discussion/lifespan chapter4, 5 and 6

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LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 17e

John W. Santrock

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Chapter 6

Socioemotional Development in Infancy

Chapter Outline

Emotional and Personality Development

Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment

Social Contexts

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Emotional and Personality Development

Emotional development

Temperament

Personality development

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Emotional Development (1 of 7)

Emotion: feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or interaction that is important to self and well-being

Characterized by behavior that reflects the pleasantness or unpleasantness of the state a person is in or the transactions being experienced

Classified as positive or negative

Plays important role in

Communication with others

Behavioral organization

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Emotional Development (2 of 7)

Emotions influence infants’ social responses and adaptive behaviors as they interact with others in their world.

Infants communicate important aspects of their lives through joy, sadness, interest, and fear.

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Emotional Development (3 of 7)

Biological, cognitive, and environmental influences

Certain brain regions play a role in emotions.

Cognitive processes influence infants’ and children’s emotional development.

Children learn cognitive strategies to control emotions and emotional arousal.

Emotion-linked interchanges

Provide the foundation for infant’s developing attachment to the parent

Social relationships

Provide settings to develop rich variety of emotions

Relationships and culture provide diversity in emotional experiences

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Emotional Development (4 of 7)

Early emotions

Primary emotions: present in humans and other animals and emerge early in life

Self-conscious emotions: require self-awareness, especially consciousness and a sense of “me”

Top left) ©Kozak_O_O/Shutterstock (top right); ©McGraw Hill Companies/Jill Braaten, Photographer; (bottom left) ©Stanislav Photographer/Shutterstock; (bottom right) ©Stockbyte/Getty Images

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Emotional Development (5 of 7)

Emotional expression and social relationships

Crying

Basic cry: Rhythmic pattern usually consisting of

A cry

Briefer silence

Shorter inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry

Brief rest before the next cry

Anger cry: variation of the basic cry, with more excess air forced through the vocal cords

Pain cry: sudden long, loud cry followed by breath holding

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Emotional Development (6 of 7)

Smiling

Reflexive smile: smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli

Social smile: in response to an external stimulus

Fear

Stranger anxiety: fear and wariness of strangers, appears during the second half of the first year of life

Separation protest: distressed crying when the caregiver leaves

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Emotional Development (7 of 7)

Emotional regulation and coping

Infants develop ability to inhibit, or minimize, the intensity and duration of emotional reactions.

Caregivers’ actions and contexts influence emotional regulation.

Soothing a crying infant helps infant develop an adaptive emotion regulation, a sense of trust and secure attachment to caregiver

Infants with negative temperaments have fewer regulation strategies.

Depressed mothers rock and touch their crying infants less.

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Temperament (1 of 2)

Individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding

Describing and classifying temperament

Chess and Thomas’s classification

Easy child: generally in a positive mood

Quickly establishes regular routines in infancy

Adapts easily to new experiences

Difficult child: reacts negatively and cries frequently

Engages in irregular daily routines

Slow to accept change

Slow-to-warm-up child: low activity level

Somewhat negative

Displays a low intensity of mood

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Temperament (2 of 2)

Kagan’s behavioral inhibition

Shy, subdued, timid child

Children who are behaviorally inhibited as their parents were, are at risk for developing anxiety disorders

Rothbart and Bates’s classification

Extraversion/surgency indicated by activity, laughter

Negative affectivity indicated by sadness, discomfort

Effortful control important indicator for self-regulation

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Personality Development (1 of 2)

Biological foundations and experience

Biological influences

Contemporary view: temperament is a biologically based but evolving aspect of behavior

Gender, culture, and temperament

Parents may react differently to an infant’s temperament depending on gender.

Cultural differences in temperament were linked to parent attitude and behaviors.

Goodness of fit: match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands with which the child must cope

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Personality Development (2 of 2)

Trust

According to Erikson, the first year is characterized by trust-versus-mistrust and can arise at successive stages of development.

Developing sense of self

Self-recognition develops by 18 months of age.

Independence

Erikson’s second stage of development, autonomy versus shame and doubt

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Developing a Sense of Self

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Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment

Social orientation/understanding

Attachment and its development

Individual differences in attachment

Caregiving styles and attachment

Developmental social neuroscience and attachment

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Social Orientation/Understanding

Social orientation

Face-to-face play starts at 2–3 months old.

Still-face paradigm: caregiver alternates between engaging in face-to-face interaction with the infant and remaining still and unresponsive

Still-face paradigm leads to infant being withdrawn and having negative emotions, which predicts later secure and insecure attachment.

Locomotion

7- to 8-month-old babies push for independence, rewarded for goal-directed pursuits

Meaningful Interactions with Others

By 11 months old, babies understand others and make appropriate social responses, the cognitive foundation for being social.

