Psy Life Span W4D5
Lostcauseminka
psyc2314_ppt_ch08.pptxLIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e
John W. Santrock
© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
Chapter 8
Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood
© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
Chapter Outline
Emotional and Personality Development.
Families.
Peer Relations, Play, and Media/Screen Time.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Emotional and Personality Development: Topics
The self.
Emotional development.
Moral development.
Gender.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
4
The Self 1
Erikson’s psychosocial stages are associated with early childhood.
Initiative versus guilt:
Children use perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen.
Children exuberantly move out into the wider social world on their own initiative.
The great governor of initiative is conscience.
Initiative and enthusiasm may bring guilt, which lowers self-esteem.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
The Self 2
Increased awareness reflects young children’s expanding psychological sophistication.
Self-understanding: the representation of self, the substance and content of self-conceptions.
Physical activities: a central component of the self in early childhood.
Children’s self-descriptions tend to be unrealistically positive— a self-protective feature—and tend to confuse ability and effort.
A better basic understanding of emotions in early childhood enables children to develop a more advanced understanding of others’ perspectives.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
6
The Self 3
Understanding others:
Children start perceiving others in terms of psychological traits.
They also begin to develop an understanding of joint commitments.
As they approach their third birthday, collaborative interactions increasingly involve obligations to a partner.
Young children are not as egocentric as depicted in Piaget’s theory.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
7
Emotional Development 1
The young child’s growing awareness of self is linked to feeling an expanding range of emotions.
Experience many emotions in the course of a day.
Emotional development allows them to try to make sense of other people’s emotional reactions and to control their own.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
8
Emotional Development 2
Expressing emotions:
Pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt are examples of self-conscious emotions.
During the early childhood years, pride and guilt become more common.
These are influenced by parents’ responses to children’s behavior—for example, “You should feel bad about biting your sister.”
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
9
Emotional Development 3
Understanding emotions:
Children’s understanding of emotion is linked to an increase in prosocial behavior.
Children begin to understand that the same event can elicit different feelings in different people.
By age 5, most children show more ability to reflect on emotions and a growing awareness of the need to manage emotions according to social standards.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
10
Emotional Development 4
Regulating emotions:
Emotion regulation plays a key role in children’s ability to manage the demands and conflicts they face in interacting with others.
Parents can be described as taking an emotion-coaching or emotion-dismissing approach to helping children regulate emotions.
The ability to modulate emotions benefits children in their relationships with peers.
Jamie Grill/Tetra images/Getty Images
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
11
Emotional Development 5
Emotion-coaching and emotion-dismissing parents:
Emotion-coaching parents monitor their children’s emotions.
View negative emotions as opportunities for teaching.
Assist them in labeling emotions.
Coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions.
Emotion-dismissing parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions.
Linked to toddlers’ lower emotional competence.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
12
Emotional Development 6
Emotion regulation and peer relations:
Emotions play a role in the success of a child’s peer relationships.
Moody and emotionally negative children are more likely to experience rejection, whereas emotionally positive children are more popular.
Higher emotion regulation is linked to greater success with peers, while frequent expression of anger predicts lower social competence.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
13
Moral Development 1
Moral development: involves thoughts, feelings, and behavior regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people.
Moral feelings:
Feelings of anxiety and guilt are central to the account of moral development provided by Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.
Children form the superego—the moral element of personality—in part to reduce anxiety and avoid punishment.
Although Freud’s ideas are not backed by research, emotions and guilt can motivate behavior.
Other emotions also contribute.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
14
Moral Development 2
Today, many developmentalists believe both positive feelings and negative feelings contribute to children’s moral development.
When these emotions are strongly experienced, they influence children to act in accord with standards of right and wrong.
Sympathy often motivates prosocial behavior.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
15
Moral Development 3
Moral reasoning:
Piaget suggested two distinct stages in thinking about morality:
Heteronomous morality: from approximately 4 to 7 years of age; justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.
The heteronomous thinker also believes in immanent justice: if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately.
Autonomous morality: older children become aware that rules and laws are created by people, and that when judging an action, one should consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Moral Development 4
Parent-child relations in which parents have the power and children do not are less likely to advance moral reasoning, because rules are handed down in an authoritarian manner.
Fuse/Getty Images
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
17
Moral Development 5
Moral behavior:
According to the behavioral and social cognitive approaches, the processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation explain the development of moral behavior.
In the moral behavior view, the situation also influences behavior.
Cognitive factors are important in the child’s development of self-control.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
18
Moral Development 6
Conscience: an internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves integrating moral thought, feeling, and behavior.
Children who are securely attached are more likely to internalize parents’ values and rules.
Other aspects of parent and child relationships that contribute to children’s moral development include:
Relational quality;
Parental discipline;
Proactive strategies; and
Conversational dialogue.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
19
Gender 1
Gender: the characteristics of people as males and females.
