Psy Life Span W8D10
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psyc2314_ppt_ch17.pptxLIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e
John W. Santrock
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Chapter 17
Physical Development in Late Adulthood
© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
Chapter Outline
Longevity.
The Course of Physical Development in Late Adulthood.
Health.
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Longevity: Topics
Life expectancy and life span.
The young-old and the oldest-old.
Biological theories of aging.
Jill Knight/The News & Observer/AP Images
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Life Expectancy and Life Span 1
Life span: the maximum number of years an individual can live.
Approximately 120 to 125 years.
Life expectancy: the number of years the average person born in a particular year will probably live.
Improved with advances in medicine, nutrition, exercise, and lifestyle, along with a substantial reduction in infant deaths.
The average life expectancy for those born in 2018 in the United States is 78.6 years.
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Life Expectancy and Life Span 2
Life expectancy:
Compared with other countries around the world, life expectancy in the United States is higher than some, lower than others.
The lowest estimated in 2015 were in South Africa (50.6 years), Chad (51), and Namibia (51).
The highest is currently Monaco (89.4 years for those born in 2018).
Factors such as health conditions and medical care throughout the life span are important.
In the U.S., child and maternal mortality rates, the homicide rate, and body-mass indexes contribute to a slower increase in life expectancy than what is projected in many other countries.
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Life Expectancy and Life Span 3
Within the United States, life expectancy also differs for various ethnic groups and for men and women.
The “Latino Health Paradox” is the fact that Latinos live 3.3 years longer than non-Latino Whites despite lower educational attainment and income levels.
Proposed reasons include extended family connections and lower rates of smoking.
In 2018, the overall life expectancy of U.S. women was 81.2 years of age, while for men it was 75.2 years of age.
Health attitudes, habits, lifestyles, and occupation are probably important to this difference.
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Life Expectancy and Life Span 4
Centenarians:
Individuals 100 years and older.
Increasing at a rate of 7% each year in developed countries.
Supercentenarian refers to those who live to be 110.
The U.S. has the most centenarians, followed by Japan, China, and England/Wales.
For a majority of centenarians, chronic high-mortality diseases are markedly delayed for many years.
Among the factors associated with living to be 100 are longevity genes and effective coping
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Life Expectancy and Life Span 5
In Okinawa, in the East China Sea, individuals live longer than anywhere else in the world.
Possible explanations include:
Diet: heavy in grains, fish, and vegetables with mild caloric restriction.
Low-stress lifestyle: easygoing and laid back.
Caring community: older adults do not hesitate to ask a neighbor when they need help.
Activity: many older adults are physically vigorous and continue to work.
Spirituality: prayer is commonplace.
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Life Expectancy and Life Span 6
FIGURE 2: RISKS OF DYING FROM CANCER IN OKINAWA, JAPAN, AND THE UNITED STATES
The risk of dying from different forms of cancer is lower in Okinawa than in the United States and Japan (Willcox, Willcox, & Suzuki, 2002). Okinawans eat lots of tofu and soy products, which are rich in flavonoids (substances that are believed to lower the risk of breast and prostate cancer). They also consume large amounts of fish, especially tuna, mackerel, and salmon, which reduces the risk of breast cancer.
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The Young-Old and the Oldest-Old
Young-old: those aged 65 to 84.
Oldest-old: those aged 85 or more.
In terms of functional age, may be more biologically and psychologically fit than a 65-year old.
Mostly female, widowed, and live alone.
A significant number have cognitive impairments, but many do not.
Almost one-fourth are institutionalized; but a substantial subgroup are robust and active.
Ana Nance/Redux
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Biological Theories of Aging 1
Biological aging begins at birth.
Evolutionary theory of aging: natural selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions and nonadaptive characteristics in older adults.
Benefits conferred by evolution decline with age because natural selection is linked to reproductive fitness.
Criticisms of evolutionary theory:
Evolution occurs on a time scale that does not lend itself to empirical study.
It fails to account for cultural influences.
