Psychology of consulting and coaching

mattcbean

PSY-834-RS-MartinDissertation.pdf

Home >Psychology homework help >Psychology of consulting and coaching

The Examination of the Five-Factor Model as a Predictor of Emotional

Dissonance in Police Officers

Submitted by

Darrel Martin

A Dissertation Proposal Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctorate of Philosophy

Grand Canyon University

Phoenix, Arizona

October 17, 2016

GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY

The Examination of the Five-Factor Model as a Predictor of Emotional

Dissonance in Police Officers

Darrel Martin

Approved

October 17, 2016

DISSERTATION COMMITTEE:

Lori Caudle, Ph.D., Dissertation Chair

Rodger Broome, Ph.D., Committee Member

Nancy Walker, Ph.D., Committee Member

ACCEPTED AND SIGNED:

________________________________________

Michael R. Berger, Ed. D.

Dean, College of Doctoral Studies

_________________________________________

Date

Abstract

To identify some the contributing factors of work place stress (e.g., emotional

dissonance) a quantitative correlational study was used to determine the relationship of

five-factor model personality traits (e.g., neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness,

extraversion, openness) as predictors of emotional dissonance among police officers. This

study provided empirical evidence based on both theoretical foundations of five-factor

model and emotional dissonance theories that would help predict five-factor model as a

predictor of emotional dissonance among police officers. The participants selected for the

study were 122 police officers that worked for a large Midwestern Police Department,

who were selected using a purposive sampling method. A Pearson r correlation and

multiple regression analysis were used to test hypotheses. The Pearson r correlation

substantiated that neuroticism (r = .25), agreeableness (r = -.31), and conscientiousness

(r = -.25) had statistically significant relationships with emotional dissonance,

experienced among police officers. A multiple regression analysis showed a statistically

significant relationship with all five-five factor model personalities and emotional

dissonance (adjusted 𝑅2 = .11, F (5, 114) 3.84, p < .003). The findings of this study

provided multiple recommendations that will be informational to large police

departments and organizations on how to address the stress factors associated the effects

of emotional dissonance experienced by work personnel. This study helped establish a

greater understanding for the broader population of law enforcement, and through

statistical analyses, it was substantiated that some personality traits were predictors of

emotional dissonance.

Keywords: Emotional Dissonance, Five-Factor Model, Police Officers

Dedication

This dissertation is first dedicated to God, and my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ,

because without them, I would have not had the strength and discipline to endure the

rigorous dissertation process. Further dedication is to my beautiful wife Ola F. Martin,

who has been patient and encouraging, even while in the process of writing her own

doctoral dissertation. I also give thanks to my four beautiful children: Austin, Emily,

Noah, and Isabella for being patient and understanding.

Additionally, this dissertation is dedicated to my co-workers: Kenneth Martin,

Lieutenant Herbert Myles, Sergeant Kevin D. Miller and Sergeant Darrell McClendon,

and all my other coworkers for all the encouragement and support that kept me pushing

through my dissertation journey. Thank you God for giving me such an awesome support

system.

vii

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge my dissertation committee: Dr. Lori Caudle, Dr.

Rodger Broome, and Dr. Nancy Walker thank you for all your support through this

dissertation process. A special appreciation goes out to Dr. Lori Caudle because she has

been one biggest supporters and mentors in the process creating the final draft of my

dissertation.

viii

Table of Contents

List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xii

List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiii

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ................................................................................... 1

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

Background of the Study .............................................................................................. 4

Problem Statement ........................................................................................................ 7

Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 8

Research Question and Hypotheses ............................................................................ 10

Advancing Scientific Knowledge ............................................................................... 11

Significance of the Study ............................................................................................ 13

Rationale for Methodology ......................................................................................... 14

Nature of the Research Design for the Study .............................................................. 16

Definition of Terms..................................................................................................... 18

Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations ................................................................... 20

Assumptions. ...................................................................................................... 20

Limitations. ........................................................................................................ 20

Delimitations. ..................................................................................................... 21

Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study ....................................... 21

Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 23

Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem ..................................... 23

Background to the Problem ........................................................................................ 25

Theoretical Foundations.............................................................................................. 27

Emotional dissonance. ....................................................................................... 27

Five-factor model. .............................................................................................. 30

Review of the Literature ............................................................................................. 33

Emotional labor. ................................................................................................. 33

Emotional dissonance. ....................................................................................... 43

Personality and role-conflict. ............................................................................. 51

Understanding the five-factor model. ................................................................ 58

Five-factor model personality traits. .................................................................. 62

Connecting the five-factor model to emotional factors. .................................... 63

Five-factor model measure................................................................................. 73

Emotional dissonance measure. ......................................................................... 77

Summary ..................................................................................................................... 80

Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................... 84

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 84

Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................ 85

Research Question and Hypotheses ............................................................................ 86

Research Methodology ............................................................................................... 87

Research Design.......................................................................................................... 88

Population and Sample Selection................................................................................ 91

Instrumentation ........................................................................................................... 93

Emotional dissonance psychometric survey. ..................................................... 94

NEO-five-factor inventory. ................................................................................ 95

Validity ....................................................................................................................... 96

Reliability .................................................................................................................... 98

Data Collection and Management ............................................................................... 99

Data Analysis Procedures ......................................................................................... 101

Ethical Considerations .............................................................................................. 105

Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................... 107

Summary ................................................................................................................... 109

Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results ............................................................................. 111

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 111

Descriptive Data........................................................................................................ 113

Data Analysis Procedures ......................................................................................... 121

Data evaluation. ............................................................................................... 122

Data cleaning.................................................................................................... 123

Reliability. ........................................................................................................ 125

Normality ......................................................................................................... 126

Multicollinearity............................................................................................... 127

Results ....................................................................................................................... 127

Hypothesis 1. .................................................................................................... 128

Hypothesis 2 ..................................................................................................... 130

Hypothesis 3 ..................................................................................................... 131

Hypothesis 4 ..................................................................................................... 133

Hypothesis 5. .................................................................................................... 134

Multiple regression analysis............................................................................. 136

Multiple regression-stepwise analyses. ............................................................ 136

Summary ................................................................................................................... 138

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations ........................................... 141

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 141

Summary of the Study .............................................................................................. 142

Summary of Findings and Conclusion ...................................................................... 145

Implications............................................................................................................... 145

Theoretical implications. .................................................................................. 146

Practical implications. ...................................................................................... 147

Future implications. ......................................................................................... 148

Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 150

Recommendations for future research. ............................................................ 151

Recommendations for future practice. ............................................................. 153

References ................................................................................................................... 156

Appendix A. IRB Approval Letter.................................................................................. 172

Appendix B. Informed Consent Form ............................................................................ 173

Appendix C. Permission to Use and Publish the Survey Instruments ............................ 176

Appendix D. Emotional Dissonance Subscale................................................................ 178

Appendix E. NEO-Five-Factor Model Inventory Instrument ......................................... 179

Appendix F. Site Permission Letter to Conduct Study ................................................... 180

Appendix G. Approval Letter from the Chief of Police ................................................. 181

Appendix H. Permission to Conduct Study from the Detroit Police Officers

Association ................................................................................................ 182

Appendix I. Power Analysis ........................................................................................... 183

Appendix K. Post-Hoc Power Analysis .......................................................................... 184

xii

List of Tables

Table 1. Demographic-Rank .......................................................................................... 113

Table 2. Demographics-Gender ..................................................................................... 114

Table 3. Group Statistics of Gender Differences ........................................................... 116

Table 4. Demographics-Tenure ..................................................................................... 117

Table 5. Demographics-Age .......................................................................................... 118

Table 6. Demographics-Race ......................................................................................... 120

Table 7. Summary of Variables and Statistical Tests Used to Evaluate

Research Question 1 ........................................................................................ 122

Table 8. Mahalanobis Distance Values for the Predictor Variables .............................. 124

Table 9. Skewness and Kurtosis used to Evaluate the Predictor Variables ................... 127

Table 10. Pearson r Correlation Between Neuroticism and Emotional Dissonance ....... 128

Table 11. Pearson Correlation Between Agreeableness and Emotional Dissonance ..... 130

Table 12. Pearson Correlation Between Conscientiousness and Emotional

Dissonance ...................................................................................................... 132

Table 13. Pearson Correlation Between Extraversion and Emotional Dissonance ........ 133

Table 14. Pearson r Correlation Between Openness and Emotional Dissonance ........... 135

Table 15. Model Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis for Research

Question 1 ....................................................................................................... 136

Table 16. Models Summary Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis ............................ 138

xiii

List of Figures

Figure 1. A representation of the five-factor theory personality system. ........................ 32

Figure 2. Contributing factors of personality on role-conflict outcomes......................... 52

Figure 3. Gender histogram. ........................................................................................... 115

Figure 4. Tenure histogram. ............................................................................................ 118

Figure 5. Tenure histogram. ............................................................................................ 119

Figure 6. Race histogram. ............................................................................................... 120

Figure 7. Scatter plot of neuroticism and emotional dissonance .................................... 129

Figure 9. Scatter plot of conscientiousness and emotional dissonance. ......................... 132

Figure 10. Scatter plot of extraversion and emotional dissonance. ................................ 134

Figure 11. Scatter plot of openness and emotional dissonance. ..................................... 135

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

Introduction

The role of police officers is a multifaceted work position that requires many

different emotional and physical demands (e.g., Hall, Dollard, Tuckey, Winefield, &

Thompson, 2010; Bakker & Heuven, 2006) where police officers are expected by their

police departments, local communities, and elected officials to perform emotional labor.