Gender identity: the sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the age of 3.
Gender role: a cultural set of expectations that prescribes how females or males should think, act, and feel.
Gender typing: the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
(Left) Eric Audras/Getty Images; (right) Alistair Berg/Getty Images
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
20
Gender 2
Biological influences:
Chromosomes.
Hormones.
Play a key role in the development of sex differences.
Estrogens influence the development of female physical sex characteristics.
Androgens promote the development of male physical sex characteristics.
Evolution.
Adaptation during human evolution produced psychological differences between males and females.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
21
Gender 3
Social influences:
Social role theory: gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men.
Psychoanalytic theory of gender: the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent.
Social cognitive theory of gender: children’s gender development occurs through observation and imitation of others’ words and actions.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
22
Gender 4
Parents, by action and by example, influence gender development.
Mothers’ socialization strategies encourage daughters to be obedient and responsible; and restrict daughters’ autonomy.
Fathers’ socialization strategies give more attention to sons and put forth more effort to promote sons’ intellectual development.
Peer influences are also significant.
Peers extensively reward and punish gender behavior.
Preschoolers prefer socializing with the same gender.
Boys are likely to associate in larger clusters than girls are.
Boys tend to play more competitively, while girls tend to engage in “collaborative discourse.”
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
23
Gender 5
FIGURE 1: DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN PERCENTAGE OF TIME SPENT IN SAME-SEX AND MIXED GROUP SETTINGS
Observations of children show that they are more likely to play in same-sex than mixed-sex groups. This tendency increases between 4 and 6 years of age.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Gender 6
Cognitive influences:
Gender schema theory: children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.
A schema is a cognitive structure, a network of associations that guides perceptions.
A gender schema organizes the world in terms of female and male.
Children are motivated to act in ways that conform to gender schemas created through their observations of their culture.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Families: Topics
Parenting.
Child maltreatment.
Sibling relationships and birth order.
The changing family in a changing society.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
26
Parenting 1
As compared to nonparents, parents:
Are typically more satisfied with their lives.
Feel relatively better on a daily basis.
Have more positive feelings toward children and daily activities.
Juggling work and child care can be challenging, however.
Good parenting takes time and effort.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
27
Parenting 2
Baumrind’s parenting styles:
Authoritarian parenting: a restrictive, punitive style.
Child is to follow directions and respect parents’ work and effort.
Allows little verbal exchange.
Associated with children’s social incompetence and a higher level of aggression.
Authoritative parenting: encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions.
Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed.
Associated with children’s social competence and prosocial behaviors.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
28
Parenting 3
Neglectful parenting: the parent is uninvolved in the child’s life.
Associated with social incompetence in children, along with poor self-control, low self-esteem, immaturity, and alienation.
In adolescence, may contribute to truancy and delinquency.
Indulgent parenting: parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them.
Children never learn to control their own behavior and always expect to get their way.
Children rarely learn respect for others, have difficulty controlling their behavior.
They may be domineering, egocentric, and noncompliant, and they have difficulties in peer relations.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
29
Parenting 4
FIGURE 2: CLASSIFICATION OF PARENTING STYLES
The four types of parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful) involve the dimensions of acceptance and responsiveness, on the one hand, and demand and control on the other. For example, authoritative parenting involves being both accepting/responsive and demanding/controlling.
Access the text alternative to slide image
Steve Debenport/E+/Getty Images
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
30
Parenting 5
Parenting styles in context:
Authoritative parenting conveys the most benefits to the child and to the family as a whole.
With some exceptions, the evidence links authoritative parenting with competence on the part of the child across a wide range of ethnic groups, social strata, cultures, and family structures.
In some ethnic groups, aspects of the authoritarian style may be associated with more positive child outcomes.
An emphasis on requiring respect and obedience can in some cases encourage the development of a self and an identity embedded in the family.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
31
Parenting 6
Further thoughts on parenting styles:
The parenting styles do not capture the themes of reciprocal socialization and synchrony.
Children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children.
Many parents use a combination of techniques; and two parents may have different styles.
Some critics argue the concept of parenting styles is too broad.
Much of the research has involved mothers, not fathers.
Especially in traditional cultures, fathers have an authoritarian style and mothers a more permissive, indulgent style.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Parenting 7
Punishment:
Physical punishment is outlawed in 41 countries.
Some reasons for avoiding harsh punishments are that they:
Present an out-of-control model.
Can instill fear, rage, or avoidance.
Focus on what not to do, rather than what to do.
Can be abusive.
Most child psychologists recommend handling misbehavior by reasoning with the child and explaining consequences for others.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
33
Parenting 8
It is still unclear if the effects of physical punishments are by their nature harmful to children’s development.