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Biological Theories of Aging 2
Genetic/cellular process theories:
Cellular clock theory: Leonard Hayflick’s theory that the maximum number of times that human cells can divide is about 75 to 80.
As we age, our cells have less capacity to divide.
Telomeres, D N A sequences that cap chromosomes, become shorter each time a cell divides.
Lifestyle modifications (diet and exercise) can delay telomere shortening.
The enzyme telomerase may be another key component of the regeneration process.
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Biological Theories of Aging 3
Free-radical theory: people age because normal metabolic processes within cells produce unstable oxygen molecules that ricochet inside cells, damaging D N A and cellular structures.
Mitochondrial theory: aging is caused by mitochondrial decay.
Sirtuins: a family of proteins that have been linked to longevity and related processes; SIRT 1 has been connected to D N A repair and aging.
mTOR pathway: a cellular pathway that involves the regulation of growth and metabolism.
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Biological Theories of Aging 4
Hormonal stress theory: aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease.
Allostasis: the process of adaptation and adjustment to stress.
Allostatic load: a wearing down of body systems due to constant activity in response to stressors.
Conclusions:
Various biological processes contribute greatly to aging.
Aging is a very complex process involving multiple degenerative factors, including interacting cell- and organ-level communications.
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The Course of Physical Development in Late Adulthood: Topics
The aging brain.
Sleep.
Physical appearance and movement.
Sensory development.
The circulatory and respiratory system.
Sexuality.
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The Aging Brain 1
The shrinking, slowing brain:
The brain loses 5 to 10% of its weight between ages 20 and 90.
Shrinkage of neurons.
Lower numbers of synapses.
Reduced length and complexity of axons.
Reduced tree-like branching in dendrites.
The prefrontal cortex shrinks the most with aging.
Linked to decreased working memory and slower motor behavior.
Reductions in dopamine may cause problems in motor activities.
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The Aging Brain 2
The adapting brain:
The brain might be able to generate new neurons.
Neurogenesis: the generation of new neurons.
Dendritic growth may play a role.
Dendrites are the receiving portion of the neuron.
Lack of environmental stimulation and activity may contribute to the lack of dendritic growth in older adults.
Delateralization has adaptive potential.
Using both hemispheres may play a compensatory role in the aging brain, improving cognitive functioning.
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The Aging Brain 3
FIGURE 5: GENERATING NEW NERVE CELLS IN ADULT MICE
Researchers have found that exercise (running) and an enriched environment (a larger cage and many toys) can cause brain cells in adult mice to divide and form new brain cells (Kempermann, van Praag, & Gage, 2000). Cells were labeled with a chemical marker that becomes integrated into the DNA of dividing cells (red). Four weeks later, they were also labeled to mark neurons (nerve cells). As shown here, both the running mice and the mice in an enriched environment had many cells that were still dividing (red) and others that had differentiated into new nerve cells (orange).
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Courtesy of Dr. Fred Gage, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies
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The Aging Brain 4
FIGURE 6: THE DECREASE IN BRAIN LATERALIZATION IN OLDER ADULTS
Younger adults primarily used the right prefrontal region of the brain (top left image) during a recall memory task, whereas older adults used both the left and right prefrontal regions (bottom two images).
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Courtesy of Dr. Roberto Cabeza
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Sleep
The National Sleep Foundation recommends older adults get 7 to 8 hours of sleep a night.
Many older adults have difficulty sleeping, and their sleep is more easily disrupted.
As individuals age, they engage in less deep sleep.
Poor sleep is a risk factor for falls, obesity, lower cognitive functioning, and earlier death.
Excessively long sleep duration also predicts an increase in all-cause mortality in older adults.
Strategies include avoiding caffeine, avoiding over-the-counter sleep remedies, staying physically and mentally active, and limiting naps.
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Physical Appearance and Movement 1
The most noticeable changes are wrinkles and age spots.
Both men and women become shorter with aging, due to bone loss in their vertebrae.
Weight drops after age 60 with adults experiencing muscle loss.
Exercising is beneficial for overall health and fall risk reduction.
Older adults move more slowly than young adults.