Due to their frequent exposure to the public, police officers are expected to be neutral

peacekeepers and impartial disciplinarian’s in order perform their roles. Because of the

multiplicity of emotional demands from performing emotional labor (or emotion work)

chronic stress arises, triggering emotional dissonance (Andela, Truchot, & Van der Doef,

2015). Further, emotional dissonance has been related to higher (emotional) stress in

police officers; thus, causing burnout that results in diminished physical and

psychological wellbeing (Bakker & Heuven, 2006; Pugh Groth, Hennig-Thurau, &

2011). Carrasco, Martínez-Tur, Moliner, Peiró, and Ramis (2014). Grant and Langan-Fox

(2007) and Leikas and Lindeman (2009) indicated that in various work environments,

emotions and/ or stress experienced at work can differ depending on the type of

personality trait. For these reasons, the objective of this study was to determine if the

five-factor model personalities (e.g., neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness,

extraversion, openness) are predictors of emotional dissonance in police officers.

The conceptualization of emotional dissonance was first theorized in

Hochschild’s (1983) pioneering book, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of

Human Feelings, where she posited that emotional labor was the result of emotion

management where flight attendants suppressed (e.g., utilizing surface acting and deep

acting) their own emotions in order to display outward emotions to meet organizational

mandated emotional display rules (e.g., flights attendants must always present a smile in

front of customers). Following Hochschild’s theory on emotional dissonance, Rafaeli and

Sutton (1987) added a different conceptualization of emotional dissonance. They added

that emotional dissonance is a type of role-conflict, that is, person role-conflict that

results from a conflict between personal standards (e.g., employees own work

expectations and role-requirements). Each of these theories on emotional dissonance was

used as the theoretical foundation for the conceptualization emotional dissonance used in

this dissertation.

Recent research on emotional dissonance has mainly investigated stress-related

factors (e.g., mental and physical well-being), and work and family interference that

contributed to work burnout and (emotional) exhaustion. Studies by Bakker and Heuven

(2006), Cheung and Tang (2012), and Diestel and Schmidt (2011) examined human

service workers and substantiated that stress-induced (dissonance) by emotional

dissonance resulted in a conflict with organizational display rules that caused burnout. In

other emotional dissonance research, Abraham (1998; 1999a; 1999b; 2000) set out to

understand the many different facets to understanding the effects of emotional dissonance

examining: psychological factors (e.g., negativity affectivity), job control, turnover,

cognitive controls (self-regulatory process) (e.g., Diestel & Schmidt, 2011) antecedent’s

consequences, and moderators. In line with the objectives of this current study, Abrahams

(1998) examined negative affectivity, which has been considered closely related to one of

the five-factor personalities, neuroticism. Abraham’s study substantiated a correlation

between emotional dissonance and negative affectivity; thus, proving a relationship

between personality and emotional dissonance.

Another study by Diamond (2005) also examined personality, but used the five-

factor model to learn if personality was an antecedent of emotional dissonance in debt

collectors. The results of the stud revealed that some five-factor models personality traits

had a negative correlation (e.g., agreeableness, extraversion, openness) when determining

emotional dissonance in debt-collectors. Finally, in Rafaeli and Sutton’s (1987) study,

emotional dissonance was considered a form of role-conflict, and that the dissonance

experienced from role-conflict (e.g. Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal (1964),

may be a contributor to individual personality traits, in this way, making personality a

moderator of emotional dissonance. While it has been demonstrated that individual

personality traits may be predictors of emotional dissonance, it was not known how or to

what extent the five-factor model personalities predicted emotional dissonance

experienced by police officers.

This chapter outlines the background and rationale for why this study is needed in

emotional dissonance research. For instance, it is discussed that a substantial amount of

research in emotional dissonance research has only examined stress related factors, e.g.,

burnout. Furthermore, this dissertation study has shown very few studies have examined

emotional dissonance and personality. For example, Diamond (2005) studied emotional

dissonance and the five-factor model, in which the sample consisted of debt collectors.

However, this study has evaluated the relationship between the five-factor model and

emotional dissonance, and found that some of the five-factor model personality traits

were predictors of emotional dissonance among police officers. Finally, this chapter

explains how the conceptualization of emotional dissonance is based on theories by

Abraham (1998), Kahn et al. 1964), and Rafaeli and Sutton (1987), in which all support

the argument that emotional dissonance is a form of role conflict. For these reasons,

further research is needed to examine how the five-factor model predicts level of

emotional dissonance among police officers.

Background of the Study

After evaluating emotional dissonance research, there have been minimal studies

examining police officer and emotional dissonance, in which have examined the

association of burnout, e.g., exhaustion, disengagement, and cynicism (e.g., Bakker &

Heuven, 2006). This gap further extends to the lack of research of the five-factor model

as a predictor of emotional dissonance experienced by police officers. Furthermore,

studies by Abraham (1998; 1999a) have been some of the few substantiating the

relationship between negativity affectivity (neuroticism) and emotional dissonance, as

predictors on emotional dissonance. Abraham (1999a) reported that negative affectivity is

an emotional trait disposition, and considered to have the same negative emotional

properties as neuroticism (e.g., Gore & Widiger, 2013), thus inferring that neuroticism

will also determine the level of stress outcomes associated with emotional dissonance.

Police work is one of the most stressful occupations, for it requires patrol officers

to display and repress various positive emotions (e.g., presenting a cheerful smile when

encountering citizens) and negative emotions (e.g., having to suppress anger when

criminals commit violent crimes) when interacting with citizens, e.g., victims of crimes

and violent criminals. Furthermore, not only do police officers have to face stressful

encounters with citizens that involve physical and verbal attacks against them, abuse

afflicted (molestation, child abuse, death) on children, and death perpetrated on fellow

police officers (Daderman & De Colli, 2014). Police officers stress can also be associated

with organizational stress factors such as: personnel shortage, pressure from supervisors

and long work hours (Conn & Butterfield, 2013). As result, numerous research studies

have substantiated that police work can be detrimental to an individual’s physical and

psychological wellbeing (Bakker & Heuven, 2006; Conn & Butterfield, 2013). The

impact of stress on police officers has been substantiated to cause behavioral outcomes

among police officers, e.g., “absenteeism, domestic violence, excessive use of force, and

substance abuse” (Conn & Butterfield, 2013, p. 273).

This dissertation study used a large Midwestern police department for the study

sample. Crime statistics have indicated that police officers working in larger cities have

higher incidents of stress outcomes (physical and mental health problems) due to the

frequency of crime rates (FBI , 2011; Marchand, Nadeau, Beaulieu-Prévost, Boyer, &

Martin, 2015; Van der Velden, Kleber, Grievink, &Yzermans, 2010). Furthermore, police

officers’ stress outcomes can be attributed to population size and location of the police

department. For instance, the FBI (2011) census showed that based on population size

and location (e.g., non-suburban and suburban), there was a significant difference in the

percentage of major crimes (e.g., forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault) between

large cities than small cities. For example, large cities with a population size of more

250,000 citizens had three times the crime rate than cities with a population less than a

100,000 citizens. The FBI (2011) census revealed that there also was a substantial

difference between non-suburban and suburban cities when it came to major crimes.

Non-suburban cities had a more substantial amount of major crimes than suburban cities.

Meanwhile, because of higher crime rates based on population and location, police

officers working in large cities are faced with higher incidents of violent crimes, which

involve more aggressive encounters with criminals. Marchand, Nadeau, Beaulieu-

Prévost, Boyer, and Martin (2015) and Van der Velden, et al. (2010) stated that because

of higher incidents (chronic work conditions) of confrontations between police officers

and criminals, they have decreased job performance (e.g., Beehr, Ivanitskaya, Glaser,

Erofeev, Canali, 2004), increased mental health problems such as, anxiety, hostility, and

burnout. As a result, Van der Velden et al. reported that police officers experience more

mental health problems (e.g., posttraumatic stress syndrome, (PTSD) and/or (ASD) acute

stress disorder) from increased conformation with criminals that have aggressive intent.

The sample chosen for this study was selected from the largest city in Michigan, which

has been deemed by the FBI as one of the most dangerous cities in the United States for

violent crimes. For this reason, the study provided a unique perspective on how police

officers working in large cities, personalities (five-factor model) might act as predictors

of emotional dissonance among street patrol officers.

To further expand on stress outcomes associated with police officers, Bakker and

Heuven (2006) examined the relationship of emotional dissonance and burnout among

police officers and nurses. Bakker and Heuven substantiated that because police officers

are required to perform (emotional labor) specific emotional and behavioral display rules;

they undergo an emotional conflict that arises from suppressing their genuine felt

emotions. According to Bakker and Heuven, suppression of felt emotions experienced by

police officers causes an increased psychological strain that contributes to burnout, and as

a consequence can lead to deterioration in physical and mental wellbeing. Their study

demonstrated an association of emotional dissonance as a stress factor that led to burnout

among police officers (Bakker& Heuven, 2006). Further, there have been other studies

that have investigated the relationship of personality characteristics on police stress, and

also revealed an association between personality and stress outcomes (e.g., Du Preez,

Ghazinour, Cassimjee, Lauritz, & Richter, 2011; Van Gelderen, Bakker, Konijn, &

Demerouti, 2011).