Some argue that when used in a calm, reasoned manner, children’s development benefits.
As with other research on parenting, the research is correlational.
If physical punishment is used, it needs to be:
Mild;
Infrequent;
Age-appropriate; and
Used in the context of a positive parent-child relationship.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
34
Parenting 9
FIGURE 3: CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
A five-point scale was used to assess attitudes toward corporal punishment, with scores closer to 1 indicating an attitude against its use and scores closer to 5 suggesting an attitude favoring its use.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Parenting 10
Co-parenting: the support that parents provide one another in raising a child.
Conditions that place children at risk for problems include:
Poor coordination between parents.
Undermining of the other parent.
Lack of cooperation and warmth.
Disconnection by one parent.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Child Maltreatment 1
Types of child maltreatment:
Physical abuse.
Child neglect.
Sexual abuse.
Emotional abuse (psychological/verbal abuse/mental injury).
The contexts of abuse:
No single factor causes child maltreatment.
A combination of factors, including culture, family, and developmental characteristics, likely contributes.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
37
Child Maltreatment 2
Among the family and family-associated characteristics that may contribute are:
Parenting stress;
Substance abuse;
Social isolation;
Single parenting; and
Socioeconomic difficulties.
About one-third of parents who were abused themselves when they were young go on to abuse their own children.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Developmental Consequences of Abuse 1
Among the consequences of maltreatment are poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, poor peer relations, difficulty in adapting to school, and depression.
Physical abuse is linked to diminished cognitive development and school engagement.
Abuse or neglect in childhood increases risk of adolescent engagement in violent romantic relationships, delinquency, sexual risk taking, and substance abuse.
Physical or sexual abuse has also been linked to an increase in 13- to 18-year-olds’ suicide ideation, plans, and attempts.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Developmental Consequences of Abuse 2
FIGURE 4: ABNORMAL STRESS HORMONE LEVELS IN YOUNG CHILDREN IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF REARING CONDITIONS
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Developmental Consequences of Abuse 3
In the adult years, individuals who were maltreated as children are more likely to experience:
Physical ailments;
Mental problems; and
Sexual problems.
Two treatments appear effective in reducing child maltreatment:
Home visitation that emphasizes improved parenting, coping with stress, and increased support for the mother; and
Parent-infant psychotherapy that focuses on improving maternal-infant attachment.
Social support and coping skills are important.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Sibling Relationships and Birth Order 1
Approximately 80% of American children have siblings.
Conflict is a dimension of most sibling relationships, but so are helping, sharing, teaching, playing, emotional support, and rivalry.
When there are conflicts between siblings, the most frequent parental reaction is to do nothing at all.
Three important aspects of sibling relationships:
Emotional quality: intense positive and negative emotions are often expressed.
Familiarity and intimacy.
Considerable variation.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Sibling Relationships and Birth Order 2
Birth order:
Compared with later-born children, firstborn children have been described as more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled.
Only children are often achievement-oriented.
Many researchers stress that birth order by itself shows limited accuracy in predicting behavior.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
The Changing Family in a Changing Society 1
Working parents:
More than one of every two U.S. mothers with a child under the age of 5 is in the labor force.
Children of working mothers engage in less gender stereotyping and have more egalitarian views of gender than do children of nonworking mothers.
The effects of working parents involve the father as well.
The nature of parents’ work has more influence on development than whether a parent works outside the home.
Poor working conditions are associated with less effective parenting.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
The Changing Family in a Changing Society 2
FIGURE 5: SINGLE-PARENT FAMILIES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
The Changing Family in a Changing Society 3
Children in divorced families:
Forty percent of children born to married parents in the U.S. will experience their parents’ divorce.
Are children in intact families better adjusted?
Children of divorced families do show poorer adjustment; and those who experience multiple divorces are at greater risk.
A majority of children in divorced families do not have significant adjustment problems, however.
One study found that 20 years later, about 80% of adults concluded that their parents’ decision had been a wise one.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
The Changing Family in a Changing Society 4
Should parents stay together for the children?
If family relationships are eroding the well-being of children, divorce can be advantageous.
If the diminished resources and increased risks of divorce are accompanied by inept parenting and sustained conflict, it may be best to retain the unhappy marriage.
How much do family processes matter?
When divorced parents can agree on child-rearing and maintain a cordial relationship, children benefit.
Coparenting is associated with positive child outcomes.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
The Changing Family in a Changing Society 5
Gay and lesbian parents:
Like heterosexual couples, gay and lesbian parents vary greatly.
Few differences have been observed between children growing up in homosexual families and those in heterosexual families—including no differences in peer relationships and mental health adjustment.
Lesbian and gay couples share child care more than heterosexual couples.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
The Changing Family in a Changing Society 6
Cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic variations:
Parenting can be influenced by culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status.
