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Chapter 9: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood

In middle and late childhood, children are on a different plane, belonging to a generation and feeling all their own. It is the wisdom of the human life span that at no time are children more ready to learn than during the period of expansive imagination at the end of early childhood. Children develop a sense of wanting to make things—and not just to make them, but to make them well and even perfectly. They seek to know and to understand. They are remarkable for their intelligence and for their curiosity. Their parents continue to be important influences in their lives, but their growth also is shaped by peers and friends. They don't think much about

the future or about the past, but they enjoy the present moment.

Learning Goals

Learning Goal 1: Describe physical changes and health in middle and late childhood.

A. Discuss body growth and change.

B. Explain brain development.

C. Describe motor development.

D. Summarize the influence of exercise on health and development.

E. Discuss health, illness, and disease.

Learning Goal 2: Identify children with different types of disabilities and issues in

educating them.

A. Define and describe the scope of disabilities.

B. Discuss educational issues related to children with disabilities.

Learning Goal 3: Explain cognitive changes in middle and late childhood.

A. Describe and discuss Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

B. Discuss the information-processing theory.

C. Describe and define intelligence.

D. Explain extremes of intelligence.

Learning Goal 4: Discuss language development in middle and late childhood.

A. Discuss vocabulary, grammar, and metalinguistic awareness.

B. Explain the development of reading during middle and late childhood.

C. Describe the development of writing during middle and late childhood.

D. Discuss bilingualism and second-language learning.

BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE

 Body Growth and Change:  Growth averages 2-3 inches per year

 Weight gain averages 5–7 lbs. each year  Muscle mass and strength gradually increase; baby fat decreases (kids look very

“kid-like” at this stage.

 Boys have a greater number of muscle cells and are typically stronger than girls (think about the number of “chin-ups” and “pull-ups” the boys could do vs the girls during physical fitness testing… the boys usually excelled in this area.

 The Brain:  Brain volume stabilizes  Significant changes in structures and regions occur, especially in the prefrontal

cortex

 Improved attention, reasoning, and cognitive control

 Motor Development:  Gross motor skills become smoother and more coordinated

 Boys usually outperform girls on gross motor skills (sports, running, etc..)

 Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood  Increased myelination of the central nervous system  Girls usually outperform boys on fine motor skills (think of how neat a lot of

girl’s handwriting is at this age, typically a lot better than boy’s!)

Generational Shift?

 What kinds of activities did you do in PE as a child?  How many minutes of daily PE did you do? When I was in school we did an hour of

PE a day, along with 20 minutes minimum morning recess and then at least 30 minutes recess during lunch. Today, this number is far lower.

 What kinds of activities do your kids/younger relatives do in PE today?  How many minutes of daily PE do they do?

Consider the following comments were made by Angie, an elementary-school-aged girl: When I was 8 years old, I weighed 125 pounds. My clothes were the size that large teenage girls wear. I hated my body, and my classmates teased me all the time. I was so overweight and out of shape that when I took a P. E. class

my face would get red and I had trouble breathing. I was jealous of the kids who played sports and weren't overweight like I was. I'm 9 years old now and I've lost 30 pounds. I'm much happier and proud of myself. How did I lose the weight? My mom said she had finally decided enough was enough. She took me to a pediatrician who specializes in helping children lose weight and keep it off. The pediatrician counseled my mom about my eating and exercise habits, then had us join a group that he had created for overweight children and their parents. My mom and I go to the group once a week and we've now been participating in the program for 6 months. I no longer eat fast food meals and my mom is cooking more healthy meals. Now that I've lost weight, exerci se is not as hard for me and I don't get teased by the kids at school. My mom's pretty happy too because she's lost 15 pounds herself since we've been in the counseling program. What are your thoughts about Angie’s case? Is involving the “whole family” a key to managing weight in certain kids?

EXERCISE

 Exercise plays an important role in children’s growth and development. What were your favorite types of exercise as a kid? I played soccer for three years as a kid, which I really enjoyed, even though I wasn’t particularly good at it. However, I liked running, and being part of a team and being outside, which I think was the right attitude to foster in me.

(not me)

 Percentage of children involved in daily P.E. programs in schools decreased from 80% (1969) to 20% (1999)

 Television watching is linked with low activity and obesity in children. Kids today often report preferring playing online games or video games to playing outside. How should parents manage online/tv/gaming time?

HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND DISEASE

 Overweight Children:  Being overweight as a child is a risk factor for being obese as an adult

 Girls are more likely than boys to be overweight

 Changes in diet and total caloric intake may be one reason for increasing obesity rates. Increased rates of tv watching is another reason.