In this empirical study, it was argued that being a police officer is a unique career

where personality will be an indicator of the level emotional dissonance experienced by

law enforcement officers. To evaluate the relationship between emotional dissonance and

five-factor model research, past and current research was reviewed and analyzed in a

literature review in order to strengthen the research objectives for this empirical study. In

the next section, there was a brief outline of the background of the study.

Problem Statement

It was not known to what extent the five-factor model of personalities predicted

level of emotional dissonance among police officers. Furthermore, the objective of the

study was to examine if police officers’ personalities act as predictors, in that, their level

of emotional dissonance is determined by their personalities. The population of the study

consisted of police from a large Midwestern metropolitan police department in the

Detroit area. Specifically, the study targeted all police officers that have worked street

patrol. Due to an exhaustive search of emotional dissonance literature there has been

minimal, if any, research linking personality traits (e.g., five factor model) as predictors

of emotional dissonance on police officers. Consequently, in a study by Diamond (2005)

she examined personality and emotional dissonance among debt collectors. However, the

results in Diamond’s substantiated that only neuroticism (anger) and consciousness were

the only two five-factor model personality traits positively correlated with emotional

dissonance. Because emotional dissonance correlated with only two five-factor model

personality traits, these findings might be limited do to the fact debt collectors work in

conditions where there is no face-to-face interactions with customers. Research has

substantiated occupations that have face-to-face interactions with customers, will prompt

more behavioral and emotional responses (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993).

Furthermore, research on emotional dissonance has strictly addressed stressor

factors (e.g., burnout and wellbeing, e.g., physical and psychological) that have been a

result of an emotional conflict experienced between employees displaying mandated

organizational displays of emotions, and their genuine felt emotions (Bakker & Heuven,

2006; Cheung & Cheung, 2013; Cheung & Tang, 2012; Diestel & Schmidt, 2011; Pugh

et al., 2011; Mishra & Bhatnagar, 2010; Kovács, Kovács, & Heg). To address the

shortage of research in emotional dissonance research, this current study has contributed

to the body of knowledge in emotional dissonance research in order to determine if the

five-factor personality traits predict the level of emotional dissonance among street patrol

police officers.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this quantitative correlative study was to examine the predictive

power of the five-factor model personality model on emotional dissonance of police

officers working street patrol. To examine the relationship between personality (five-

factor model) and emotional dissonance, a correlational research design was used to

examine a sample of 138 police officers from a large Midwestern Police Department with

a population of 1000 street patrol officers. This sample was selected in order to learn if

personality (five-factor model) is a predictor in decreasing or increasing the level of

emotional dissonance. To analyze all variables in this correlational study, the Pearson r

correlation and multiple regression analysis was used to assess how the five-factor model

personality traits predict the level of emotional dissonance among police officers.

The predictor variable for the study was the five-factor model personality traits.

The five-factor model was measured using the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)

that contains 60 items using a 5-point Likert Scale (McCrae & Costa, 2010; McCrae &

John, 1992). The criterion variable for this study was emotional dissonance, which was

measured using Andela, Truchot, and Borteyrou (2015a) emotional labor scale that

measures emotional dissonance. The emotional dissonance sub-scale contains 4 items

using 5-point Likert scale that has been designed to specifically distinguish between the

emotion (display) regulation process, e.g., surface and deep acting (e.g., Andela et al.,

2015a; Andela et al. 2015b).

Understanding the relationship between five-factor model and emotional

dissonance was vital in learning how individual personality among police officers may

contribute to the emotional stress factors associated with emotional dissonance. Because

the mass of research on emotional dissonance has strictly addressed stressor factors (e.g.,

burnout and wellbeing, e.g., physical and psychological) that have been a result of an

emotional conflict experienced by employees to perform required organizational display

rules, which come into conflict with their genuine felt emotions (e.g., Bakker & Heuven,

2006; Cheung & Cheung, 2013; Cheung & Tang, 2012; Cheung & Tang, 2012; Diesel &

Schmidt, 2011; Pugh, Groth, & Hennig-Thurau, 2011; Mishra & Bhatnagar, 2010;

Kovács, Kovács, & Hegedűs, 2010). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to learn if

personality is a precursor to emotional dissonance in police officers. The next section will

briefly discuss the measurement instruments that will be used to measure emotional

dissonance and the five-factor model of personalities.

Research Question and Hypotheses

The objective of this study was to extend the body of knowledge in emotional

dissonance research and private sector, which will provide new insight on the relationship

between five-factor model and emotional dissonance. Therefore, this research study has

presented findings that will help answer the following research question and hypotheses.

For these reasons, this research study was guided by the below research question

and hypotheses:

R1: What influence, if any and to what degree, do the 5 Factor Model personality

traits contribute to emotional dissonance experienced among police officers?

H0: Police officers scores in Five-Factor Model of personality will show no

correlation with differences in scores in emotional dissonance.

H1: Police officers high in neuroticism will show a proportional correlation with

scores in emotional dissonance.

H2: Police officers high in agreeableness will show an inverse correlation with their

scores in emotional dissonance.

H3: Police officers high in conscientiousness will show an inverse correlation with

their scores in emotional dissonance.

H4: Police officers high in extraversion will show a proportional correlation with their

scores in emotional dissonance.

H5: Police officers high in openness to experience will show a proportional

correlation with their scores in emotional dissonance.

To further extend the body knowledge in emotional dissonance research, the

above research questions provided research to discover if personality (five-factor model)

predicts emotional dissonance among police officers. This research has helped address

the literature that has not examined the individual personality among police officers,

which may be a factor in contributing to the emotional discrepancy of emotional

dissonance. Furthermore, the outcomes of each research question has helped provide

valuable information for other law enforcement agencies and organizations; in addition to

bringing new insight to personality and emotional dissonance research.

Advancing Scientific Knowledge

Over the past 30 years, the body of knowledge on emotional dissonance has

continued to grow; however, emotional dissonance is still considered a new construct.

For this reason, information gathered from this study will further expand the scientific

knowledge in emotional dissonance by examining the lack of research examining how the

five-factor model predicts the level of emotional dissonance in police officers. The

information gleaned from this study will not only bring greater understanding to how

personality might be a contributor to emotional dissonance in large metropolitan police

departments, but it will also inform all law enforcement agencies on police officers

personalities may influence emotional dissonance. The theory of this study was

conceptualized on the assumption that five-factor model of personalities would be

predictors of emotional dissonance in police officers.

The theoretical framework used for this study is Hochschild (1983)

conceptualization of emotional dissonance and the five-factor model (McCrae & Costa,

2010; McCrae & John, 1992). Hochschild’s theory on emotional dissonance contends

that employees’ emotions are at the center of the emotional conflict between their actual

felt emotions and organizational display rules. In addition, Rafaeli and Sutton (1987)

conceptualization of emotional dissonance was used in conjunction with Hochschild

theory. Rafaeli and Sutton theorized that the emotional conflict that arises from emotional

dissonance is a result of role-conflict between the employee’s personal principles

(employee’s own work expectations) and required organizational role expectations.

McCrae and Costa’s five-factor model theory highlights five hierarchy personality traits

that are used to assess personality in different cultural settings, e.g., police departments

and hospitals.

The contribution of this study has advanced the body of knowledge in emotional

dissonance by providing research on understanding how emotional dissonance creates

emotional stress based on the police officers five-factor model personality trait. Police

officers face many different emotional demands that require a professional demeanor set

forth by organizational display rules that often times contradict how police officers truly

wish to express their actual true emotions with criminals and citizens. The use of

Hochschild and Rafaeli and Sutton’s emotional dissonance theory and McCrae and

Costa’s five-factor model will help advance the scientific knowledge in understanding

how five-factor model personality traits may influence emotional dissonance experienced

by police officers.

Significance of the Study

The contributions of this study have provided new insight using quantitative data

to evaluate how the five-factor model of personalities act as predictors of emotional

dissonance experienced by police officers. In today’s society, police officers are being

held more accountable for their encounters with citizens by having to be more

compassionate and kinder peace officers. Because police are expected to maintain a

professional demeanor at all times with citizens, they are now held to a higher standard of

professional conduct by their supervisors, communities, and politicians that have set forth

mandated organizational display rules that have been substantiated to cause an emotional

conflict with police officers actual felt emotions; in this way, resulting in emotional

dissonance (Bakker & Heuven, 2006). Furthermore, the information obtained from this

study can aid law enforcement agencies on how personality may contribute to emotional

and stress factors such as emotional dissonance that lead to burnout such as job

exhaustion, depersonalization cynicism, and disengagement (Bakker & Heuven, 2006).

Information gleaned from this study will be a tool in assisting: organizational

executives and management, human resource departments, industrial and organizational

psychologists, clinical psychologists, social psychologists and socialists, and policy

makers. In addition, by understanding how the five-factor model predicts emotional

dissonance, this current research can help provide insight into improving organizational

processes like personnel selection (e.g., pre-employment and promotions), personality

assessment test (e.g., Myers-Briggs Type Inventory and NEO-PI-R), job performance,

and organizational restructuring, e.g., downsizing (Detrick & Chibnall, 2013).