The father’s role, support systems, and disciplining of children varies by culture.
Today’s trends include greater family mobility, migration to urban areas, separation for work, smaller families, and increased maternal employment.
These changes affect the resources available to children.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
The Changing Family in a Changing Society 7
Families within different ethnic groups in the U.S. differ in many significant respects.
For example, single-parent families are more common among African American and Latinos.
Perspectives on ethnic differences have often been deficit-based; but research indicates ethnic minority adolescents fare better than expected.
Assume higher levels of responsibility.
In immigrant families, help parents adapt
Immigrant families often experience stressors uncommon to or less prominent among longtime residents.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
The Changing Family in a Changing Society 8
Low-income families have less access to resources, and this is compounded by long-term poverty.
In most Western cultures, lower-S E S parents:
Are concerned that children conform to societal expectations.
Make it clear that parents have authority, use more physical punishment, and are more directive and less conversational.
In contrast, higher-S E S parents:
Are more concerned with developing children’s initiative.
Children are more nearly equal participants.
Parents are less likely to use physical punishment and are less directive and more conversational.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Peer Relations
Peers are children of about the same age or maturity level.
Functions include providing a source of information and comparison about the world outside the family.
Good peer relations are necessary for normal socioemotional development.
The preference for same-sex playmates increases with age.
Young children are more likely than older children to have friends who are of a different gender and ethnicity.
Parents’ lifestyle decisions determine their children’s friend choices both directly and indirectly.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Play 1
Play’s functions:
Play is an important aspect of development.
According to Freud and Erikson, play helps children master anxieties and conflicts.
Therapists use play therapy to allow children to work off frustrations and to analyze conflicts and ways of coping.
Play is also an important context for:
Cognitive development.
Exploratory behavior.
The development of language and communication skills.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Play 2
Sensorimotor play: when infants derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemes.
Practice play: involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when mastery is required.
Pretense/symbolic play: transforms the physical environment into symbols.
Social play: involves interaction with peers.
Constructive play: combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation.
Games: activities that are engaged in for pleasure and that have rules.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
54
Play 3
Trends in play:
Today’s children have a smaller amount of time for free play.
Often playtime is restricted at home and school so they can spend more time on academic subjects.
Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, and Singer argue that learning in playful contexts captivates children’s minds in ways that enhance their cognitive and socioemotional development.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Media/Screen Time 1
Television continues to have a strong influence on development.
Some types of TV shows are linked to positive outcomes.
Children today, however, increasingly use media and information/communication devices, leading to the use of the term screen time.
Too much screen time can have a negative influence by:
Making children passive learners.
Distracting from homework.
Teaching stereotypes, violent models of aggression, and unrealistic views of the world.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Media/Screen Time 2
Other negative outcomes associated with screen time:
Less time spent in play and with peers.
Decreased physical activity and an increase in obesity.
Lower cognitive development.
Poor sleep habits.
A higher degree of parental monitoring of children’s media use has been linked to more positive outcomes.
Parental reductions in their own screen time are associated with decreased screen time for their children.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Media/Screen Time 3
Violence and aggression on television raises special concerns.
Research has shown it is associated with more physical aggression in children, as is playing violent video games—in both males and females.
Television can have a positive influence by:
Presenting motivating educational programs.
Providing information about the world.
Displaying models of prosocial behaviors.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
End of Main Content
© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
Because learning changes everything.®
www.mheducation.com
Accessibility Content: Text Alternatives for Images
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Parenting 4 – Text Alternative
Return to parent-slide containing image
Authoritative parenting is accepting and responsive, while also demanding and controlling. Authoritarian parenting is rejecting and unresponsive, while also demanding and controlling. Indulgent parenting is accepting and responsive, while also undemanding and uncontrolling. Neglectful parenting is rejecting and unresponsive, while also undemanding and uncontrolling.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Parenting 9 – Text Alternative
Return to parent-slide containing image
Four countries are compared. Individuals in the United States and South Korea scored much higher in both remembering receiving corporal punishment as a child and accepting the use of it as a parent, than Spain and Sweden. Sweden’s scores for remembering its use and acceptance of corporal punishment is about half that of individuals in the United States.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
Developmental Consequences of Abuse 2 – Text Alternative
Return to parent-slide containing image
Five percent of middle S E S young children in birth families had abnormal stress hormone levels, as compared to 35 percent of maltreated young children in foster homes who had abnormal stress hormone levels.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
The Changing Family in a Changing Society 2 – Text Alternative
Return to parent-slide containing image
Among families with children under age 18, in the United States 23 percent are single-parent families, as compared to 17 percent in Sweden, 15 percent in Canada, 14 percent in Germany, 13 Percent in the UK, 11 percent in Australia, 11 percent in France, and 6 percent in Japan.
© McGraw Hill
‹#›
