discussion/lifespan chapter4, 5 and 6
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psyc2314_ppt_ch05.pptxLIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 17e
John W. Santrock
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Chapter 5
Cognitive Development in Infancy
©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter Outline
Piaget’s Theory of Infant Development
Learning, Attention, Remembering, and Conceptualizing
Language Development
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Piaget’s Theory of Infant Development
Cognitive processes
The sensorimotor stage
Evaluating Piaget’s sensorimotor stage
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Cognitive Processes (1 of 2)
Schemes: actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Behavioral scheme
Mental scheme
Assimilation: using existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences
Accommodation: adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences
©Maya Kovacheva Photography/Getty Images
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Cognitive Processes (2 of 2)
Organization: grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system
Equilibration and stages of development
Equilibration: mechanism by which children shift from one stage of thought to the next
Disequilibrium is cognitive conflict
Individuals go through four stages of development.
Cognition is qualitatively different from one stage to another
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The Sensorimotor Stage (1 of 2)
Lasts from birth to about 2 years of age
Construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences
Substages
Simple reflexes
First habits and primary circular reactions
Secondary circular reactions
Coordination of secondary circular reactions
Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity
Internalization of schemes
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The Sensorimotor Stage (2 of 2)
Object permanence: understanding that objects and events continue to exist
When they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched
One of most important of child's accomplishments
©Doug Goodman/Science Source
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A 10-month-old baby without object permanence thinks a toy monkey is gone when it's hidden.
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Piaget’s Six Substages of Sensorimotor Development (1 of 3)
| Substage | Age | Description | Example |
| Simple reflexes | Birth to 1 month | Coordination of sensation and action through reflexive behaviors. | Rooting, sucking, and grasping reflexes; newborns suck reflexively when their lips are touched. |
| First habits and primary circular reactions | 1–4 months | Coordination of sensation and two types of schemes: habits (reflex) and primary circular reactions (reproduction of an event that initially occurred by chance). Main focus is still on the infant's body. | Repeating a body sensation first experienced by chance (sucking thumb, for example); then infants might accommodate actions by sucking their thumb differently from how they suck on a nipple. |
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Piaget’s Six Substages of Sensorimotor Development (2 of 3)
| Substage | Age | Description | Example |
| Secondary circular reactions | 4–8 months | Infants become more object-oriented, moving beyond self-preoccupation: repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results. | An infant coos to make a person stay near; as the person starts to leave, the infant coos again. |
| Coordination of secondary circular reactions | 8–12 months | Coordination of vision and touch—hand-eye coordination; coordination of schemes and intentionality. | Infant manipulates a stick in order to bring an attractive toy within reach. |
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Piaget’s Six Substages of Sensorimotor Development (3 of 3)
| Substage | Age | Description | Example |
| Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity | 12–18 months | Infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things they can make happen to objects; they experiment with new behavior. | A block can be made to fall, spin, hit another object, and slide across the ground. |
| Internalization of schemes | 18–24 months | Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols and form enduring mental representations. | An infant who has never thrown a temper tantrum before sees a playmate throw a tantrum; the infant retains a memory of the event, then throws one himself or herself the next day. |
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Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage (1 of 2)
A-not-B error: occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar hiding place (A) rather than the new hiding place (B)
As they progress into substage 4 in Piaget’s sensorimotor stage
Coordination of secondary circular reactions
A-not-B performance may be linked to attention.
Perceptual development and expectations
The nature-nurture issue
Core knowledge approach: infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems
Morality may emerge through infants’ early interaction with others and later transform through language and reflective thought.
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Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage (2 of 2)
Conclusions
Piaget thought not to be specific enough about how infants learn about their world
Infant cognition has become extremely specialized.
Currently trying to understand how developmental changes in cognition take place, examine the big issue for nature and nurture, and to study the brain’s role in cognitive development
Focus on emerging field of developmental cognitive neuroscience
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Learning, Remembering, and Conceptualizing
Conditioning
Attention
Memory
Imitation
Concept formation and categorization
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Conditioning (1 of 2)
Operant conditioning
Behavior followed by rewarding stimulus is likely to recur.
Information retention
Baby recalls relationship between behavior and stimulus.
Attention: focusing of mental resources on select information
Orienting/investigative process
Sustained attention
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Conditioning (2 of 2)
Habituation: decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus
Dishabituation: increase in responsiveness after a change in stimulation
Joint attention requires
Ability to track another’s behavior
One person’s directing another’s attention
Reciprocal interaction
Eye-tracking equipment connecting gaze and manual action predicts joint attention in infants.
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Gaze Following in Infancy
©2005 University of Washington, Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences
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Memory
Retention of information over time
Implicit memory: without conscious recollection
Memories of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically
Explicit memory: conscious remembering of facts and experiences
Childhood amnesia
| Age Group | Length of Delay |
| 6-month-olds | 24 hours |
| 9-month-olds | 1 month |
| 10- to 11-month-olds | 3 months |
| 13- to 14-month-olds | 4–6 months |
| 20-month-olds | 12 months |
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Imitation
Involves flexibility and adaptability
Deferred imitation: occurs after a delay of hours or days
©Dr. Andrew Meltzoff
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FIGURE 7
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Concept Formation and Categorization
Concepts: cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas
Perceptual categorization
Conceptual categorization
Occurs between 18 and 24 months
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Individual Differences and Assessment
Measures of infant development
Predicting intelligence
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Measures of Infant Development (1 of 2)
Developmental quotient (DQ): score that combines subscores in
motor,
language,
adaptive, and
personal–social domains in the Gesell assessment of infants.
