Psy Life span W6D7
Lostcauseminka
psyc2314_ppt_ch12.pptxLIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e
John W. Santrock
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1
Chapter 12
Socioemotional Development in Adolescence
© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
Chapter Outline
The Self, Identity, and Religious/Spiritual Development.
Families.
Peers.
Culture and Adolescent Development.
Adolescent Problems.
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The Self, Identity, and Religious/Spiritual Development: Topics
Self-esteem.
Self-regulation.
Identity.
Religious/spiritual development.
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Self-Esteem
The self-esteem of girls declines more during adolescence.
Self-esteem reflects perceptions that do not always match reality.
For example, one’s perception of one’s own intelligence or attractiveness.
Thus, high self-esteem may refer to accurate, justified perceptions—but it can also indicate an unwarranted sense of superiority.
Narcissism: a self-centered and self-concerned approach toward others.
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Self-Regulation
Self-regulation is important to many aspects of adolescents’ lives.
Academic achievement.
Good health habits.
Avoiding risky behaviors.
A key component is effortful control, which involves:
Inhibiting impulses.
Not engaging in destructive behavior.
Focusing and maintaining attention despite distractions.
Initiating and completing tasks that have long-term value, even if they may seem unpleasant.
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Identity 1
Identity is a self-portrait composed of many pieces and domains:
Vocational/career identity.
Political identity.
Religious identity.
Relationship identity.
Achievement, intellectual identity.
Sexual identity.
Cultural/ethnic identity.
Interests.
Personality.
Physical identity.
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Identity 2
Erikson’s view:
The fifth developmental stage, experienced in adolescence, is identity versus identity confusion.
The search for identity is aided by a psychosocial moratorium—the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy.
Adolescents experiment with different roles and personalities.
Adolescents who cope with conflicting identities emerge with a new sense of self.
Adolescents who do not successfully resolve the identity crisis suffer identity confusion.
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Identity 3
Developmental changes:
Most significantly, the individual can now sort through and synthesize childhood identities to construct a path toward maturity.
James Marcia classifies individuals at this stage based on the existence or extent of their crisis or commitment.
Crisis: a period of identity development during which the adolescent is exploring alternatives.
Commitment: a personal investment in identity.
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Identity 4
Marcia’s four statuses of identity:
Identity diffusion: individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis (explored meaningful alternatives) or made any commitments.
Identity foreclosure: those who have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis.
Identity moratorium: those who are in the midst of a crisis, but their commitments are either absent or vaguely defined.
Identity achievement: those who have undergone a crisis and have made a commitment.
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Identity 5
FIGURE 1: MARCIA’S FOUR STATUSES OF IDENTITY
According to Marcia, an individual’s status in developing an identity can be categorized as identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, or identity achievement. The status depends on the presence or absence of (1) a crisis or exploration of alternatives and (2) a commitment to an identity.
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Identity 6
Emerging adulthood and beyond:
Key changes in identity are more likely to take place in emerging adulthood—or later—than in adolescence.
College can have significant effects, including increased complexity in reasoning and a wide range of new experiences.
Note that identity does not remain stable throughout life.
Many follow “M A M A” cycles: from moratorium to achievement to moratorium to achievement.
The first identity should not be expected to be the final product.
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Identity 7
Cultural and ethnic identity:
Identity development is influenced by culture and ethnicity.
Ethnic identity: an enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings related to that membership.
Many adolescents develop a bicultural identity, based on both their ethnic group and the majority culture.
Pride in one’s ethnic identity group and a strong ethnic identity and connection has positive outcomes.
Influenced by positive and diverse friendships.
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Identity 8
Identity development and the digital environment:
Social media platforms have introduced ways for youth to express and explore their identity, casting themselves as positive on their digital devices.
Post attractive photos and videos of themselves, friends, and family.
Describe themselves in idealistic ways.
Continually edit and rework their online self-portraits.
These platforms provide the opportunity for public feedback—which, as in the offline world, is not always positive.
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Religious/Spiritual Development 1
Although important to many, religious interest among adolescents has declined in the twenty-first century.
Assessed in terms of frequency of prayer, discussion of teachings, and deciding moral actions for religious reasons, along with the overall importance of religion in everyday life.
Adolescent girls are more religious than are adolescent boys.
Emerging adults in less developed countries are more likely to be religious than their counterparts in more developed countries.
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Religious/Spiritual Development 2
FIGURE 2: DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN RELIGIOUSNESS FROM 14 TO 24 YEARS OF AGE
Note: The religiousness scale ranged from 0 to 32, with higher scores indicating stronger religiousness.
