Psy life span W5D6
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psyc2314_ppt_ch10.pptxLIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e
John W. Santrock
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Chapter 10
Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood
© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
Chapter Outline
Emotional and Personality Development.
Families.
Peers.
Schools.
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Emotional and Personality Development: Topics
The self.
Emotional development.
Moral development.
Gender.
Fuse/Corbis/Getty Images
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The Self 1
The development of self-understanding:
Children aged 8 to 11 increasingly describe themselves in terms of psychological characteristics and traits.
Recognize social characteristics of the self.
Self-descriptions increasingly involve social comparison.
Understanding others:
Perspective taking: assuming the perspective of others and understanding their thoughts and feelings.
Children become skeptical of others’ claims.
Without good perspective taking skills, they are more likely to be oppositional and have difficultly with relationships.
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The Self 2
Self-esteem and self-concept:
Self-esteem, also called self-worth or self-image: global evaluations of the self.
Self-concept: domain-specific evaluations of the self.
The foundations emerge from the quality of parent-child interaction.
Low self-esteem has been implicated in overweight and obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency.
A current concern is praise for mediocre performance, resulting in inflated self-esteem.
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The Self 3
Self-efficacy and self-regulation:
Self-efficacy: the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes.
Self-efficacy can affect a student’s choice of activities.
High self-efficacy increases the likelihood a child will expend effort and persist longer at learning tasks.
Self-regulation: characterized by deliberate efforts to manage one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts.
Leads to increased social competence and achievement.
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The Self 4
Industry versus inferiority:
This is Erikson’s fourth stage, appearing in middle and late childhood.
Industry: children become interested in how things are made and how they work.
When they are encouraged, their sense of industry increases.
Parents who see children’s efforts as mischief or making a mess can instead cause a sense of inferiority.
School becomes important.
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Emotional Development 1
Developmental changes:
Improved emotional understanding.
Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation.
Increased tendency to be aware of the events leading to emotional reactions.
Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions.
Use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings.
A capacity for genuine empathy.
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Emotional Development 2
Social-emotional education programs:
Second Step, from the Committee for Children, can be implemented in pre-K through eighth grade.
Self-regulation and executive function skills; making friends, self-regulation, and solving problems; and communication, coping, and decision making.
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (C A S E L) targets core social and emotional learning domains.
Self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making.
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Emotional Development 3
Coping with stress:
Older children generate more coping alternatives for stressful situations.
In turmoil or trauma, children may be too overwhelmed.
Outcomes for children who experience disasters include acute stress reactions, depression, panic disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Dose-response effect: the more severe the disaster/trauma (dose), the worse the adaptation and adjustment (response).
Another significant factor is the type of support available.
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Emotional Development 4
Researchers offer the following recommendations for caring for children after a disaster:
Reassure children.
Allow children to retell events; and be patient listening.
Encourage children to talk about feelings, and reassure them that such feelings are normal.
Protect children from re-exposure and reminders.
Help children make sense of what happened.
Stephanie Keith/Polaris/Newscom
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Moral Development 1
Two perspectives:
Piaget proposed that children move from heteronomous morality to autonomous morality by 10 years of age.
Children come to consider intentions, believe rules are subject to change, and know that punishment may not follow.
Lawrence Kohlberg suggested three universal levels of moral development.
Development from one level to another is fostered by opportunities to take others’ perspectives and experience conflict between one’s level of moral thinking and the reasoning of someone else at a higher level.
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Moral Development 2
The Kohlberg levels:
Level 1, preconventional reasoning: the individual’s moral reasoning is controlled primarily by external rewards and punishment.
Level 2, conventional reasoning: the individual abides by certain standards, but these are standards set by others such as parents or society.
Level 3, postconventional reasoning: the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code.
The levels occur in sequence and are age-related.
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Moral Development 3
Influences on Kohlberg’s stages:
Development requires experiences dealing with moral questions and moral conflict.
Peer interaction and perspective taking are critical.
Kohlberg’s critics:
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on thought and not enough emphasis on behavior.
Jonathan Haidt argues moral thinking is more often an intuitive gut reaction, with deliberative moral reasoning providing after-the-fact justification.
