental processes, and biological processes

LO 1

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What Do Psychologists Do?

• Conduct research • Pure research

• Applied research

• Practice psychology

• Teach

LO 1

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Fields of Psychology

• Clinical

• Counseling

• School

• Educational

• Developmental

• Personality

• Social

• Environmental

• Experimental

• Industrial

• Organizational

• Human factors

• Consumer

• Health

• Forensic

• Sport

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Ancient Contributors to Psychology

Aristotle Democritus

Socrates

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1. Truth or Fiction?

• More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle wrote a book on psychology with contents similar to the one you're now reading

• TRUE!

LO 2

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2. Truth or Fiction?

• The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates suggested a research method that is still used in psychology

• TRUE!

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Psychology as a Laboratory Science

• Gustav Theodor Fechner • Published Elements of Psychophysics (1860)

• Wilhelm Wundt • Established the first psychological laboratory

(1879)

Classroom demonstration - TIME Magazine

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http://www.time.com/time/magazine/0,9263,7601990329,00.html

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Structuralism

• Founded by Wilhelm Wundt

• Breaks conscious experiences into objective sensations, subjective feelings, and mental images

• Belief – Mind functions by combining objective and subjective elements of experience

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Functionalism

• Founded by William James

• Focused on behavior in addition to the mind or consciousness

• Used direct observations to supplement introspection

• Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution • Adaptive behavior patterns

are learned and maintained

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Behaviorism

• Founded by John Broadus Watson

• Focus is on learning observable behaviors • Observable behaviors – Behaviors observable by

specialized instruments

• B. F. Skinner believed that learned behavior is behavior that is reinforced • Reinforcement: Stimulus that follows a response

and increases the frequency of the response

LO 2

Figure

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1.2 The Power of Reinforcement

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Gestalt Psychology

• Founded by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler

• Focuses on perception and its influence on thinking and problem solving • Perceptions are more than the sum of their parts

• Learning is active and purposeful

• Accomplished by insight and not mechanical repetition

LO 2

Figure

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1.3 Gestalt Psychology and the Importance

of Context

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Figure

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1.4 Gestalt Psychology: Some Insight Into

Insight

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Psychoanalysis

• Founded by Sigmund Freud

• Theory of personality • Proposes that people’s lives are

influenced by unconscious ideas

• Method of psychotherapy • Helps patients gain insight

• Seeks socially acceptable ways to express wishes and gratify needs

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Biological Perspective

• Seeks relationships between: • Brain, hormones, heredity,

and evolution

• Behavior and mental processes

• Charles Darwin • Most adaptive organism

manages to mature and reproduce

LO 3

http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/34658895?selectedversion=NBD40941044

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Cognitive Perspective

• Looks at mental processes to understand human nature

• Studies those things that are referred to as the mind

LO 3

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Humanistic–Existential Perspective

• Humanism - Stresses on human capacity for self-fulfillment, roles of consciousness, self- awareness, and decision making

• Existentialism - Stresses on free choice and holds people responsible for the choices made

• Based on the works of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

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Psychodynamic Perspective

• Neoanalysts - Contemporary psychologists who follow theories derived from Freud • Famous psychologists include Karen Horney and

Erik Erikson

- Focus more on conscious choice and self- direction than unconscious processes

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Perspectives on Learning

• Behaviorist view • Learning occurs through learning histories,

situations, and rewards and not through conscious choice

• Social–cognitive theorists • Suggest that :

- People modify and create their environment

- Cognition plays a key role

- People engage in intentional learning through observation

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Sociocultural Perspective

• Focuses on the influence of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes

• Ethnicity • Members of an ethnic group share cultural

heritage, race, language, or history

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Sociocultural Perspective (continued)

• Gender: Culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity • Involves cultural

expectations and social roles

LO 3

http://bigthink.com/videos/what-are-the-biggest-issues-in-psychology-today

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3. Truth or Fiction?

• Men receive the majority of doctoral degrees in psychology

• FICTION!

LO 3

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4. Truth or Fiction?

