PSYSCHOLOGY PSY101
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PSY101Lecture62020.pptxPSY101 Introduction to Cultural Psychology
Lecture 6
1
Gender
&
Emotion
Outline
Sex and Gender
Gender Differences Across Cultures
Masculinity and Femininity
Cognitive Differences
Conformity and Obedience
Aggressiveness
Division of Labor
Summary
3
Outline (cont’d.)
Culture, Gender Roles, and Stereotypes
Culture and Gender Stereotypes
Culture, Gender Role Ideology, and Self-Concept
Ethnicity and Gender Roles
Changing Cultures, Changing Gender Roles
Conclusion
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Sex and Gender
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Sex and Gender
Sex: physical characteristics and differences between males and females
Sex roles: behaviours men and women engage in directly related to biological differences and process of reproduction
Sexual identity: Degree of awareness and recognition by an individual of his/her sex and sex roles
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Sex and Gender
Gender: behaviours that culture deems appropriate for males and females
Gender roles: degree to which person adopts gender-specific behaviours ascribed by his/her culture
Gender identity: degree to which person has awareness or recognition that he or she adopts a particular gender role
Gender stereotypes: psychological or behavioural characteristics typically associated with males and females
Gender Differences Across Cultures
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Hofstede’s Study
“Masculinity v. Femininity”
Degree to which a culture will foster, encourage, or maintain differences between males and females
High on masculinity:
Moralistic attitudes about sex; double standards
Encourages passive role of women
Low on masculinity:
Matter-of-fact attitudes about sex; single standard
Encourages active role of women
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Cognitive Differences
Common folklore that males are better at mathematical and spatial reasoning tasks, and females better at verbal comprehension tasks
However in spatial reasoning tasks:
Male superiority on tasks found in tight sedentary, agriculturally based cultures
Female superiority found in cultures that are loose, nomadic, and based on hunting and gathering
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Conformity and Obedience
One common stereotype is that females are more conforming and obedient than males
In actuality, degree to which difference in conformation occurs varies among cultures
Tight cultures foster greater gender difference on conformity, with females more conformist than males
Loose cultures foster less gender difference on conformity, sometimes with males more conforming than females
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Aggressiveness
Common gender stereotype is that males are more aggressive than females
Associated expectancies
Male role - Use of direct aggression to resolve problems
Female roles - Include communal responses to resolve problems
Neither biology nor sex differences in teaching aggressive acts can account for gender differences in aggression
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Division of Labour
Biological differences between men and women lead to division of labour in evolutionary history
Men generally physically bigger
Provide shelter, food, protection
Women carry children, give birth, and breastfeed
Care for infants and newborns
Biggest cultural differences between men and women is division of labour in house
However, women take brunt of housework in all societies
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Summary
Differences in sex roles raise questions about the gender stereotypes that arise because of sex role differentiation
Impact of culture on gender
Process of learning gender roles begins early in life
Gender role socialization continues throughout a person’s life from various sources
Reproductive differences cause differences in a variety of psychological traits and characteristics
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Culture, Gender Roles, and Stereotypes
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Culture and Gender Stereotypes
Many gender-related stereotypes universally held across cultures
Williams and Best (1982):
High degree of pancultural agreement across all countries studied in characteristics associated with men and women
Characteristics associated with men were stronger and more active than those associated with women across all countries
Cultural differences exist for favorability of male and female characteristics
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Table 7.4 - The 100 Items of the Pancultural
Adjective Checklist
Source: Lonner, Walter J., Malpass, and Roy S., Psychology and Culture, 1st Edition, Copyright © 1994, p. 193. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ
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Culture and Gender Role Ideology
Gender role ideology: judgments about what males and females ought to be like or do
Williams and Best (1990)