Emotion plays a more important role than Kohlberg indicated.
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Moral Development 4
Carol Gilligan argues Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender bias.
It is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others.
Justice perspective: a focus on the rights of the individual, where the individual independently makes moral decisions.
Care perspective, proposed by Gilligan: views people in terms of their connectedness and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships, and concern for others.
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Moral Development 5
Some critics claim Kohlberg’s theory is culturally biased.
Level 3 thinking has not been found in all cultures.
Narváez and Gleason point out that postconventional moral reasoning has been declining in Western cultures.
Counter to Kohlberg’s position, most experts on children’s moral development conclude that parents’ moral values and actions influence children’s moral reasoning.
Most developmentalists agree with Kohlberg and Piaget, however, that peers play an important role.
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Moral Development 6
Domain theory of moral development: identifies different domains of social knowledge and reasoning.
Moral, social conventional, and personal.
Arise from children’s and adolescents’ attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience.
Some theorists and researchers argue Kohlberg did not adequately distinguish between moral reasoning and social conventional reasoning.
Social conventional reasoning focuses on conventional rules established by social consensus.
Moral reasoning instead focuses on ethical issues and rules of morality.
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Moral Development 7
The study of prosocial moral behavior places more emphasis on the behavioral aspects of moral development.
William Damon describes how children’s sharing begins to reflect a more complex sense of right and wrong during middle and late childhood.
Equity can sometimes mean people with special merit or special needs deserve special treatment.
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Moral Development 8
Moral personality:
Research on whether children develop a moral personality suggests three possible components:
Moral identity: people’s identity when moral notions and moral commitments are central to their lives.
Moral character: having the willpower, desire, and integrity to stand up to pressure, overcome distractions and disappointments, and behave morally.
Moral exemplars: people whose moral personality, identity, character, and set of virtues reflect moral excellence and commitment.
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Gender 1
Gender stereotypes: broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs about males and females.
What is the reality behind gender stereotypes?
Note that the similarities and differences observed are averages.
There is considerable overlap.
Differences may be due primarily to biological or sociocultural factors or both.
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Gender 2
Physical development:
Females have about twice the body fat, have a longer life expectancy, and are less like to develop disorders.
On average, males tend to grow taller.
Human brains are much alike, but there are some differences:
Female brains are about 10% smaller but have more folds.
An area of the parietal lobe that functions in visuospatial skills is larger in males.
Areas of the brain involved in emotional expression show more metabolic activity in females.
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Gender 3
Cognitive development:
No gender differences in general intelligence have been found.
Girls and women tend to have slightly better verbal skills.
Although there are no significant gender differences in math scores, girls have more negative math attitudes, and parents’ and teachers’ expectations favor boys.
Boys have better visuospatial skills.
Females outperform males in reading and writing skills.
Girls do better overall in academic achievement, but this may reflect many factors besides cognitive ability.
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Gender 4
FIGURE 2: VISUOSPATIAL SKILLS OF MALES AND FEMALES
Notice that although an average male’s visuospatial skills are higher than an average female’s, the scores for the two sexes almost entirely overlap. Not all males have better visuospatial skills than all females—the overlap indicates that although the average male score is higher, many females outperform most males on such tasks.
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Gender 5
Socioemotional development:
Similarities and differences have been studied in terms of aggression, emotion, and prosocial behavior.
Boys are more physically aggressive; girls are more verbally aggressive; and relational aggression comprises a greater percentage of girls’ overall aggression.
Girls express more emotion and are better at decoding it; and with age, girls more strongly express positive emotions.
Boys usually show less self-regulation.
Girls view themselves as more prosocial and empathetic, and they engage in more prosocial behavior.
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Gender 6
Gender in context:
Traits people display may vary with the situation—thus, gender differences depend on context.
Example: helping behavior.
What is culturally prescribed behavior for females and males in different countries around the world varies significantly.
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Families: Topics
Developmental changes in parent-child relationships.
Parents as managers.
Attachment in families.
Stepfamilies.
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Developmental Changes in Parent-Child Relationships
Parents spend considerably less time with children during middle and late childhood.
Nevertheless, parents play an important role in supporting and stimulating children’s academic achievement.