• Even though she had worked to complete all the degree requirements, the first female president of the American Psychological Association turned down the doctoral degree that was offered to her

• TRUE!

LO 3

Figure

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1.5 Scientific Method

LO 4

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Steps Involved in the Scientific Method

• Formulate a research question

• State the hypothesis

• Test the hypothesis

• Draw conclusions based on findings • Apply critical thinking

- Do not confuse correlation with cause and effect

- Consider the selection factor in correlations

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Samples and Populations

• Sample • Segment of population

• Population • Complete group of interest

• Representative samples allow generalization of findings

Classroom demonstration - Cookie Rating Activity

LO 4

http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/teaching_aids/cookies/rating_activity.html

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5. Truth or Fiction?

• You could survey millions of voters and still not accurately predict the outcome of a presidential election

• TRUE!

LO 4

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Random and Stratified Sampling

• Random sample • Each member of a population has an equal

chance of selection

• Stratified sample • Subgroups are represented proportionally

• Problem in generalizing from research • Volunteer bias: Bias represented by studying

people who volunteer to participate

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Methods of Observation

• Case studies • Gather information about individuals or small

groups

• Clinical studies

• Sometimes used to investigate rarities

• Surveys • Used to collect information that cannot be

observed directly or studied experimentally

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Methods of Observation (continued)

• Naturalistic observation • Observe subjects in their

natural environment

• Unobtrusive measure

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Correlation

• Follows observation

• Correlation coefficient • Expresses strength and direction of the

relationship between variables

• Suggests, but does not prove, cause and effect

LO 5

Figure

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1.6 Correlations

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Experimental Method

• Demonstrates cause and effect through scientific method with the help of: • Independent and dependent variables

• Experimental and control groups

• Blind study • Placebos are administered on the participants

• Double-blind study • Participants and observers are unaware of who

is taking a drug and who is taking a placebo

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6. Truth or Fiction?

• In many experiments, neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the real treatment and who is not

• TRUE!

LO 5

Figure

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1.7 The Significance of Double Blind

Studies

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Ethics of Research with Humans

• Ethics review committee and ethical standards: • Review proposed studies according to ethical

guidelines before granting approval

• Weigh the potential benefits of research against the potential harm

LO 6

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Ethics of Research with Humans (continued 1)

• Individuals need to provide informed consent before participation • Records of research participants and clients are

kept confidential

Classroom demonstration - Case Studies

LO 6

http://www.psychologicalscience.org/teaching/tips/tips_0902.htm

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Ethics of Research with Humans (continued 2)

• According to the APA’s ethical standards, psychologists may use deception when: • They believe the benefits of the research

outweigh its harm

• They believe the individuals might have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research

• Participants are debriefed later

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Ethics of Research with Animals

• Animals are used when research cannot be carried out with humans

• Animals may be harmed only when: • There is no alternative

• Benefits of the research justify the harm

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Principles of Critical Thinking

• Be skeptical

• Insist on evidence

• Examine definitions of terms

• Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments

• Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence

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Principles of Critical Thinking (continued)

• Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence

• Do not oversimplify

• Do not overgeneralize

• Apply critical thinking to all areas of life

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KEY TERMS

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• Psychology

• Theory

• Pure research

• Applied research

• Introspection

• Structuralism

• Functionalism

• Behaviorism

• Reinforcement

• Gestalt psychology

• Psychoanalysis • Biological perspective • Cognitive • Social–cognitive

theory • Sociocultural

perspective

• Gender

• Critical thinking

• Scientific method

KEY TERMS

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• Hypothesis

• Correlation

• Selection factor

• Sample

• Population

• Random sample

• Stratified sample

• Volunteer bias

• Case study

• Survey

• Naturalistic observation

• Correlational method

• Correlation coefficient

• Experiment

• Independent variable

• Dependent variable

• Experimental groups

• Control groups

• Placebo

KEY TERMS

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• Blind

• Double-blind study

• Informed consent

• Debrief

SUMMARY

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• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

• The earliest known contributors to psychology were Aristotle, Democritus, and Socrates

• There are several broad and influential perspectives in psychology

• Ethics review committees check for any potential harm in research methods

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