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Physical Appearance and Movement 2
FIGURE 7: CHANGES IN BODY COMPOSITION OF BONE, MUSCLE, AND FAT FROM 25 TO 75 YEARS OF AGE
Notice the decrease in bone and muscle and the increase in fat from 25 to 75 years of age.
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Physical Appearance and Movement 3
Figure 8: Movement and Aging
Older adults take longer to move than young adults, and this change occurs across a range of movement difficulty (Ketcham & Stelmach, 2001).
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Sensory Development 1
Vision:
Visual decline in late adulthood is linked to cognitive decline, fewer social contacts, and less challenging social/leisure activities.
Declining visual acuity, color vision, and depth perception are also associated with aging.
Cataracts: the thickening of eye’s lens causes vision to become cloudy, opaque, and distorted.
Glaucoma: damage to optic nerve because of pressure created by fluid buildup in the eye.
Macular degeneration: deterioration of the retina’s macula, which corresponds to focal center of the visual field.
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Sensory Development 2
FIGURE 9: MACULAR DEGENERATION
This simulation of the effect of macular degeneration shows how individuals with this eye disease can see their peripheral field of vision but can’t clearly see what is in their central visual field.
Cordelia Molloy/Science SourcePerceptualSystem65
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Sensory Development 3
Hearing:
Hearing impairments become a serious impediment.
Hearing aids and cochlear implants minimize problems linked to hearing loss.
Smell and taste:
These sensory losses begin at around age 60.
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Sensory Development 4
| Perceptual system | 65 to 74 years | 75 years and older |
| Vision | There is a loss of acuity even with corrective lenses. Less transmission of light occurs through the retina (half as much as in young adults). Greater susceptibility to glare occurs. Color discrimination ability decreases. | There is a significant loss of visual acuity and color discrimination, and a decrease in the size of the perceived visual field. In late old age, people are at significant risk for visual dysfunction from cataracts and glaucoma. |
| Hearing | There is a significant loss of hearing at high frequencies and some loss at middle frequencies. These losses can be helped by a hearing aid. There is greater susceptibility to masking of what is heard by noise. | There is a significant loss at high and middle frequencies. A hearing aid is more likely to be needed than in young-old age. |
TABLE 10: VISION AND HEARING DECLINE IN LATE ADULTHOOD
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Sensory Development 5
Touch and pain:
With aging, many individuals experience impaired touch, detecting touch less in the lower extremities.
An estimated 60 to 70% of older adults report at least some persistent pain, most frequently back pain.
Older adults are less sensitive to pain than are younger adults, and this decreased sensitivity can mask injuries and illness.
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Sensory Development 6
Perceptual-motor coupling:
Declining perceptual-motor skills can make driving a car difficult and contributes to decreasing mobility.
Older adults can compensate by driving shorter distances, choosing less congested routes, and driving only in daylight.
Two types of interventions have been found to improve older adults’ driving:
Cognitive training.
Education.
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The Circulatory System and Respiratory Systems
Cardiovascular disorders increase in late adulthood.
High blood pressure, more common in men than in women, has been linked to:
Illness.
Obesity.
Anxiety.
Stiffening of the blood vessels.
Lack of exercise.
Lung capacity drops by 40% between ages 20 and 80.
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Sexuality 1
Sexuality can be lifelong, but aging does induce some changes in human sexual performance.
With age, orgasm becomes less frequent in males.
Many are sexually active as long as they are healthy.
Therapies have been effective in improving sexual functioning.
It can be a challenge for older adults to find a partner.
By age 70, about 70% of women don’t have a partner, compared to 35% of men.
Image Source/Getty Images
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Sexuality 2
FIGURE 11: SEXUAL ACTIVITY IN OLDER ADULTS WITH A PARTNER
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Health: Topics
Health problems.
Substance use and abuse.
Exercise, nutrition, and weight.
Health treatment.
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Health Problems 1
The probability of having some disease or illness increases with age.
Chronic diseases and conditions with slow onset and long duration are common in late adulthood.
Heart conditions.
Diabetes.
Asthma.
Arthritis.