Parents use less-physical forms of punishment as children age.
During middle and late childhood, some control is transferred from parent to child, producing coregulation.
Children engage in moment-to-moment self-regulation.
The major shift to autonomy does not occur until about the age of 12 or later.
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Parents as Managers
Parents manage children’s opportunities, monitor behavior, and initiate social contact.
Mothers more than fathers engage in this managerial role.
Among the most important practices is maintaining a structured and organized family environment.
Positively related to students’ grades and self-responsibility, and negatively to school-related problems.
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Attachment in Families
Attachment becomes more sophisticated.
Children spend less time with parents, and their social worlds expand.
Secure attachment is associated with lower levels of internalized symptoms of anxiety and depression.
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Stepfamilies
Remarriages involving children have increased in recent years.
Remarried parents must:
Define and strengthen their marriage.
Renegotiate the biological parent-child relationships.
Establish stepparent-stepchild and stepsibling relationships.
Stepfamily types:
Stepfather.
Stepmother.
Blended or complex.
Todd Wright/Blend Images/Getty Images
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Peers: Topics
Developmental changes.
Peer status.
Social cognition.
Bullying.
Friends.
Don Hammond/Design Pics
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Developmental Changes
Reciprocity becomes important in peer interchanges.
The sizes of peer groups increase.
Peer interaction is less closely supervised by adults.
Children’s preference for same-sex peer groups increases.
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Peer Status 1
Sociometric statuses of peers:
Popular children: frequently nominated as a best friend, and rarely disliked by peers.
Average children: receive an average number of both positive and negative peer nominations.
Neglected children: infrequently nominated as a best friend, but not disliked by peers.
Rejected children: infrequently nominated as a best friend, and actively disliked by peers.
Controversial children: frequently nominated both as someone’s best friend and as being disliked.
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Peer Status 2
Popular children have social skills that contribute to their being well liked.
Give out reinforcements, listen carefully, and maintain open lines of communication.
Are happy, control negative emotions, and show enthusiasm and concern for others.
Self-confident without being conceited.
Rejected children often have serious adjustment problems.
Aggression and its related characteristics of impulsiveness and disruptiveness underly rejection about half the time.
About 10 to 20% of rejected children are shy.
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Social Cognition 1
Social cognition—thoughts about social matters—is important to our understanding of peer relationships.
Steps children go through in processing social information:
Attend to social cues.
Attribute intent through interpretation.
Establish social goals.
Access behavioral scripts from memory.
Generate problem-solving strategies.
Evaluate the effectiveness of strategies.
Make decisions and enact behavior.
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Social Cognition 2
Social knowledge is also involved.
Children need to know:
What goals to pursue in poorly defined or ambiguous situations.
How to initiate and maintain a social bond.
What scripts to follow to get children to be their friends.
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Bullying 1
Bullying is defined as verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful.
The most frequent type is belittling about looks or speech.
Boys and younger middle school students are the most likely to be bullied—often anxious, socially withdrawn, and aggressive children.
Bullied children report loneliness and difficulty making friends.
Bullies are more likely to have low grades and to smoke and drink.
Social contexts can influence bullying.
Poverty, family, school, and peer groups.
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Bullying 2
FIGURE 3: BULLYING BEHAVIORS AMONG U.S. YOUTH
This graph shows the types of bullying most often experienced by U.S. youth. The percentages reflect the extent to which bullied students said that they had experienced a particular type of bullying. In terms of gender, note that when they were bullied, boys were more likely to be hit, slapped, or pushed than girls were.
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Bullying 3
An increasing concern is peer bullying and harassment on the Internet.
Engaging in cyber harassment has been related to loneliness, lower self-esteem, fewer mutual friendships, and lower peer popularity.
Being the victim of cyberbullying is linked to stress and suicidal ideation—possibly more so than traditional bullying.
School-based interventions vary greatly.
A recent review concluded that a focus on the whole school is more effective than using classroom curricula or social skills training.
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Friends 1
Throughout childhood, friends are more similar than dissimilar.
Six functions of friendships:
Companionship.
Stimulation.
Physical support.
Ego support.
Social comparison.
Affection and intimacy.