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Religious/Spiritual Development 3
Cognitive development and religion in adolescence:
More so than in childhood, adolescents think abstractly, idealistically, and logically.
The increase in abstract thinking lets adolescents consider various ideas about religious and spiritual concepts.
Increased idealistic thinking provides a foundation for considering religion’s role in a better world.
An increased capacity for logical reasoning enables them to develop hypotheses and sort through answers to spiritual questions.
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Religious/Spiritual Development 4
The positive role of religion in adolescents’ lives:
Religion plays a role in adolescents’ health and has an influence on whether they engage in problem behaviors.
Research links religiosity or spirituality to a decreased likelihood of engaging in substance use and to positive health outcomes.
In one study, spirituality but not religiosity was linked to higher life satisfaction.
Many religious adolescents adopt their religion’s message about caring and concern for people.
Increased likelihood of engaging in community service.
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Families: Topics
Parental monitoring and information management.
Autonomy and attachment.
Parent-adolescent conflict.
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Parental Monitoring and Information Management 1
A key aspect of the managerial role of parenting is effective monitoring.
Supervising adolescents’ choice of social settings, activities, and friends.
Supervising academic efforts.
Higher levels of monitoring and rule enforcement are linked to:
Engaging later in sex and using condoms.
Getting more sleep.
Better health behavior in adolescence and college.
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Parental Monitoring and Information Management 2
A current interest focuses on adolescents’ management of their parents’ access to information.
Disclosing or concealing information about their activities.
When parents engage in positive parenting practices, adolescents are more likely to disclose information.
This disclosure is linked to positive adolescent adjustment.
Adolescents who engage in problem behaviors are more secretive and disclose less to parents.
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Autonomy and Attachment 1
Parents must weigh competing needs for autonomy and control, for independence and connection.
The push for autonomy may puzzle and frustrate some parents.
Adolescents often have a strong desire to make their own decisions—and to spend time with friends.
Adolescents’ ability to attain autonomy is acquired through appropriate adult reactions to their desire for control.
When given autonomy, teens feel they have more independence and a better parental relationship.
Boys are typically given more independence.
Cultural diversity in timing and roles must also be considered.
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Autonomy and Attachment 2
The role of attachment:
Securely attached adolescents are less likely to have emotional difficulties and to engage in problem behaviors, juvenile delinquency, and drug abuse.
Balancing freedom and control:
Adolescents still need to stay connected with their family.
For example, those who do not eat with a parent on most days have higher rates of substance use.
A high monitoring, high autonomy support parenting profile is positively linked to adolescent adjustment.
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Parent-Adolescent Conflict
Parent-adolescent conflict increases in early adolescence, but much of it involves the everyday events of family life.
Rarely major dilemmas.
Such conflicts may serve a positive developmental function by facilitating the transition to greater autonomy.
Parents are important attachment figures and support systems while adolescents explore a more complex social world.
When conflict is prolonged and intense, it is associated with various problems, many of them serious.
Some conflict is especially likely between immigrant parents and their adolescents as adolescents quickly adapt to new norms.
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Peers: Topics
Friendships.
Peer groups.
Dating and romantic relationships.
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Friendships 1
Most teens prefer a smaller number of friendships that are more intense and more intimate.
Friends become increasingly important in meeting social needs.
Developmental advantages occur when friends are:
Socially skilled.
Supportive.
Oriented toward academic achievement.
Developmental disadvantages are more likely with:
Coercive friends who encourage drinking.
Conflict-ridden, poor-quality friendships.
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Friendships 2
FIGURE 4: DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN SELF-DISCLOSING CONVERSATIONS
Self-disclosing conversations with friends increased dramatically in adolescence while declining in an equally dramatic fashion with parents. However, self-disclosing conversations with parents began to pick up somewhat during the college years. The measure of self-disclosure involved a 5-point rating scale completed by the children and youth, with a higher score representing greater self-disclosure. The data shown represent the means for each age group.
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Peer Groups 1
Social media and peer relations:
Five ways social media use transforms adolescent peer relationships:
Changing the frequency or immediacy of their experiences.
Amplifying their experiences and demands.
Altering the qualitative aspects of their interactions.
Facilitating new opportunities for their compensatory behaviors.
Creating completely novel behaviors.
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Peer Groups 2
Peer pressure:
Young adolescents conform more to peer standards than children.
Boys are more influenced by peer pressure involving sexual behavior than girls.
Adolescents with low self-esteem and high social anxiety are most likely to conform to peers and during transitions (for example, a new school).