Traditional scores - Described gender roles that were consistent with the traditional or universal norms
Egalitarian scores - Reflected a tendency toward less differentiation between males and females on the various psychological characteristics
Gender differences within each country were relatively small compared to cross-country differences
Both men and women in all countries rated their ideal self as more masculine than their actual self
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Culture and Gender Role Ideology
Gibbons and colleagues (studies in younger populations):
Being “kind and honest” is universal for boys and girls
Adolescents from wealthy/individualistic countries were less traditional than those from poorer countries
Gender role ideologies may change as societies
undergo change
Ethnicity and Gender Roles
Androgyny: Gender identity involving endorsement of male and female characteristics
Gender identities of African Americans are more androgynous than those of European Americans
Asian American females are usually the head of the household in private
Mexican American women are increasingly sharing in decision making in the family
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Changing Cultures, Changing Gender Roles
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Changing Cultures, Changing Gender Roles
United Nations: commitment to equal rights and opportunities for men and women
Despite desires for equality, inequality still persists strongly around world
for example- violence against women
Much of cultural changes due to economics give rise to tensions between tradition and progress, conservatism, and liberalism
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Conclusion
Gender and its permutations—roles, identities, stereotypes—share important link with culture
Gender roles are different for males and females in all cultures
Some stereotypic notions about gender differences are universal across cultures
Studying gender differences in U.S. is challenging because of cultural and ethnic diversity
All cultures help to define roles, duties, and responsibilities appropriate for males or females
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Emotion
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Emotion: Outline
The Evolution of Human Emotion
Emotions as Evolved, Information Processing Systems
Different Categories of Emotion
The Biological Bases of Emotion – Basic Emotions
The Universality Studies
Other Sources of Evidence for the Universality of Basic Emotions and Their Possible Biological Bases
Summary
Cultural Influences on Emotion
Cultural Regulation of the Basic Emotions
More about Cultural Display Rules
Cultural Calibration of How Emotional Expressions Are Perceived
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Outline (cont’d.)
The Cultural Construction of Emotional Experience
The Cultural Construction of Concepts, Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs About Emotion
Concepts of Emotion
Categories of Emotion
The location of Emotion
Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs About Emotion
Summary
Conclusion
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The Evolution of Human Emotion
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Emotions
Emotions give meaning to events
Feelings: subjective experience/affect; part of emotion
Emotions: transient, neurophysiological reactions to events
When emotions are triggered, they recruit coordinated system of components to prepare for dealing with event
Emotion is a human universal
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Different Categories of Emotion
Basic emotions: triggered by biologically-innate system in our brains
Self-conscious emotions: associated with self-reflective processes
Shame
Guilt
Pride
Embarrassment
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The Biological Bases of Emotion – Basic Emotions
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The Universality Studies
Darwin: facial expressions of emotion have both communicative and adaptive value
Universality studies:
Universal emotions identified: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise
Judgments of expressions posed by preliterate tribes consistent with industrialized nations
Spontaneous facial expressions of emotion consistent between Americans and Japanese
Perfect correspondence between facial behaviors produced between blind and sighted individuals
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Figure 8.5. Comparison of Blind and Sighted Athletes Who Just Lost a Match for a Medal. Photos Copyright Bob Willingham (Reprinted with Permission)
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Other Sources of Evidence for the Universality of Basic Emotions and their Possible Biological Bases
There is universality in:
Emotion recognition
Physiological responses to emotion
Subjective emotional experience
The coherence among emotion response systems
Emotion antecedents
Emotion appraisal processes
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Source: David Matsumoto, Ph.D.