Social referencing: reading others’ emotional cues to understand how to act

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Contact Time with Wire and Cloth Surrogate Mothers

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Attachment and Its Development (1 of 2)

Attachment: close emotional bond between two people

Freud: infants become attached to the person who provides oral satisfaction

Harlow: contact comfort preferred over food

Erikson: trust arises from physical comfort and sensitive care

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Attachment and Its Development (2 of 2)

Bowlby: Four phases of attachment

Phase 1: from birth to 2 months

Infants direct their attachment to human figures.

Phase 2: from 2 to 7 months

Attachment becomes focused on one figure (primary caregiver).

Phase 3: from 7 to 27 months

Specific attachments develop. With increased locomotion, babies actively seek contact with regular caregivers.

Phase 4: from 24 months on

Children become aware of others’ feelings and goals and account for them in their own actions.

Bowlby argued that infants develop an internal working model of attachment.

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Individual Differences in Attachment (1 of 4)

Strange situation: observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of

Introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in prescribed order over about 20 minutes

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Individual Differences in Attachment (2 of 4)

Securely attached babies: use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment

Insecure avoidant babies: show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver

Insecure resistant babies: cling to the caregiver, then resist the caregiver by fighting against the closeness

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Individual Differences in Attachment (3 of 4)

Insecure disorganized babies: show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented

Evaluating the Strange Situation

Does the paradigm capture important differences among infants?

May be culturally biased

Differences between German and Japanese infants

German infants more likely to show avoidant attachment pattern

Japanese infants less likely to show avoidant attachment pattern

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Individual Differences in Attachment (4 of 4)

Interpreting differences in attachment

Developmental cascade model: involves connections across domains over time that influence developmental pathways and outcomes

Criticism of attachment theory

Does not recognize that a culture’s value system influences the nature of attachment

Inadequate attention to biological-based factors

Importance of secure attachment in infants

Reflects a positive parent–infant relationship

Provides a foundation for healthy socioemotional development

Caregiving Styles and Attachment

Maternal sensitivity linked to secure attachment

Caregivers of insecurely attached infants tend to be

Rejecting

Inconsistent

Abusive

Developmental Social Neuroscience and Attachment

Important role in maternal attachment behavior

Prefrontal cortex

Subcortical regions of the amygdala

Hypothalamus

Role of hormones and neurotransmitters

Emphasizes the importance of

Neuropeptide hormone oxytocin released during breast feeding

Neurotransmitter dopamine

Regions of the Brain Proposed as Likely to Be Important in Infant–Mother Attachment

Social Contexts

Family

Child care

Interaction between Children and Their Parents: Direct and Indirect Effects

Family (1 of 3)

Constellation of subsystems

Transition to parenthood

Adjustment of parents during infant’s first years

Infant care competes with parents’ other interests

Overall increase in marital satisfaction

Family (2 of 3)

Reciprocal socialization: bidirectional

Children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children

Scaffolding: parents time interactions so that infants experience turn-taking with parents

Managing and guiding infants’ behavior

Being proactive and childproofing the environment

Engaging in corrective methods

Family (3 of 3)

Maternal and paternal caregiving

Maternal interactions center on child care activities.

Feeding, changing diapers, bathing

Paternal interactions tend to be play-centered.

Parents’ Methods for Managing and Guiding Infants’ Undesirable Behavior

Method	Percent of parents who used the method by 12 months	Percent of parents who used the method by 24 months
Spank with hand	14	45
Slap infant’s hand	21	31
Yell in anger	36	81
Threaten	19	63
Withdraw privileges	18	52
Time-out	12	60
Reason	85	100
Divert attention	100	100
Negotiate	50	90
Ignore	64	90

Child Care (1 of 3)

Many U.S. children today experience multiple caregivers.

Most do not have a parent staying at home.

Parental leave: fathers are positively engaged with their children; improved developmental outcomes occur

Currently over 2 million children receive formal, licensed care. Many more are cared for by unlicensed babysitters.

Child Care (2 of 3)

Variations in child care

Factors that influence the effects are

Age of the child

Type of child care

Quality of the program

Low-income infants receive lower-quality child care.

High-quality child care linked to better cognitive and language skills, cooperation, positive play with peers, fewer behavioral issues

Good caregiver training and low child-to-staff ratios linked to higher cognitive and social competence when child is 4 years old

Child Care (3 of 3)

Strategies parents can follow

Quality of parenting is a key factor in the child’s development

Monitor the child’s development

Take time to find the best child care

Primary Care Arrangements in the United States for Children Under 5 Years of Age with Employed Mothers