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Peer Groups 3
Cliques and crowds:
Clique: a small group of about five or six individuals that may form among adolescents who engage in similar activities.
May also form because of friendship.
Crowd: a larger group structure that is usually based on reputation.
Members may or may not spend much time together.
Most are defined by the activities adolescents engage in— that is, “jocks” and “druggies.”
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Peer Groups 4
The appearance of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) in 2020 quickly affected the ways friendship and peer relations take place.
Social distancing—maintaining a distance of 6 feet or more from others—may for some increase feelings of social isolation.
In this respect, the dramatic increase in social media use may prove to be of great value, allowing adolescents to stay connected with friends and peers online.
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Dating and Romantic Relationships 1
Developmental changes in dating and romantic relationships:
Three stages characterize the development of romantic relationships in adolescence:
Entry into romantic attractions and affiliations at about 11 to 13 years of age.
Exploring romantic relationships at approximately 14 to 16 years of age, often through casual dating and dating in groups.
Consolidating dyadic romantic bonds at about 17 to 19 years of age.
Two variations are considered early bloomers and late bloomers.
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Dating and Romantic Relationships 2
Dating in gay and lesbian youth:
Many date other-sex peers, which can help clarify their sexual orientation or disguise it from others.
Most gay and lesbian youth have had some same-sex experience, often with peers who are “experimenting.”
Sociocultural contexts and dating:
Cultures, values, beliefs, and traditions often dictate the age at which dating begins, how much freedom is allowed, whether dates must be chaperoned, and the roles of males and females.
Dating can be a source of conflict in families, especially if parents grew up in a culture where little freedom is allowed.
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Dating and Romantic Relationships 3
Dating and adjustment:
Experiencing romantic encounters can increase social acceptance, friendship competence, and romantic competence.
Supportive romantic relationships can improve the likelihood of positive outcomes for adolescents experiencing conflict in other parts of their lives.
Having more romantic relationships can also have negative implications.
Higher levels of substance use, delinquency, and sexual behavior.
In girls, depression and pregnancy.
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Culture and Adolescent Development: Topics
Cross-cultural comparisons.
Ethnicity.
The media.
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Cross-Cultural Comparisons 1
Depending on the culture, adolescence may involve many different experiences.
Health: Overall, fewer adolescents die from infectious diseases and malnutrition today; but health-compromising behaviors are increasing in frequency.
Gender: The experiences of male and female adolescents continue to be quite different.
In much of the world, males have far greater access to education, a variety of careers, and leisure activities.
Far more restrictions are placed on the sexual activity of adolescent females than on that of males.
Differences are narrowing over time, however.
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Cross-Cultural Comparisons 2
Family: In some countries, families are close-knit and have extensive kin networks; but current trends of mobility and migration are bringing change.
Countries like the United States are seeing greater numbers of divorced families and stepfamilies.
Peers: In some regions, peer relations are restricted (especially for girls); in others, the peer network can serve as surrogate family.
Activities: U.S. adolescents have far more discretionary time than adolescents in other industrialized countries.
When given a choice, they typically engage in unchallenging activities such as hanging out and watching TV.
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Cross-Cultural Comparisons 3
Rites of passage:
Some societies have elaborate ceremonies that signal the adolescent’s move to maturity and achievement of adult status—commonly referred to as a rite of passage.
Often characterized by some form of ritual death and rebirth.
American culture does not have universal formal ceremonies, but some religious and social groups have initiation ceremonies.
For example, the Jewish bar and bat mitzvah and the Catholic confirmation.
School graduation may be the most culture-wide rite of passage in the United States.
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Socioeconomic Status and Poverty
Adolescents from low-income and impoverished families are at greater risk for low academic achievement, emotional problems, and lower occupational attainment.
Psychological problems and physical illness are also more prevalent among low-S E S adolescents.
The following factors appear to improve academic achievement for children living in poverty:
Greater academic commitment;
Emotional control;
Family involvement; and
A supportive school climate.
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Ethnicity 1
Immigration:
Immigrants often experience stressors uncommon to or less prominent among long-time residents.
Language barriers.
Dislocations and separations from support networks.
The dual struggle to preserve identity and to acculturate.
Changes in socioeconomic status.
Many individuals in immigrant families are also dealing with the problem of being undocumented.
The ways ethnic minority families deal with stress depend on many different factors.
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Ethnicity 2
Ethnicity and socioeconomic status:
Ethnicity and S E S can interact in ways that exaggerate the influence of ethnicity, because ethnic minorities are overrepresented in the lower-S E S levels of American society.