This study has provided a new outlook on understanding how personalities,

specifically, five-factor model and emotional dissonance will relate in other social

science settings (e.g., mental health, relationship therapy), particularly, outside of the

workplace. Furthermore, the knowledge gained from this study will provide insight in

learning how personality characteristics in romantic relationships may also contribute to

emotional dissonance. Research in examining emotional dissonance outside the

workplace is very limited. Although, Hwang and Matsuomoto (2012) indicated that

display rules are commonly used in intimate relationships among different ethnicities

when dictating the expression of negative and positive emotions. Display rules (e.g.,

culture mandated displays of behavior and emotions) are one of the two (genuine felt

emotions) emotional components that create an emotional conflict, resulting into

emotional dissonance. Therefore, information gleaned from this study has contributed

valuable knowledge on how personality characteristics may contribute to emotional

dissonance within individual relationships. Therefore, this current research has added to

the body of knowledge in emotional dissonance research through empirical literature, by

examining how the five-factor model predicts the level of emotional dissonance among

police officers. The next section describes the rationale for the methodology approach

that will use for the purpose of this study.

Rationale for Methodology

The following research describes a quantitative correlative study of police officers

that examined how the five-factor personality model predicts emotional dissonance

among police officers. Johnson and Christensen (2008) reported that a quantitative

approach is considered the most appropriate methodology to conduct quantitative

research when examining cause and effect, and determining the relationship between

variables, to test hypotheses. Further, because the study used scaled measurements, a

quantitative approach provided the best outlook in examining the relationship between

two or more variables. For this reason, a correlational research design was selected on the

basis of determining how the five-factor model predicts emotional dissonance. Even

though correlational studies cannot prove causation, they do propose a predictive

direction or time sequence relation between two variables (Rumrill, 2004). Such

information can be useful when making practical decisions in law enforcement personnel.

The rationale for a quantitative analysis was further supported by numerous studies (e.g.,

Cheung & Cheung, 2013; Hosie, Gilbert, Simpson, & Daffern, 2014) that used a

correlation analysis to examine the relationship of variables such as emotional dissonance

and personality (e.g., the five-factor model. Furthermore, a correlational research

designed was selected to measure (e.g., Pearson r correlation and Multiple regression

analysis) to determine the relationship between personalities (e.g., five-factor model) and

emotional dissonance experienced among police officers.

Finally, in efforts to collect data appropriate for this current study, self-report

psychometric questionnaires were used. Self-reports are commonly used in psychological

research that provide data on individual behavioral experiences (Luong, Charles, Rook,

Reynolds, Gatz, 2015). Further, self-report questionnaires were used in the form of

survey method measures (e.g., Likert Scales) that were given to all participants working

for a large Midwestern metropolitan police department.

Nature of the Research Design for the Study

The following research was a quantitative correlative study of police officers to

examine how the five-factor personality model predicts emotional dissonance among

police officers. Rumrill (2004) described how correlational research design is commonly

used in research in order to examine how much variation (e.g., coefficient of variation) is

associated between the independent variable and dependent variable. Furthermore, Keiss

and Green (2010) indicated that variables that are deemed as characteristics or attributes

are defined as subject variables, e.g., anxiety level, personality, age and gender. Because

both variables in this study are considered subject variables, a correlational research

design is the best approach for measuring how five-factor model of personalities predicts

emotional dissonance.

Furthermore, because the study used scaled measurements, a quantitative

approach provided the best outlook in examining the relationship between two or more

variables. For this reason, a correlational research design was selected on the basis of

determining a relationship between five-factor model and emotional dissonance. Rumrill

(2004) indicated that correlational research design is commonly used in research in order

to examine how much variation (e.g., coefficient of variation) is associated between the

criterion and predictor variables. The rationale for a quantitative analysis was further

supported by numerous studies (e.g., Cheung & Cheung, 2013; Hosie et al., 2014; Jones

& Woods, & Hutchinson; 2014) that used a correlation analysis to examine the

relationship of variables such as emotional dissonance and five-factor model. A

correlational design was selected because the objective of the study was to determine a

relationship, and not a cause and effect, which is mainly used in experimental designs.

Therefore, a correlational design is the appropriate statistical design for measuring causal

relationship between five-factor model and emotional dissonance among police officers.

The participants selected for this dissertation study were comprised of police

officers working street patrol from a large Midwestern metropolitan police department.

The sample was selected because this police department is the largest in the state of

Michigan. In this way, providing a diverse population (e.g., race, sex, age, etc.) when

selecting research participants for this study. Furthermore, a purposive sampling (type,

homogenous sample) was used to select 138 police officers working street patrol from a

population of 1,000 patrol officers. Street patrol officers were chosen for this study

because they are the first responders to 911 police calls and are often confronted with

emotionally charged situations, such as civil and domestic disputes, violent and non-

violent criminals (Kachurik, Ruiz, & Staub, 2013). Further, to measure the five-factor

model and emotional dissonance, two psychometric instruments were used to measure

both variables. For example, the NEO Five-Factor inventory (McCrae & Costa, 2010;

McCrae & John, 1992) and Andela, Truchot, and Borteyrou (2015a) emotional

dissonance subscale. In order to qualify, to participate in the study, all research

participants were sworn police officers that have worked a minimum of one year as street

patrol officers.

As for security of the data, only the researcher and administrator responsible for

the data at SurveyMonkey and statistician analyzing the data had access to all collected

data. Furthermore, confidentiality of all data will be secured through SurveyMonkey

secure website, in which each participant gave implied consent, and were not identified

on survey questionnaires, in this way, protecting their identities.

A Pearson Correlation Coefficient and multiple regression analyses were used to

measure collected data in order to determine the correlations between five-factor model

personalities and emotional dissonance. In addition, both statistical tests were used to

learn the correlations with demographic variables, that is: age, race, gender, and tenure.

Finally, in answering the research questions, descriptive statistics will be used to learn the

relationship and correlations between each variable.

Definition of Terms

For the use of this study, each concept, phenomena, and technical terminology

was defined as:

Display rules. The display of cultural norms, that is, behaviors, emotions, and

rituals expected by all members to conform too in societal, organizations, and

occupational settings (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993).

Emotional dissonance. A conflict set forth by an emotional conflict between the

employee’s actual felt emotions and the organizational display of emotions (Hochschild,

1983). The scores acquired on the emotional dissonance questionnaire

Emotional exhaustion. Extreme emotional overloads experienced by employees

that result in diminished physical and emotional wellbeing (Van den Tooren & Rutte,

2015).

Emotional dissonance. A conflict set forth by an emotional conflict between the

employee’s actual felt emotions and the organizational display of emotions (Hochschild,

1983).

Emotional labor. The emotional effort employee exhorts to accomplish the

organization-mandated display of emotions (expression of emotions) and rules when

interacting with customers (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Hochschild, 1983).

Five-factor model. The five-factor model personality traits are five hierarchical

personality traits that have been composed from the taxonomy of personalities by way of

(generated from adjectives, e.g., anxious, organized, assertive, kind, curious) factor

analysis traits (McCrae & Costa, 2010; McCrae and John, 1992). Furthermore, each of

the personality traits is used to generalize from the subcategories (e.g., friendly) of

personality traits to generalize from the broader population (McCrae, 2010).

People that exhibit five-factor personalities traits will more likely display the

below traits (McCrae & John, 1992, p. 178-179):

1. Neuroticism: anxious, self-pitying, tense, touchy, unstable, and worrying.

2. Agreeableness: appreciative, forgiving, generous, kind, and sympathetic.

3. Consciousness: efficient, organized, plainful, reliable, responding, and thorough.

4. Extraversion: active, assertive, energetic, outgoing, and talkative.

5. Openness: artistic, curious, imaginative, insightful, and wide interest.

Negative emotions. Negative emotions can be described as emotional responses

that are engendered from problematic situations (e.g. work-stress, intimate relationships,

threats to survival, wellbeing) that can be exhibited in the form of anger, sadness, fear, or

hurt, etc. (Lee & Wu, 2015; Pe, Koval, Houben, Erbas, Champagne, & Kuppens, 2015).

As a result each of sub-emotions can lead to different situational outcomes (Lee & Wu,

2015).

Role-conflict. A dual conflict that results from various role expectation exhorted

on individuals by employers that is contrary to their own work expectations; in this way

making their own job more difficult (Han, Wang, & Dong, 2014).

Street patrol officers. Street patrol officers are sworn law enforcement officers

that have been swore to protect and serve the citizens of state, county, and city

municipalities. Police officer’s duties consist, answering 911 calls that involve, citizen’s

complaints, violent (e.g., homicides and robberies) and non-violent crimes (e.g., thefts

and deaths for natural causes), and traffic enforcement (writing traffic tickets) (Kachurik,

Ruiz, & Staub, 2013).

Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations

Assumptions. The research from this current study assumed the following:

1. The findings for this study will provide valuable knowledge to the majority police departments, providing insight on how personality can contribute emotional

instability in police officers.

2. The findings for this study will provide as a valuable tool for law enforcement human resources departments in the area of personnel selection, and providing

data to human resources department in the organizational private sector.