Figure 9.5 - The Seven Basic Emotions and Their Universal Expressions
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Table 9.1 - Underlying Appraisals that Elicit Emotions
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Summary
Emotions are universal psychological phenomenon based in evolution of species
Innate emotions allow us to appraise events and situations in reliable and predictable ways
Emotions trigger host of responses part of universal emotion package
Recognition of emotions in others has important social meaning
Universal processes allow us to adapt, respond, and cope with problems regardless of culture
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Cultural Influences on Emotion
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Cultural Influences on Emotion
Cultures provide the necessary coordination and organization to maintain social complexities
Create rules, guidelines, values, and norms concerning regulation of emotion
Cultural regulation of emotion occurs via:
Regulating biologically-based basic emotions
Constructing unique emotional experiences
Constructing unique concepts, meanings, attitudes, values, and beliefs about emotion
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Figure 9.6 - Role of Culture in Regulating Emotions to Achieve Social Order
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Cultural Regulation of the Basic Emotion System
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Cultural Regulation of the Basic Emotion System
Cultures influence a core, biologically-based basic emotion system in order to regulate emotions and ensure social coordination
Cultural calibration of innate emotion and expression system allows for regulation of culturally-appropriate emotional responses
Allows for culturally-appropriate behavioral responding, social coordination, prevention of social chaos
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Figure 9.7 - Cultural Influences on the Core Emotion System
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Cultural Display Rules
Culturally prescribed rules that govern how universal emotions can be expressed
Can modify expressions by:
Expressing less than actually felt (deamplification)
Expressing more than actually felt (amplification)
Showing nothing (neutralization)
Showing emotion but with another emotion to comment on it (qualification)
Masking or concealing feelings (masking)
Showing emotion when not felt (simulation)
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Figure 9.8 - Relationship between Individualism–Collectivism and Display Rules Endorsing Expressivity
Reprinted with permission from Matsumoto et al. (2008) Source: David Matsumoto, Seung Hee Yoo, Johnny Fontaine. “Mapping Expressive Differences around the World: The Relationship between Emotional Display Rules and Individualism Versus Collectivism,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20(1), p. 66, Copyright © 2008 by Sage Publications. Reprinted by Permission of SAGE Publications.
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Cultural Calibration of How Emotional Expressions Are Perceived
Cultures calibrate how individuals perceive emotions in others
Decoding rules
Culturally dependent rules learned early in life govern how emotional expressions are recognized
Individualistic cultures hold higher recognition rates for certain facial expressions
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Cultural Calibration of How Emotional Expressions Are Perceived
Cultural differences exist in inferences about emotional experiences underlying facial expressions of emotion
Ingroup advantage
Hypothesis that individuals can recognize emotions expressed by members of their own culture relatively better than of those from a different culture
The Cultural Construction of Emotional Experience
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Cultural Construction of Emotional Experience
Occurs in different ways
Socially engaging emotions: Caused by social interdependence such as friendliness, respect, sympathy, guilt, and shame
Socially disengaging emotions: Occur out of thoughts based on independence and autonomy such as pride, self-esteem, sulkiness, or frustration
Emotional complexity: Co-occurrence of both pleasant and unpleasant emotions
Dialectical thinking: Accepting contradictions in thought or beliefs
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The Cultural Construction of Concepts, Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs about Emotion
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Concepts of Emotion
American society’s values and cultures are directly related to values fostered by the American culture
The way American culture understands and defines emotion may not be the same in other cultures
Not all cultures have a word for emotion
Among those that do, it may not mean the same thing as the English word
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Categories of Emotion
Hypercognition: Identifying variations of emotions and creating words for these variations
Hypocognition: Existence of fewer variations of emotions
Words that cultures use to identify and label emotion provide clues about the way people of different cultures are emotionally molded
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Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs about Emotion
Cultures facilitate different values about emotion
Affective autonomy - Degree to which cultures promote and protect people’s independent pursuit of positive experiences
Uncertainty avoidance - Degree to which people feel threatened by the unknown or ambiguous
Cultures facilitate construction of beliefs about emotions
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Summary
Most of the culturally-constructed emotions are emotions other than basic emotions
More complex emotions require more cognitive abilities than basic emotions
Emotion-related processes that depend on cognitive abilities are heavily related to culture
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Conclusion
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Conclusion
Emotions are universally expressed and recognized
Elicit expressive behavior, physiology, cognitions, and action potential in all cultures
Cultures exert profound influences on emotions
Regulate basic emotions by influencing relative frequencies, types of triggers, and dimensions
Some universal emotions are biology-based and others require higher-order cognitive processes
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