Intimacy in friendships: self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts.
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Friends 2
Developmental advantages of friendship occur when children have friends who are socially skilled and supportive.
It is not advantageous to have coercive and conflict-ridden friendships.
Friendship also plays an important role in emotional well-being and academic success.
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Schools: Topics
Contemporary approaches to student learning.
Socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and culture.
Jim Weber/ZUMAPRESS/Newscom
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Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning 1
Constructivist approach: a learner-centered approach emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their own knowledge and understanding with guidance.
May include an emphasis on collaboration.
Direct instruction approach: a structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by:
Teacher direction and control.
Mastery of academic skills, high expectations for students’ progress, and maximum time spent on learning tasks.
Efforts to keep negative affect to a minimum.
Many effective teachers use both a constructivist and a direct instruction approach.
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Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning 2
Accountability:
Since the 19 90s, the U.S. public and governments at every level have demanded increased accountability from schools.
No Child Left Behind (N C L B) legislation.
Common Core State Standards Initiative.
Every Student Succeeds Act (E S S A).
Statewide standardized testing laws are changing, as are measurements for tracking success.
States and districts are required to implement challenging standards, although they can opt out of the Common Core.
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Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Culture 1
Students from low-income, ethnic minority backgrounds have more difficulties in school and face significant barriers.
Schools in low-income areas tend to have:
More students with low achievement test scores.
Low graduation rates.
Smaller percentages of students going to college.
Young teachers with less experience.
Fewer resources, including decent buildings.
Michael Conroy/AP Images
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Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Culture 2
Ethnicity in schools:
The school experiences of different ethnic groups vary considerably; but note, diversity characterizes every ethnic group.
Strategies for improving relationships among ethnically diverse students:
Turn the class into a jigsaw classroom.
Encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse other students.
Reduce bias.
View the school and community as a team.
Be a competent cultural mediator.
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Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Culture 3
Cross-cultural comparisons:
The United States has not fared well in comparisons with many other countries in the areas of math and science.
The rankings for U.S. students in reading, math, and science tend to decline as they go from elementary school to high school.
American students fare poorly in comparison with students in selected Asian countries.
Asian teachers spend more time teaching math, and the school year is longer.
Asian parents have high expectations and are more likely to believe math achievement is due to effort and training.
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Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Culture 4
FIGURE 4: MOTHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT THE FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CHILDREN’S MATH ACHIEVEMENT
In one study, mothers in Japan and Taiwan were more likely to believe that their children’s math achievement was due to effort rather than innate ability, while U.S. mothers were more likely to believe their children’s math achievement was due to innate ability (Stevenson, Lee, & Stigler, 19 86). If parents believe that their children’s math achievement is due to innate ability and their children are not doing well in math, the implication is that they are less likely to think their children will benefit from putting forth more effort.
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Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Culture 5
Carol Dweck points to the importance of children’s mindset—that is, the cognitive view that individuals develop for themselves.
Individuals with a fixed mindset believe their qualities cannot change.
Individuals with a growth mindset believe their qualities can change and improve through their own effort.
Parents, teachers, and coaches themselves have either a fixed mindset or growth mindset, but they may or may not instill their mindset in children and adolescents.
Students from low-income families are less likely to have a growth mindset; but those who do have a growth mindset are likely more protected from the negative effects of poverty.
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Bullying 2 – Text Alternative
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Among youth in the U S who reported being bullied, the most frequently reported was being belittled about looks or speech, experienced almost equally by females and males. Approximately 20 percent of those surveyed reported this. The next most frequent was being the subject of sexual comments or gestures, experienced by more females than males. The next most common is being the subject of rumors, experienced almost equally by females and males, and being hit, slapped, or pushed, experienced much more often by males. Of the five types of bullying reported, the least frequent was being belittled about religion or race, experienced slightly more by males.
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Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Culture 4 – Text Alternative
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Regarding math ability, on a scale from zero to six, Japanese mothers rated effort the highest at over 5, followed by mothers from Taiwan and then the United States, with a rating just under 4. When considering the influence of ability, the mothers in the United States rated ability the highest at just over 3, followed by mothers from Taiwan and then Japan, with a rating just above a 2.
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