3. This study provided a framework, in which will bring an understanding of police officers personalities, and its contribution to emotional dissonance that may affect

the interactions with citizens.

4. Due to the previous results (demonstrated reliability and validity) of data collection tools, it was assumed that the instruments selected for this study will

adequately enhance the quality of responses from surveys (Bakker & Heuven,

2006; McCrae & John, 1992).

5. Finally, it was assumed that police officers’ personalities (five-factor model) may contribute to understanding how personality affects the level of emotional

dissonance experienced in police officers. Further, knowing that each police

officer has unique personalities, it was assumed that all police officers have

unique personalities, in this way, affecting their emotions.

Limitations. The limitations and for this current study were:

1. Only sworn police officers (sergeants) working patrol were selected to participate in the study, excluding Lieutenants, Captains and other command staff.

2. The participants were selected based on a purposive sampling that entails selecting research participants on a voluntary basis. Because a non-probability

sampling was used for this study, the use of random sample was not utilized, in

this way, reducing generalizability from the population (Bordens & Abbott,

2011).

3. Only Detroit Police Officers were used in the sample, which is not representative of the population of police officers.

Delimitations. The delimitation for this current study is as follows: The author of

this study is a sworn Detroit Police Officer of 18 years, which may have involved contact

with other Detroit Police officers. In order to prevent any form of bias, the author took

precautionary steps to reduce bias; for example, private security codes, and the use of

validated and reliable survey instruments.

Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study

This current research has set out to determine the predictive relationship between

five-factory model of personalities and emotional dissonance among police officers.

Emotional dissonance research has substantiated that emotional dissonance is a

contributor of stress, resulting in to burnout (Bakker & Heuven; 2006; Cheung & Tang,

2012; 2013; Diestel & Schmidt, 2011). In a study by Abraham (1998) and Kahn (1964) it

has been posited that role conflict experienced from emotional dissonance may contribute

to the dissonance (emotional tension), exhibited from emotional dissonance. Therefore,

the aim of this study is determine if there the five-factor model predicts emotional

dissonance among police officers.

Furthermore, this study used quantitative research methods to measure both five-

factor model personalities and emotional dissonance utilizing measures that were

substantiated to demonstrate reliability and validity. The dependent variable analyzed

was emotional dissonance, which was measured by Andela, Truchot, and Borteyrou

(2015a) emotional dissonance subscale. The independent variable analyzed was five-

factor model personality traits that were measured by NEO Five-Factory Inventory

(NEO-FFI). The results obtained from both instruments have provided valuable data to

the body of knowledge emotional dissonance by showing the utility of personality as a

predictor of emotional dissonance in various police departments and organizational

settings.

To support the research question and hypotheses, Chapter 2 provided an

exhaustive literature review investigating emotional dissonance, five-factory model,

emotional labor, role conflict and police officers, and organizational display rules.

Chapter 2, further provided a historical and current analysis of each literature theme,

which was used to establish empirical support for substantiating the relationship between

five-factory model personalities and emotional dissonance among police officers.

Chapter 3 explained the methodology of the study, which was used to help

support the rationale for the research design and quantitative methods needed to

substantiate the research and hypotheses. Chapter 3 also explained the utility of data

collection method and survey instruments that have been demonstrated reliability and

validity. As for the completion of the study, the prospectus has been approved. The

approval for the proposal is expected by December 5, 2015. An approval from Grand

Canyon University IRB will be expected by December 28, 2015. Once the IRB approval

the participation letter was sent to the Detroit Police Department, Chief of Police

immediately after the approval. Then, the notices to participate were dispersed via Detroit

Police Department intranet: memo’, and fliers, and the expected date of collecting all

psychometric survey questionnaires was two weeks later. Chapter 4 can be expected to be

completed March 21, 2016. Chapter 5 and the final approval of the proposal are expected

by August 4, 2016.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem

This chapter was organized to examine the theoretical framework and current

research supporting the research emphasis on police officers’ personalities, and the

relationship with emotional dissonance. Furthermore, this chapter discussed five themes

to cover a detail overview over the research topics. The first theme explained how

emotional labor, or as Hochschild (1983) exclaimed “emotional work” is a required work

condition expected by organizations for employment. Literature was used to describe

how the various facets (e.g., neutral, surface and deep acting, emotional-rule dissonance)

have a connection with understanding how emotional dissonance is closely associated

with police officers work stress. Literature on the second theme was used to examine the

different theories and models on emotional dissonance in order provide a broader

understanding on a fairly new workplace phenomenon. Next, the third theme discussed

display rules, and their emotional connection to emotional dissonance. The fourth theme

provided literature to discuss how police officers’ many different expected roles create a

dual conflict, that is, person to role-conflict with personality.

Finally, the fifth theme provided literature on linking five-factor personalities

with negative emotional factors, which have been found to be associated with emotional

dissonance. Numerous search terms were used in various combinations to obtain

literature for the literature review; for example: five-factor model, five-factor model and

emotions, emotions, personality and emotions, neuroticism, police officers, police officers

and stress and emotions, personality and police officers, role conflict, personality and

role- conflict, role-conflict and police, negative emotions, positive emotions, negative and

positive emotions, negative affectivity, negative affectivity and personality negative

affectivity five-factor mode, burnout and five-factor model, display rules, organizational

display rules, emotional dissonance, emotional dissonance and personality, emotional

dissonance and neuroticism, emotional dissonance and police officers emotional labor,

emotional labor and emotional dissonance. These collections of literature terms were

comprised through the use of Grand Canyon University Library. Others sources were also

used such as local libraries to gather books, and the use of other scholarly and empirical

material were collected. In addition, other data was collected from the Detroit Police

Department Human Resource Department.

The following chapter provided literature from past and current peer-reviewed

research information to support this current research in determining the relationship

between five-factor model personalities and emotional dissonance among police officers.

Finally, in the closing of the literature review section, an exhaustive literature review of

the strengths and weakness was divulged to explore the gaps in order to support

theoretical foundation for the research question and hypotheses.

Police officers face many different unknown situations (e.g., traffic stops,

criminal activity) when dealing with the public, making it one of the most stressful jobs

(Wu, 2009). Police officers have sworn an oath to protect and serve all citizens regardless

of their own personal feelings about whom they protect and serve. The role of a police

officer can be contradictory in nature, in that, they must maintain a high level of

interpersonal sensitivity and neutrality (unbiased behavior and/or attitude), but then

portray themselves as the probing insensitive skeptic and/or disciplinarian when dealing

with victims of crimes and criminals (Beutler, Nussbaum, & Meredith, 1988). This

dualistic conflict is just not self-contradictory in police officers’ work roles, but there is a

conflict between their own emotions, and the expected emotions (e.g., emotional labor)

required by their organizations as conditions for employment (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987).

To further understand this emotional conflict in police officers, Bakker and Heuven

(2006) examined the relationship between emotional dissonance and burnout (e.g.,

emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, cynicism) among police officers, substantiating

that emotional dissonance is correlated with burnout. The objective of this study is to

extend the body of knowledge in emotional dissonance research in order to learn if other

factors such as personality (e.g., five-factor model personality traits) is associated with

emotional dissonance among police officers.

Background to the Problem

Research has substantiated that there is a relationship with emotional dissonance

and burnout that contributes to emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and depersonalization

among police officers (Bakker & Heuven, 2006). Other research has also substantiated

emotional dissonance as contributor to burnout with the service industry occupations (e.g.

Cheung & Cheung, 2013; Cheung & Tang, 2012; Diesel & Schmidt, 2011; Pugh, Groth,

& Hennig-Thurau, 2011). To further understand emotional dissonance and its relation

with stress factors, this study postulates that personality factors may be involved in police

officers level of emotional dissonance while working on duty. Furthermore, there have

been limited studies examining personality (e.g. five-factor model) as a predicting factor

in emotional dissonance among police officers. Diamond (2005) investigated five-factor

model and emotional dissonance personalities among debt collectors. Diamond’s study

was limited in substantiating the five-factor model of personalities as an antecedent of

emotional dissonance, which only substantiated two personality traits (neuroticism, i.e.,

anger) and conscientiousness) as antecedents of emotional dissonance. These findings

maybe limited, due to the fact that debt collectors in Diamond’s study did not have face-

to-face interactions with their customers, whereas in this current study police officers

have face-to-face interactions with bystanders. Research has reported that face-to-face

interactions with higher norm strength (e.g., the degree in which employees internalize

their expected work roles) will have higher emotional reactions with customer contact

(Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993).

To further support the theory of personalities (five-factor model) as indicator of

emotional dissonance among police officers, current published literature emphasized their

studies on examining personalities and emotions. Zanon, Bastianello, Pacico, and Hutz

(2013) and Komulainen et al. (2014) both investigated the relationship between negative

affectivity and five-factor model, which revealed that other personality traits maybe

associated with negative affectivity besides neuroticism. A study conducted by Kehoe,

Toomey, Balsters, and Bokde (2012) researched two five-factor personality (neuroticism

and extraversion) traits to learn the brain proximity of emotional processes, that is,

emotional arousal and valence. In a similar study investigating coping strategies, Sorić,

Penezic, and Burić (2013) noted that the Big Five personality traits would have a

relationship in how individuals use coping strategies to reduce negative achievement

emotions, e.g., unhappiness, anger, anxiety, humiliation.