Thus, many ethnic minority adolescents experience a double disadvantage:
Prejudice, discrimination, and bias because of their ethnic minority status.
Stressful effects of poverty.
Economic advantage among middle-income ethnic minority youth does not mean they escape prejudice, discrimination, and bias.
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Media Use and Screen Time 1
Screen time includes how much time individuals spend watching television or D V D s, playing video games, and using computers or mobile media devices.
Nighttime mobile phone use and poor sleep behavior increases from 13 to 16 years of age.
Among both girls and boys, heavy users of digital media are twice as likely to have low psychological well-being.
The more screen time adolescents have, the more their academic achievement suffers.
One major trend is the dramatic increase in media multitasking, which at a general level is distracting and impairs performance on many tasks.
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Media Use and Screen Time 2
FIGURE 5: DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN THE AMOUNT OF TIME U.S. 8- TO 18-YEAR-OLDS SPEND WITH DIFFERENT TYPES MEDIA AND ELECTRONIC DEVICES
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Media Use and Screen Time 3
Technology and digitally mediated communication:
Mobile media such as smartphones are mainly driving the increased media use by adolescents.
A national survey also revealed dramatic increases in adolescents’ use of social media and text messaging.
Twenty-four percent of those surveyed said they were online almost constantly.
Less screen time has been linked to better health-related quality of life among adolescents.
Text messaging is the preferred method of contact with friends, while voice mail is used to connect with parents.
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Adolescent Problems: Topics
Juvenile delinquency.
Depression and suicide.
The interrelation of problems and successful prevention/intervention programs.
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Juvenile delinquency
Juvenile delinquent: an adolescent who breaks the law or engages in behavior that is considered illegal.
Delinquency rates:
Males are more likely to engage in delinquency than females.
Rates among minority groups and lower-S E S youth are especially high.
Causes of delinquency:
Lower-S E S culture.
Parents less skilled in discouraging antisocial behavior.
Siblings and delinquent peers.
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Depression and Suicide 1
Depression:
Factors contributing to depression:
Genes.
Certain family factors.
Poor peer relationships.
Treatment of depression:
Drug therapy using serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
Cognitive behavioral therapy.
Interpersonal therapy.
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Depression and Suicide 2
In the United States, suicide is now the third-leading cause of death in 10- to 19-year-olds.
Adolescents contemplate or attempt it unsuccessfully more often than they actually commit it.
Females are more likely to attempt suicide, but males are more likely to succeed.
Risk factors for suicide:
History of family instability and unhappiness.
Lack of supportive friendships.
Cultural contexts and genetic factors.
Depressive symptoms.
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Depression and Suicide 3
FIGURE 7: SUICIDE ATTEMPTS BY U.S. ADOLESCENTS FROM DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS
Note: Data shown are for one-year rates of self-reported suicide attempts.
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The Interrelation of Problems and Successful Prevention/Intervention Programs 1
The four problems that affect the most adolescents are:
Drug abuse.
Juvenile delinquency.
Sexual problems.
School-related problems.
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The Interrelation of Problems and Successful Prevention/Intervention Programs 2
A review of the programs that have been successful in preventing or reducing adolescent problems found these common components:
Intensive individualized attention.
Community-wide multiagency collaborative approaches.
Early identification and intervention.
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Friendships 2 – Text Alternative
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Self-disclosure with friends rose from second grade to peak in tenth grade, and dropped slightly in college. Self-disclosure with parents increased from second to fifth grade, and then hit a low point in tenth grade and began to rise again in college.
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Media Use and Screen Time 2 – Text Alternative
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Regarding how many hours a day they spent with different media, 8 to 10 years old, 11 to 14 years old, and 15 to 18 years, reported 3:41, 5:03, and 4:22 hours of TV content, 1:08, 2:22, and 3:03 hours of music, 0:46, 1:46, and 1:39 hours on a computer, 1:01, 1:25, and 1:08 hours with video games respectively. Regarding total media exposure, the groups reported 7:51, 11:53 and 11:23 hours, and total media use of 5:29, 8:40, and 7:58 hours.
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Depression and Suicide 3 – Text Alternative
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Among males, American Indian and Alaskan Natives reported the highest number of suicide attempts with over 12. The other groups, African American, Latino, Non-Latino white and Asian American and Pacific Islander, were under 8. Among females, American Indian and Alaska Native reported the highest number of suicide attempts with over 20. The other groups, African American, Latino, Non-Latino white and Asian American and Pacific Islander, were under 16. In both cases, Latino males and females had the second highest number.
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