Low incomes are strongly related to health problems.
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Health Problems 2
FIGURE 12: PERCENT OF U.S. POPULATION WITH CHRONIC CONDITIONS ACROSS AGE GROUPS
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Health Problems 3
Causes of death in older adults:
Nearly 60% of 65- to 74-year-olds die of cancer or cardiovascular disease.
Cancer is now the leading cause in middle-aged adults.
For those in the 75-to 84 and 85-and-over age groups, however, cardiovascular disease is the leading cause.
Ethnicity is linked with the death rates of older adults.
African Americans have high death rates for most diseases, including stroke, heart disease, lung cancer; and female breast cancer.
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Health Problems 4
Arthritis, inflammation of the joints accompanied by pain, stiffness, and movement problems, is especially common in older adults.
Osteoporosis is an extensive loss of bone tissue, that causes many older adults to walk with a stoop.
Women are more vulnerable.
Accidents are the eighth leading cause of death in older adults
Falls are the leading cause of injury death for adults aged 65 and older.
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Health Problems 5
FIGURE 13: THE MOST PREVALENT CHRONIC CONDITIONS IN MIDDLE AND LATE ADULTHOOD
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Substance Use and Abuse
Multiple medications increase the risks associated with consuming alcohol or other drugs.
The frequency of binge drinking is highest among older adults.
Substance abuse among older adults is often seen as the “invisible epidemic” in the United States, because it so often goes undetected.
Late-onset alcoholism is used to describe the onset of alcoholism after the age of 65.
Related to loneliness, loss of a spouse, or a disabling condition.
Moderate drinking of red wine may be linked to better health and increased longevity, due to the benefits of resveratrol.
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Exercise, Nutrition, and Weight 1
Exercise:
Exercise is an excellent way to maintain health and live longer.
Setting exercise goals and then carrying out an exercise plan are important not only in young adults but in older adults as well.
Gerontologists increasingly recommend strength training in addition to aerobic activity and stretching.
Exercise can contribute to people living independent lives with dignity in late adulthood.
Being physically fit means being able to do the things you want to do, whether you are young or old.
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Exercise, Nutrition, and Weight 2
Research has revealed that exercise:
Is linked to increased longevity.
Is related to prevention of common chronic diseases.
Is associated with increased effectiveness of treatment for many diseases.
Improves older adults’ cellular functioning.
Improves immune system functioning in older adults.
Can optimize body composition and reduce the decline in motor skills as aging occurs.
Reduces the likelihood that older adults will develop mental health problems, and can be effective in their treatment.
Is linked to improved brain, cognitive, and affective functioning.
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Exercise, Nutrition, and Weight 3
Nutrition and weight:
Four aspects of nutrition are especially important in older adults:
Getting adequate nutrition.
Avoiding overweight and obesity.
Deciding whether to restrict calorie intake.
Determining whether to take vitamin supplements.
Reduced snacking between meals can contribute to harmful weight loss, especially in women.
Taste enhancers and calorie supplements can help.
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Exercise, Nutrition, and Weight 4
Over 40% of older adults in the U.S. are obese.
It appears that being overweight may be associated with lower all-cause mortality but being obese is associated with higher all-cause mortality.
For some older adults, the extra pounds may be protective.
Being overweight remains a risk factor for chronic disease; and obesity is linked to the acceleration of diseases in many older adults.
Calorie restriction in laboratory animals can increase the animals’ longevity.
The research findings for humans, however, are mixed.
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Exercise, Nutrition, and Weight 5
Until recently, most experts on aging and health argued that a balanced diet was all that was needed for successful aging.
There have been some proposals, however, that certain vitamin supplements might help slow the aging process and improve the health of older adults—especially, antioxidants.
Antioxidants include vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene.
Theorized to slow the aging process by neutralizing free-radical activity.
There remain many uncertainties about the role of antioxidant vitamins in health.
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Health Treatment 1
As older adults live longer, disease management programs will need to be expanded.
Currently, older adults with health problems in the United States receive the recommended medical care only half the time.