Ebstrup, Eplov, Pisinger, and Jørgensen (2011) indicated that five-factor model

personalities would have a relationship with perceived stress. Tornröos et al. (2013) also

investigated the relationship between five-factor model personalities and perceived job

strain, but examined perceived job strain using the demand-control model. In similar

study Grant and Langan-Fox (2007) originally investigated the relationship of five-factor-

model personalities and perceived job strain, but examined the relationship using the

stressor-strain model. Armon, Shirom, and Melamed (2012) examined burnout using the

Maslach Burnout Inventory (exhaustion, cynicism, professional efficacy) to determine if

five-factor model personalities attributed to burnout in employees working various

occupations.

Similarly, Hurt, Grist, Maleski, and McCord (2013) also examined the

relationship between five-factor model personalities and burnout, but used the Shirom-

Melamed Burnout Measures as the burnout (e.g., physical fatigue, emotional exhaustion,

cognitive weariness) measure. Sutin and Costa, Jr. (2010) investigated the relationship of

five-factor model and employee occupational experience using the demand control

model. These studies will help provide additional understanding how personality may

have similar related factors (e.g., negatives affectivity, negative emotions and stress) to

emotional dissonance.

Therefore, the objective of the literature review was to provide a comprehensive

review of the literature to support the basis of the research questions and hypotheses by

providing a literature review, in which helped determine if five-factor model personalities

will have a relationship between five-factor model personality traits as predictors of

emotional dissonance among police officers.

Theoretical Foundations

Emotional dissonance. Emotional dissonance theory was used as the framework

for this proposed study. The origins of emotional dissonance began with Hochschild’s

(1983) seminal work, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feelings where

she posited that emotional labor was the result of emotion management, where flight

attendants suppressed their own emotions in order to display outward emotions required

by the organization or airline. Hochschild stated that, “This kind of labor calls for a

coordination of mind and feeling, and it sometimes draws on a source of self that we

honor as deep and integral to our individuality (p.7). As a result, Hochschild described

this person-role-conflict as discrepancy between suppressing felt emotions and required

organizational emotional demands resulting in emotive dissonance. Consequently, in

order for employees to comply with organizational demands, that is, display rules (e.g.,

employees must always present a smile when interacting with customers or maintain a

polite demeanor at all times) they will employ what Hochschild described as strategies

(surface acting and deep acting) to manage emotions.

Surface acting can be described as the temporary effort and/or faking used to alter

emotions that are incongruence with felt emotions (Hochschild, 1983; Pugh, Groth, &

Hennig-Thurau, 2011). For example, an employee becomes agitated, but pretends to

ignore a customer’s rude behavior by faking a friendly smile. Deep acting can also be

described as conscious effort to embody the actual experienced emotion necessary to

preform actual emotions needed for required organizational emotion work (Hochschild,

1983; Pugh, Groth, & Hennig-Thurau, 2011). Therefore, based on emotional labor

research (e.g., Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Hochschild, 1983; Morris & Feldman,

1996), emotional labor is the contingent element for emotional dissonance, in which

requires an emotional conflict between felt emotions and organizational displayed

emotions. Hochschild’s theory on emotional dissonance was selected because it posited

that the expression of organizational display rules is expressed outwardly (behaviorally)

from an internal emotional state that requires mind and feeling.

When understanding the emotion work (emotion management) of human service

providers, police officers have a unique interaction between citizen and victim of crimes

that has led to emotional dissonance; resulting in burnout, e.g., exhaustion, cynicism and

disengagement (Bakker & Heuven, 2006; 2012; 2013; Diestel & Schmidt, 2011). Bakker

and Heuven (2006) stated that emotion work required by police officers require police

officers to have a professional demeanor that is calm, flexible, and unbiased. According

to Bakker and Heuven, “Their work environment asks for a suppression of emotions to

adequately deal with, for example, conflict situations, manipulation, and aggression”

(p.426). As a result, police officers experience role-conflict that puts them in conflict with

their felt emotions and the display rules that require a professional demeanor, in which

expects police officers to suppress emotions vocally and physically (Bakker & Heuven,

2006). For example, during a traffic stop, police officers are required to be courteous and

non-threating verbally or physically, even if citizens are rude.

In contrast to Hocschild’s theory, Rafaeli and Sutton (1987) prescribed to the

premise that emotional dissonance is a form of person-to-role conflict, which is a result

of a conflict between personal principles (employees own work expectations) and

required role expectations. However, both Rafaeli and Sutton both prescribed to the

premise that organizational display rules is expressed in the form emotions whereas

Morris and Feldman (1996) theorized that display rules are expressed in the form of

behavior. Meanwhile, Rafaeli and Sutton indicated there are two types of role

expectations. Organizational context are formal and informal systems within the

organization that make up context such as selection, socialization, rewards and

punishment (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). Organizations use these contexts to instill in

employees the prescribed displays of emotions required to influence customers and

clients. Emotional transactions can be described as verbal and non-verbal interactions

between sender and receiver that result in the receiver altering the sender’s organizational

display of emotions (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). Rafaeli and Sutton stated that, “The cycles

of displayed emotion, reaction, and readjustments may reinforce or weaken the effects of

feeling rules as an emotional transaction” (p.29). For these reasons, Rafaeli and Sutton

suggested that when employees’ inner feelings (felt emotions) are hindered

(organizational context) or altered through emotional transactions, they experience

person-to- role conflict; thus, causing emotional dissonance. Rafaeli and Sutton’s theory

on emotional dissonance will provide as the theoretical foundation for this dissertation

study because it is based on the premise that the conflict that arises from emotional

dissonance is an emotional conflict between personal principles (employees own work

expectations) and required role expectations.

Five-factor model. Five-factor model of personality provides a direct look into

five hierarchal human personality traits: (1) neuroticism (2) agreeableness (3)

consciousness (4) extraversion (5) openness. Each of these personality traits provides a

general description on the vast amount of characteristics traits that make up human

personality. McCrae and John (1992) indicated that five-factor model is not a theory, but

a tool to assist researchers in creating:

A common language for psychologist from different traditions, a basic

phenomenon for personality theorist to explain, a natural framework for

organizing research, and a guide to the comprehensive assessment of individuals

that should be of value to educational, industrial/organizational, clinical

psychologist. (p. 177)

Because the five-factor model has been criticized for being atherotical, McCrae

and Costa (2008b) created a more comprehensive theory for explaining the theoretical

implications of the five-factor model (Laher, 2013). As a result, McCrae and Costa

(2008b) devised the five-factor theory (FFT), which defined and delineated a personality

system to explain the hierarchal tenants of personality by positing that personality is a

make-up of basic tendencies (e.g., neuroticism, conscientious, agreeableness,

extraversion, openness) characteristics adaptations (e.g., roles, habits, attitudes, skills),

self concept (e.g., self-schema, personal myths), external influence (e.g., cultural norms,

life events), and dynamic processes (e.g., perception, learning, planning). McCrae and

Costa also proposed in the FFT that: five-factor model personality traits are influenced by

biological factors (for a more comprehensive review of the FFT personality systems read

McCrae & Costa, 2008b). Additionally, when describing personality using the FFT

personality system, McCrae and Costa proposed that, “Personality consists of a system

defined by personality traits and the dynamic processes by which they affect the

individual’s psychological functioning” (p.76). For example, the model below delineates

the processes (i.e., personality system) that shape personality (neuroticism,

conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, openness) within the FFT (see Figure 1;

McCrae & Costa, 2008b, p. 163).

Figure 1. A representation of the five-factor theory personality system.

Therefore, for the purpose of this study, the five-factor model was only used in order to

gain a general outlook on how the five hierarchal personality traits (e.g., neuroticism,

agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness) contribute to learning if

the five-factor model personality traits are predictors of emotional dissonance among

police officers.

The first personality trait normally identified in the FFM is neuroticism, in which

individuals high in this trait can be described as: anxious, self-pitying, tense, touchy,

unstable, and worrying. The second FFM trait is agreeableness, and people high in this

trait can be described as: appreciative, forgiving, cooperative (uncooperative),

antagonistic, trusting, kind, and aggressive. The third FFM trait is conscientiousness, and

individuals high in this trait will be described as: responsible, avoid risk, efficient,

dependable, cautious, and achievement oriented. The fourth FFM trait is extraversion,

which is associated with people that have a higher propensity to be: active, talkative,

energetic, outgoing, assertive, aggressive, and status seeking. The final FFM trait is

openness to experience, in which describe individuals who are: artistic, intellectual

curiosity, imaginative, insightful, and have a wide interest.