 What kinds of medical and psychological problems may result from being an overweight child?

 Raises risks for many medical and psychological problems  Pulmonary problems, diabetes, high blood pressure  Low self-esteem, depression, exclusion from peer groups

Jamie Oliver’s Food Revolution “Potato or Tomato” (1:45)

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bGYs4KS_djg

Sad to think that kids know ketchup but do not know what tomatoes are. What role do parents play in

teaching kids about eating healthy and where their food comes from? It’s hard for parents when they

have limited income and time and the McD’s Dollar Menu is a cheap, fast alternative to cooking a fresh

from-scratch meal from the store.

 What changes can you make to you and your family’s diet today to lead a healthier life?

Let’s shift gears now into: LEARNING DISABILITIES (LDs) Which gender is diagnosed more? That’s right, boys are! Why? Boys are paid attention to more when they are lagging behind or acting out.

They are much more likely to get referred for services. This is as opposed to girls, who have to suffer in

silence more, or whose teachers may chalk up her poor performance to “Oh, she’s just having a hard

time with her parent’s divorce” and the like.

 Definition of learning disability includes three components:  Minimum IQ level (they have to meet a minimum IQ level. They are minimally

functioning at least in all of the other areas. In the math, or reading, for example, they may have a below-average IQ [see next bullet point]

 Significant difficulty in a school-related area (math, reading, information processing…)

 Exclusion of severe emotional disorders, second-language background, sensory disabilities, and/or specific neurological deficits (the LD is not due to one of these factors)

 Boys are identified three times more frequently than girls, so don’t forget about the girls who need help too!

 Most common form involves reading (i.e., dyslexia)

 Possible Causes:  Genetics (many tend to run in families)  Environmental influences  Problems in integrating information from multiple brain regions  Difficulties in brain structures and functions

 Intervention:  Improving reading ability through intensive instruction

 ADHD

 Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

 Number of children diagnosed has increased substantially  Brad’s Story: A 12 Year-Old with ADHD. He really challenges the stereotype of a kid

with ADHD. But, as you see, he appears to have financial means, and great school and family support. What of the kids who don’t have these advantages? Will their outcomes always be so strong?

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z2hLa5kDRCA&p=1353E9866DED939B&p laynext=1&index=4

 Possible Causes:  Genetics  Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development  Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development  Later peak for cerebral cortex thickening

 ADHD Treatment:  Stimulant medication (Ritalin or Adderall) is helpful  Combination of medication and behavior management seems to work best  Exercise may reduce ADHD symptoms

 Critics argue that physicians are too quick to prescribe medications. This is a huge issue. Also, misdiagnosis is a huge issue as well.

 Educational Issues:  1975: laws passed requiring all public schools to serve disabled children  Law requires disability students to receive:

 IEP (Individualized Education Plan): written statement that is specifically

tailored for the disabled student

 LRE (Least Restrictive Environment): a setting that is as similar as possible to that of non-disabled children

 Inclusion: educating a child with special education needs in the regular classroom

COGNITIVE CHANGES

 Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage (comes after Preoperational Stage):  Ages 7 to 11,  Children can perform concrete operations and reason logically

 Reasoning can only be applied to specific, concrete examples PPiiaaggeett -- SSttaaggee 33 -- CCoonnccrreettee -- RReevveerrssiibbiilliittyy

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gA04ew6Oi9M

MEMORY

 Memory: long-term memory increases with age during middle and late childhood  Two important strategies: creating mental images and elaborating on information

 Elaboration: engaging in more extensive processing of information THINKING

 Critical Thinking: thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence  Few schools really teach critical thinking

 Creative Thinking: the ability to think in novel and unusual ways, and to come up with unique solutions to problems

 Convergent thinking: produces one correct answer  Divergent thinking: produces many different answers to the same question (what

can you do with this paper clip? “I can make a hair barette, clean my nails with it, pick a lock with it” [hide your wallets from this kid])

 Metacognition: cognition about cognition (or “thinking about your thinking”) (“I think I studied enough for my math test tomorrow”)

 Metamemory: knowledge about memory  Children have some knowledge of metamemory by 5–6 years of age  They do not understand certain components

 Knowledge about strategies INTELLIGENCE

 Intelligence: problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and adapt to life’s everyday experiences

 Intelligence Tests:

 Binet Tests: designed to identify children with difficulty learning in school  Mental age (MA): an individual’s level of mental development relative to

others  Intelligence quotient (IQ): a person’s mental age divided by chronological age,

multiplied by 100

 Stanford-Binet Tests: revised version of the Binet test  Scores approximate a normal distribution—a bell-shaped curve

 Wechsler Scales: give scores on several composite indices  Three versions for different age groups

The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores

 Types of Intelligence:  Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: intelligence comes in three forms:

 Analytical intelligence: ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast

 Creative intelligence: ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine

“What do you mean, “What is it?” It's the spontaneous, unfettered expression of a young mind

not yet bound by the restraints of narrative or pictorial representation.”