Although alternative home and community-based care has decreased the percentage of older adults living in nursing homes, the probability of doing so increases with age.
Factors related to health and survival in a nursing home are the patient’s feelings of control and self-determination.
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Health Treatment 2
FIGURE 17: PERCEIVED CONTROL AND MORTALITY
In a study by Rodin and Langer (19 77), nursing home residents who were encouraged to feel more in control of their lives were more likely to be alive 18 months later than those who were treated as being more dependent on the nursing home staff.
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Accessibility Content: Text Alternatives for Images
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Life Expectancy and Life Span 6 – Text Alternative
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The rates of breast cancer deaths per 100,000 people is 33 in the United States, 11 in Japan, and 6 in Okinawa. The rates of ovarian cancer deaths per 100,000 people is 28 in the United States, 8 in Japan, and 4 in Okinawa. The rates of prostate cancer deaths per 100,000 people is 7 in the United States, 3 in Japan, and 3 in Okinawa. The rates of colon cancer deaths per 100,000 people is 19 in the United States, 16 in Japan, and 8 in Okinawa.
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The Aging Brain 3 – Text Alternative
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Two images show generation of new nerve cells in adult mice. The first image of a mice with exercise shows two long clusters of cells both diverging from a common point. The second image of a mice at enriched environment shows two parallel lines of cells.
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The Aging Brain 4 – Text Alternative
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An image compares the regions of brain used in younger and older adults. The brain of younger adults use right prefrontal regions which is highlighted with yellow marks on the region. The older adults use both left and right regions which are highlighted with yellow marks.
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Physical Appearance and Movement 2 – Text Alternative
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The percentage of total body weight comprised of muscle is 30 percent for 25 year old and 15 percent for 75 year old. The percentage of total body weight comprised of fat is 20 percent for 40 year old and 15 percent for 75 year old. The percentage of total body weight comprised of bone is 10 percent for 8 year old and 15 percent for 75 year old. The percentage of total body weight comprised of other material is 40 percent for 25 year old and 37 percent for 75 year old.
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Sexuality 2 – Text Alternative
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The percentage of older men who reported sexual activity with a partner in the previous 12 months was approximately 83 percent in the 57 to 64 year old age range, 68 percent in the 65 to 74 year old age range, and 39 percent in the 75 to 85 year old age range. The percentage of older women who reported sexual activity with a partner in the previous 12 months was approximately 61 percent in the 57 to 64 year old age range, 40 percent in the 65 to 74 year old age range, and 17 percent in the 75 to 85 year old age range.
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Health Problems 2 – Text Alternative
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Among those 19 years old and younger, just above 20 percent have one or more chronic conditions, and approximately 5 percent have two or more chronic conditions. Among those 20 to 44 years old, nearly 40 percent have one or more chronic conditions, and approximately 10 percent have two or more chronic conditions. Among those 45 to 64 years old, just above 60 percent have one or more chronic conditions, and nearly 40 percent have two or more chronic conditions. Among those 65 years old and older, just above 80 percent have one or more chronic conditions, and just above 60 percent have two or more chronic conditions.
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Health Problems 5 – Text Alternative
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The nine most prevalent chronic conditions for adults ages 45 to 64 are given in decreasing order of the percentage afflicted as follows: 1, arthritis, 2, hypertension, 3, chronic sinus problems, 4, hearing impairments, 5, heart conditions, 6, orthopedic impairments of the back, extremities, and others, 7, visual impairments, 8, diabetes, and 9, arteriosclerosis. They range in prevalence from arthritis at approximately 25 percent of the 45 to 64 year old age group, to arteriosclerosis at approximately 3 percent. The nine most prevalent chronic conditions for adults ages 65 and older are given in decreasing order of the percentage afflicted as follows: 1, arthritis, 2, hypertension, 3, hearing impairments, 4, heart conditions, 5, chronic sinus problems, 6, visual impairments, 7, orthopedic impairments of the back, extremities, and others, 8, arteriosclerosis, and 9, diabetes. They range in prevalence from arthritis at approximately 47 percent to diabetes at nearly 10 percent.
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