Five-factor model was first conceptualized as a model of personality by McCrae

and Costa (1992; 1998) who believed that personality traits could contribute to

understanding human behavior in many different areas of study, e.g., Industrial and

Organizational psychology (e.g., Choi, Oh, & Colbert, 2015), clinical psychology

(Bastiaansen, Rossi, & De Fruyt, 2013), and developmental psychology (e.g., Hessels,

Van den Hanenberg, De Castro, & Van Aken, 2014). Further, with the development

NEO-PI-R assessment scale, the FFM has been substantiated to measure personality

across numerous cultures, and identify personality differences between men and women

in different settings (McCrae &Terracciano, 2005). In police personnel selection, the

five-factor model also has been substantiated as indicator of job performance, contextual

and task performance (Detrick & Chibnall, 2013). Consequently, Block (2001) argued

that the FFM comes with limitations, and should not be considered an exhaustive

taxonomy for describing personalities. In countering Block’s argument, McCrae

maintained that FFM is not considered as means to replace taxonomy of personalities

trait, but provide as tool to narrow down specific traits among different cultures, gender,

and various work settings. Therefore, the five-factor model provided as an excellent

indicator for determining if personality is a predictor of the level emotional dissonance

among police officer.

Review of the Literature

Emotional labor. Research has established that emotional dissonance is

contingent on emotional labor (e.g., Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Hochschild, 1983;

Morris & Feldman, 1996); therefore, it was vital for the purposes of this study to

understand how emotional labor engenders emotional dissonance as experienced by

police officers. Further, Hochschild’s (1983) groundbreaking theory on emotional labor

has spurred numerous studies on emotional labor, which has resulted in the adaptation of

different methodological perspectives in emotional labor research that have redefined

emotional labor (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Morris & Feldman, 1996). Hochshild’s

(1983) theory on emotional labor is based on the premise that the role of internal

emotions plays a critical role in emotion work needed for employees to fulfill emotional

work requirements. Hochschild stated, “Feeling rules are what guide emotion work by

establishing the sense of entitlement or obligation that governs emotional exchanges. This

emotion system works privately, often free of observation” (p. 56). However, Hochschild

indicated the expression of internal feelings can be controlled through the expression of,

“publically observable facial and bodily display” in order to preform emotional work (p.

7).

In their seminal review of emotional labor, Ashforth and Humphrey (1993)

described Hochschild’s (1983) notion of feeling rules or norms as a person level of

control, in which the level of emotional intensity, duration, and object of emotions can be

altered to meet required work demands. For example, police officers are expected to feel

emotions that can range from calm and composed to direct and stern, and debt collectors

are expected to feel emotions that can range from friendly to unconcerned. Consequently,

Ashforth and Humphrey rejected Hochschild’s theory on feeling rules and posited that

display rules require the use of actual exhibited behaviors, instead of an internal

emotional state needed to display physical expression (body and facial movements) of

behaviors.

In another seminal review, Morris and Feldman (1996) reconceptualized

Hochschild’s definition of emotional labor by providing four separate consequences of

emotional labor: (a) frequency of appropriate emotional display, (b) attentiveness to

required display rules, (c) variety of emotions required to be displayed, and (d) emotional

dissonance generated as the result of having to express organizationally desired emotions

not genuinely felt. As result, Morris and Feldman redefined emotional labor as, “the

effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotion during

interpersonal transactions” (p. 987). Consequently, Morris and Feldman also agreed with

Hochschild that there must be an internal expression of emotion in order to display the

appropriate behaviors needed to display required organizational emotions. However, both

Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) and Morris and Feldman theorized behavior should

supersede the internal emotional state needed to express behaviors because display rules

are directly observable, e.g., facial and body movements.

As previously mentioned, emotional labor is contingent for the process of

emotional dissonance; for this reason, understanding emotional labor and its strategies is

vital in understanding the relationship between personality (five-factor model) and

emotional dissonance, specifically, among police officers. Bakker and Heuven (2006)

indicated that police officers often experience emotional dissonance, do to psychological

strain (chronic stress) that results from frequent suppression of their felt emotions in

order express mandated organizational displays of emotions. Police officers working in

large cities such as the large Midwestern police departments have frequent encounters

with citizens, particularly large non-suburban cities who have been reported by the FBI

census having higher incidents of violent crimes compared to smaller suburban cities

(FBI Census, 2011). Thus, by understanding how personality predicts the level of

emotional dissonance, the current literature on emotional dissonance has contributed to a

greater understanding on how emotional dissonance attributes to police officers working

in large non-suburban cities.

Cheung and Lun (2015) state, that emotional labor can be described as, “…the

management of emotion and expression in order to conform to organizational rules and

emotional expressions” (e.g., Andela, Truchot, Van Der Doef, 2015, p.3). Therefore, to

understand emotional labor, emotional labor strategies have to be elucidated to learn their

utility in reducing the psychological strain associated with performing emotional labor.

The most commonly used emotional labor strategies used in emotional labor research are

surface and deep acting, in addition to expression of naturally felt emotions. Surface

acting is described as faking emotions without making a natural emotional change. Deep

acting is considered the actual attempt to use internal emotions in order to create a

genuine expression of emotion to meet organizational required emotions. The expression

of naturally expressed emotions (that is, the person actual true emotions) identifies with

the genuine expression of emotions when experiencing or displaying felt emotions

(Cheung & Lun, 2015). For example, Cheung and Lun explained how the expression of

naturally expressed emotions is particularly used as a strategy in customer interactions

where exercising surface and deep acting has be exhausted, so instead employees express

their true emotions in the form of no smile, or even anger.

This dissertation study examined felt emotions, which is one of two (e.g., required

organizational emotions) of the main elements that make up the emotional discrepancy of

emotional dissonance. Cheung and Lun (2015) investigated three emotional labor

strategies, that is, expression of naturally expressed emotions, surface and deep acting in

order to learn their relationship with burnout (e.g., emotional exhaustion,

depersonalization, lack of personal accomplishment) and job satisfaction from a sample

of 267 school teachers from China. The results indicated that surface acting only had a

positively relationship with emotional exhaustion and depersonalization whereas deep

acting was only negatively related to lack of personal accomplishment. The expression of

naturally expressed emotions (e.g., felt emotions) had the most substantial results that

revealed that emotional exhaustion (r = -.28, p < .01) depersonalization (r = -.35, p <

.01), and lack of personal accomplishments (r = -.32, p < .01) were all negatively related

to the expression of naturally felt emotions. However, the expression of naturally felt

emotions had a positive relationship with job satisfaction. These findings indicate that

employees who exhibit their actual felt emotions will have lower stress associated with

burnout and have higher job satisfaction.

Park, O’Rourke, and O’Brien (2014) also examined naturally expressed emotions

(felt emotions) using the conservation of resources (COR) theory, which prescribes to the

protection of employee resources, e.g., money, social standing or self-esteem. They

investigated the relationship between naturally expressed emotions and surface acting,

and their relationship with Organization Citizenship Behaviors-Individual (OCB-I). In

addition, Park et al. also examined the relationship of a new emotional regulation strategy

(e.g., Interpersonal Influence) that they posited would reduce the negative effects of

surface acting and burnout.

Interpersonal influence can be defined as (Park et al., 2014):

A facet of political skill that reflects the ability of an individual to affect other

people in different situational settings with flexibility. Individuals high on

interpersonal influence have greater perceived control over the work environment

by having the ability to adjust their behavior to multiple situations. (p. 390)

A sample of 95 school employees was examined using a correlation and moderated

multiple regression analyses to measure all data. The results indicated that naturally felt

emotions and surface acting both had positive relationship with OCB-I. Further, it was

found that naturally felt emotions had a significant negative relationship with all three

levels of burnout, that is, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal

accomplishments.

These findings were also supported in Cheung and Lun (2015) study that

substantiated negative relationships between felt emotions, and the three levels of

burnout. Meanwhile, the relationship between surface acting and emotional exhaustion

showed positive correlations, in which Park et al. (2014) reported there was a very weak

positive relationship between both variables, e.g., (r = .16, p < .05) and depersonalization

(r = .16, p< .05). It was also found that deep acting only had a positive relationship with

only personal accomplishments. The findings may vary because the conservation of

resources (COR) theory was used in Park et al. (2014) study, supporting that the lost of

employee resources had a greater effect when they used surface acting as an emotional

labor strategy. Consequently, deep acting did not have a positive correlation with OCB-I,

emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, or personal accomplishments. As for

interpersonal influence, there was a significant positive relationship with emotional

exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment; in addition to an

increase in organizational citizenship behaviors.

Hulsheger and Schewe (2011) reported that there are three different emotional

labor facets, where emotional dissonance rule has been examined as a facet along with

deep and surface acting. Hulsheger and Schewe (2011) conducted a meta-analysis

examining three facets of emotional labor that included the following:

1. Emotion-rule dissonance- emotional congruence between felt emotions and mandated displayed emotions.

2. Surface acting- emotions faked through outwardly expressions (e.g., fake smile), and

3. Deep acting- inner emotions that are altered to conform to expected organizational emotions.

Meanwhile, each of the above facets was examined to learn its relationship with

wellbeing (e.g., emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, lack of accomplishments,

psychological strain, psychosomatic complaints, job satisfaction), task performance (e.g.,

emotional performance and customer service), and job related performance, e.g., job

satisfaction and organizational attachment. A meta-analysis of emotional labor was

conducted that used 494 individual correlations, with a sample of 95 independent studies.

The data were analyzed using correlational and multi-regression analyses. The results

indicated that emotional-rule dissonance and surface acting had the highest correlation

with wellbeing and job related performance. However, emotional-rule dissonance had a

negative relationship with task performance variables, i.e., emotional performance and

organizational attachment. Consequently, there was negative relationship with deep

acting and all wellbeing variables, with the acceptation of what Hulsheger and Schewe

provides for an explanation of small relationships between deep acting and

psychosomatic complaints (p = .175) and personal accomplishments (p = .269). These

findings link emotional labor strategies (surface acting), specifically, emotional-rule

dissonance with facets of burnout.