 Practical intelligence: ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice

 What are some examples of these types of intelligence?

 Types of Intelligence (continued):  Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind:

 Verbal: ability to think in words and use language to express meaning  Mathematical: ability to carry out mathematical operations  Spatial: ability to think three-dimensionally  Bodily-Kinesthetic: ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept  Musical: sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone  Interpersonal: ability to understand and interact effectively with others  Intrapersonal: ability to understand oneself  Naturalist: ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and

human-made systems

 What are your strongest areas of intelligence? Are there any areas in which you’d like to improve?

 Controversies and issues in intelligence:  Heredity and genetics versus environment (increasingly higher scores suggest role of

education)

 Bell curve: U.S. is developing large underclass of intellectually deprived  Racial and cultural bias in IQ testing

DIFFERENCES IN IQ SCORES

 Influences of Genetics:  Heritability: the variance in a population that is attributed to genetics

 Heritability of intelligence is about .75  Problems:

 Heritability index is only as good as the data entered into the analysis  Assumes we can treat genetic and environmental influences as

separate

 One strategy is to compare the IQs of identical and fraternal twins  Most researchers agree that genetics and environment interact to influence

intelligence

 Environmental Influences:  Communication of parents  Schooling  Flynn Effect: rapidly increasing IQ test scores around the world

 Increasing levels of education attained by more people  Explosion of available information

 Interventions designed to help children at risk for impoverished intelligence  Extremes of Intelligence:

 Mental Retardation: a condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ (typically below 70) and has difficulty adapting to everyday life

 Can be mild (IQ of 55-70), moderate (40-55), or severe (35 and below)  Can have an organic cause, or it can be social and cultural in origin

 Extremes of Intelligence (continued):  Giftedness: people who have 130 IQ or higher and/or superior talent for

something. I was in the GATE program for when I was in elementary school (Gifted and Talented Education). It helped me learn above my grade level, but was not as challenging as I needed at the time.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BSd2cy-QWk

(Goldieblox commercial)

 Three criteria:  Precocity  Marching to their own drummer  A passion to master

 Giftedness is likely a product of both heredity and environment  Is Brad, the child with ADHD gifted?

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

 During middle and late childhood:  Rapid increase in vocabulary and grammar skills

Anna Mudd is the 6-year-old author of “The Devl and the Babe Goste.” Anna has been writing

stories for at least two years. Her story includes poetic images, sophisticated syntax, and

vocabulary that reflect advances in language development.

 Metalinguistic Awareness: knowledge about language  Improves significantly during elementary school years

Kids who read more, have better reading scores. I read a ton as a kid. My mom took me to the

library constantly and that helped me become a very strong reader from an early age.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

 Bilingualism  Learning a second language is easiest in early childhood age. Do you speak more

than one language? Most of my students do. At what age did you learn your second, third, fourth langage?

 U.S. students are far behind other countries in learning multiple languages.  Ability to speak two languages has a positive effect on child’s cognitive

development. Bilingual children perform better on tests of:

 Control of attention (focus)  Concept formation  Analytic reasoning  Cognitive flexibility  Cognitive complexity

Here are some good links to go along with this chapter:

Child Development and Parenting Information

http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/

Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

http://www.chadd.org/

Gifted Development Center

http://www.gifteddevelopment.com/

IInnssttiittuuttee ffoorr EEdduuccaattiioonn RReeffoorrmm:: BBuuiillddiinngg aa PPoowweerrffuull RReeaaddiinngg PPrrooggrraamm http://www.csus.edu/ier/reading.html

Learning Disabilities

http://www.ldonline.org/

Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Disorders

http://mentalhealth.samhsa.gov/publications/allpubs/ca-0006/default.asp

National Association of School Psychologists

http://www.nasponline.org

Overweight Children and Adolescents

http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/calltoaction/fact_adolescents.htm

Writing in Middle Childhood

http://www.education.com/reference/article/writing-middle-childhood/

Stop Bullying Video Challenge

http://stopbullying.challenge.gov/

McGraw Hill Higher Education General Resources for Students and Faculty

http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/psychology/psychonline/general.html