Psychology

The Importance of Cross-Validation

An inventory is empirically derived by testing a large pool of items and then selecting those that are found to differentiate particular groups. For example, Alfred Binet developed the first intelligence test by selecting items that successfully discriminated children who were and were not progressing in Paris schools.

When the original pool contains a large number of items, there is the real possibility that some will distinguish between the criterion groups by chance alone. To deal with this problem, the researcher must administer the test again with a new sample of subjects. This cross-validation is a crucial step, because an item is not likely to distinguish between both groups just by chance. Any item that does discriminate twice is likely to be a valid item.

Obstacles to Self-Actualization

Maslow would say that so few adults are self-actualized for four basic reasons:

1. Self-actualization is at the top of the motivational hierarchy. This makes it the least urgent of all the needs, and the most easily impeded. He wrote, "This inner nature is not strong and overpowering and unmistakable like the instincts of animals. It is weak and delicate and subtle and easily overcome by habit, cultural pressure, and wrong attitudes toward it."
2. Maslow identified the Jonah Complex as another obstacle to self-actualization. Our fears and doubts about ourselves prevent us from using our abilities to reach our full potential. To become self-actualized, one must have enough courage to sacrifice safety for personal growth. Too often, fear takes precedence over the challenge of self-actualization.
3. The cultural environment may also stifle self-actualization by imposing certain norms on major segments of the population. Definitions of "manliness" may prevent the male child from developing traits such as sympathy, kindness, and tenderness, all of which characterize the self-actualized person.
4. Childhood experiences may inhibit personal growth. Maslow observed that children from warm, secure, friendly homes are more likely to choose experiences that lead to personal development. Excessive control and coddling is obviously harmful, but so is excessive permissiveness. Too much freedom in childhood can lead to anxiety and insecurity, which can prevent further growth. Maslow called for "freedom within limits" in which there is the right mixture of permissiveness and regulation.