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Measures of Infant Development (2 of 2)
Bayley Scales of Infant Development: used to assess infant behavior and predict later development
Current version has three components
Mental scale
Motor scale
Infant behavior profile
Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence evaluates an infant’s ability to process information.
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Predicting Intelligence
Tests for infants contain items related to perceptual-motor development
Include measures of social interaction
Four domains assessed in infants linked to Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III at age 11
Attention
Processing speed
Memory
Representational competence
Early language skills are the best predictor of IQ compared to other developmental milestones such as gross motor skills, fine motor skills, and socialization.
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Language Development
Defining language
Language’s rule systems
How language develops
Biological and environmental influences
An interactionist view
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Defining Language
Language: form of communication
Spoken, written, or signed
Based on a system of symbols
Lets us pass down information
Consists of the words used by a community and the rules for varying and combining them
Infinite generativity: ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using
Finite set of words and rules
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The Rule Systems of Language
| Rule System | Description | Examples |
| Phonology | The sound system of a language. A phoneme Is the smallest sound unit In a language. | The word chat has three phonemes or sounds: /ch/ /ã/ /t/. An example of phonological rule in the English language is while the phoneme /r/ can follow the phonemes /t/ or /d/ in an English consonant cluster (such as track or drab), the phoneme /l/ cannot follow these letters. |
| Morphology | The system that involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences. | The smallest sound units that have a meaning are called morphemes, or meaning units. The word girl is one morpheme, or meaning unit; it cannot be broken down any further and still have meaning. When the suffix s is added, the word becomes girls and has two morphemes because the s changed the meaning of the word, indicating that there is more than one girl. |
| Syntax | The system that involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences. | Word order is very important in determining meaning in the English language. For example, the sentence “pushed the bike” has a different meaning than “The bike pushed Sebastian.” |
| Semantics | The system that involves the meaning of words and sentences. | Knowing the meaning of individual words—that is, vocabulary. For example, semantics includes knowing the meaning of such words as orange, transportation, and intelligent. |
| Pragmatics | The system of using appropriate conversation and knowledge of how to effectively use language in context. | An example is using polite language in appropriate situations, such as being mannerly when talking with one's teacher. Taking turns In a conversation involves pragmatics. |
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How Language Develops (1 of 2)
Recognizing language sounds
Babbling and other vocalizations
Crying, cooing, and babbling
Gestures
Showing and pointing
First words
Receptive vocabulary considerably exceeds spoken vocabulary.
Vocabulary spurt
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How Language Develops (2 of 2)
Overextension: applying a word to objects that are inappropriate for the word’s meaning
Under extension: applying a word too narrowly
Vocalizations: crying, cooing, babbling, gestures, first words
Two-word utterances
To convey meaning child relies on gesture, tone, and context
Telegraphic speech: use of short and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives
Statistical learning
Infants soak up statistical regularities in the world through exposure to them; for example, “monkey” is said around monkeys and not other animals.
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Language Milestones
| Typical Age | Language Milestones |
| Birth | Crying |
| 2–4 months | Cooing begins |
| 5 months | Understands first word |
| 6 months | Babbling begins |
| 6–12 months | Change from universal linguist to language-specific listener |
| 8–12 months | Uses gestures, such as showing and pointing Comprehension of words appears |
| 13 months | First word spoken |
| 18 months | Vocabulary spurt starts |
| 18–24 months | Uses two-word utterances Rapid expansion of understanding of words |
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Variation in Language Milestones
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Biological Influences (1 of 2)
Regions involved in language
Broca’s area: region in the brain’s left frontal lobe that is involved in speech production
Wernicke’s area: region in the brain’s left hemisphere that is involved in language comprehension
Damage to either of these areas produces types of aphasia (a loss or impairment of language processing)
Damage to Broca’s area results in difficulty producing words correctly
Damage to Wernicke’s area results in poor comprehension, can produce fluent but incomprehensible speech
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Biological Influences (2 of 2)
Language acquisition device (LAD): Chomsky’s term that describes a biological endowment enabling the child to
Detect the features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics
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Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area
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Environmental Influences (1 of 2)
Focus on behavioral approach, social interaction, child-directed speech
Behaviorist view of language learning has several problems (e.g., doesn’t explain novel sentence formation).
Social interaction view: children learn language in specific contexts, social cues have a role (e.g., babbling)
Vocabulary development is linked to
Family’s socioeconomic status
Type of talk that parents direct to their children
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Environmental Influences (2 of 2)
Child-directed speech differs from adult interactions: higher pitch than normal, simple words and sentences
Infants learn about their native language and interaction
Caregiver strategies to enhance child’s acquisition of language
Recasting
Rephrasing something child has said
Expanding
Restating something child has said
Labeling
Identifying names of objects
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Interactionist View
Biology and experience contribute to language development. Can language develop without them?
Examples
Wild boy of Aveyron: An 11-year-old French boy found in 1799 did not attempt to and never communicated effectively
Genie: A child found in California in 1970 never acquired more than a primitive form of language
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