In a longitudinal study, Bechtoldt, Rohrmann, DePater, and Beersma (2011)

investigated two facets of emotional labor (e.g., surface and deep acting) and their role in

how police officers utilize emotion recognition (e.g., characteristic of emotional

intelligence) and their level of work engagement to reduce the effects of surface acting

and deep acting. Further, in a sample of 84 police officers, Bechtoldt et al. posited that

employees high in emotion recognition would be able to moderate surface and deep

acting, and the level work engagement. The results indicated a positive relationship with

police officers’ ability of emotion recognition as a moderator on surface acting and work

engagement. Furthermore, emotion recognition had the same relationship with deep

acting, where deep acting and work engagement were moderated by emotion recognition.

The findings indicated that police officers high in emotion recognition were able to detect

the emotions of others (customer interaction), which help reduce the negative effects of

surface acting, and add stability to employee work engagement.

Grandey, Chi, and Diamond (2013) investigated the element of financial reward

incentives for performing emotional labor that results in job satisfaction, and the effect of

financial reward incentives under the conditions of surface acting and deep acting. A

correlational (Study 1) and experimental designs (Study 2) were used to test these

variables within two studies. First, Study 1 substantiated that when financial rewards was

high rather than low, it had a positive relationship with emotional labor and job

performance. As for Study 2, financial rewards did not moderate the deep acting and job

satisfaction with positive mood, that is, with the addition of financial rewards. However,

financial reward did moderate surface acting and negative mood. The findings indicated

that financial incentives served as a moderator on emotional labor, specifically under the

negative moods and surface acting.

Allen, Diefendorff, and Ma (2014) examined emotional labor to learn if there

were any cross-cultural differences in emotional labor. This study consisted of a cross-

cultural comparison between United States and China service workers in order to identify

differences with display rule perceptions, emotion regulation (surface and deep acting),

and the three levels of burnout (e.g., depersonalization, emotional exhaustion, and lack of

personal accomplishments). Furthermore, Allen et al. posited, based on the premise that

United States has been classified as an individualistic (e.g., uniqueness, autonomy,

separateness) culture and China as a collective (e.g., interdependence, group goals over

self goals) culture, there would be a different outcome of emotional labor and burnout

experienced from both cultures. The sample selected for this study was comprised of 602

customer service employees that completed online survey questionnaires. To analyze the

results, a correlational design was used to compare correlations and means. The results

indicated, when comparing means, there was a higher use surface and deep acting among

participants in China, compared to participants from the United States. However,

participants from the United States utilized more surface acting when they had to

conform to display rules when compared to China, display rules were perceived higher in

the United States. In addition, participants from the United States had a higher

relationship with surface acting and burnout, than participants from China. As for deep

acting, there was a stronger association with burnout in participants from China, than

Untied States. These findings indicated there is a cultural difference between Western

and Eastern cultures and individualistic societies; for instance, the United States, may

utilize more surfaces acting, than collective cultures, and individuals from China having a

natural propensity to conform to emotional display rules.

Cheung and Tang (2010) examined the relationship of age and gender on

selecting emotional labor strategies (surface and deep acting), and whether or not age and

gender mediate the expression of naturally felt emotions, job satisfaction, and

psychological health, from a sample of 386 organizational professionals from 30

organizations. Utilizing a correlational analysis (bivariate), the results indicated a positive

relationship between age, and deep acting (emotion labor strategies), and the expression

of naturally felt emotions; however, there was no relationship with age and surface

acting. The findings indicated that older workers relied more on deep acting, and were

able express naturally felt emotions than younger workers. Further, there was only a

partial relationship between gender and emotional labor strategies where men relied more

on surface acting than women. In addition, there was no association between women and

deep acting when regulating emotions. However, deep acting mediated the relationship

between age and job satisfaction and psychological health, which was associated with

older workers. However, Cheung and Tang (2011) substantiated there was a negative

relationship with naturally expressed emotions (e.g., felt emotions) and burnout and

positive relationship with job satisfaction. The literature revealed that emotional labor is a

result of employees having to preform emotion work, that is, organizational displays of

emotions and/ or behavior requirements needed to maintain employment (Hochschild,

1983). In order to preform emotion work, the literature revealed (Bechtoldt et al., 2011)

that emotional labor strategies (surface and deep acting) was used by police officers to

reduce psychological strain caused from suppressing their felt emotions, which in turn,

engenders the phenomenon known as emotional dissonance (Bechtoldt et al., 2011). For

this reason, this current dissertation study has examined the five-factor model

personalities as a predictor of emotional dissonance (a consequence of emotional labor)

among police officers. To further understand the association of emotional dissonance

with police officers, an additional examination of literature has helped provide support

that links personality and stress factors with emotional dissonance.

The literature in this section revealed that emotional labor and the stress incurred

(emotional dissonance) from emotional labor involves the use of emotional labor

strategies such as naturally expressed emotion (felt emotions) and surface and deep

acting. Because felt emotions are at the center of the emotional conflict (e.g., felt

emotions and the display of mandatory organizational emotions) in emotional dissonance,

this dissertation study has examined emotional dissonance and how other factors such as

stress, negative emotions and personality might help link personality to the level of

emotional dissonance experienced among police officers.

Emotional dissonance. Emotional dissonance can be detrimental to police

officers’ physical and psychological well-being, which can affect their interactions with

citizens, and in their own personal family lives (Chueng & Tang, 2013; Bakker &

Heuven, 2006; Hopp, Rohrmann, Zapf, & Hodapp, 2010; Van Gelderen, Bakker, Konijn,

& Demerouti, 2011). Emotional dissonance is described as an emotional incongruence

between the individuals genuine felt emotions and organizational required displays of

emotions. Further, because of emotional labor, police officers try to manage their feelings

in order, “to create a publicly observable facial and bodily displays,” which sometimes

conflict with how they really want to express their emotions during citizen encounters

(Bakker & Heuven, 2006; Hochschild, 1983, p.7). Police officers are faced with many

different stresses incurred from emotional job demands involving their many face-to-face

encounters with citizens. As a result, according to Bakker and Heuven (2006) police

officers have to fake and/ or suppress their felt emotions during emotional job demands

(e.g., violence, emotional confrontations with citizens and criminals, and frequent

encounters with serious injuries and/or death) in order to display organizational displays

of emotions (behaviors), in which in turn, cause psychological strain.

Bakker and Heuven (2006) indicated that police officers often experience

emotional dissonance, do to psychological strain (chronic stress) that results from

frequent suppression of their felt emotions in order express mandated organizational

displays of emotions. Police officers working in large cities such as police officers

working in large Midwestern police departments have frequent encounters with citizens,

particularly large non-suburban cities, who have been reported by the FBI census having

higher incidents of violent crimes compared to smaller suburban cities (FBI Census,

2011). Therefore, by understanding how personality predicts the level of emotional

dissonance, the current literature on emotional dissonance has shown how emotional

dissonance attributes to police officers working in large non-suburban cities.

Bakker and Heuven (2006) conducted a study to determine whether the emotional

demands of citizens would contribute to emotional dissonance, resulting in burnout (e.g.,

exhaustion, cynicism, and disengagement) among police officers. The study examined

101 police officers from the Netherlands. A structured equation modeling (SEM) analysis

was conducted to investigate the correlation between emotional dissonance and burnout.

The results substantiated that emotional had a significant relationship with burnout,

specifically with exhaustion and cynicism.

Police officers are faced with a consistent influx of negative emotions when

interacting with citizen throughout their work shifts. According to Van Gelderen, Bakker,

Konijn, and Demerouti (2011), police officers that frequently suppress negative discrete

emotions have a greater chance of experiencing emotional dissonance, in which is do to

trying to uphold organizational displays (display rules, e.g., be polite) of conduct.

Van Gelderen et al. suggest that, “…suppressing each of the discrete negative emotions,

anger, abhorrence, and sadness can also be seen as a form of emotional dissonance” (p.

524).

For this reason, Van Gelderen et al. (2011) investigated the relationship of

suppressing negative discrete emotion (e.g., anger, abhorrence, sadness) in order to

determine if they would have an effect on emotional job demands (e.g., interaction with

violent criminals) and the amount of exhaustion experienced by the end of a work shift.

To examine this study, a diary study was used, in which a sample of 39 Dutch police

officers working criminal investigations and forensics. The results indicated that police

officers that suppressed anger (t = 2.38, p < .05) and abhorrence (t = 2.49, p < .05) had a

significant effect with emotional job demands and exhaustion at the ‘end of work shift’

whereas sadness had no effect. The findings suggest that suppressing particular discrete

emotions can lead to emotional dissonance and exhaustion, but suppressing other

negative discrete emotions may not be associated with engendering emotional dissonance

and exhaustion in Dutch police officers.

Cheung and Cheung (2013) offered a different perspective on the relationship of

stress factors associated emotional dissonance. Their study investigated the stressor-strain

outcome model in order to explain the relationship of various job related stress factors

(e.g., role conflict, excessive workload, lack of support) that contribute to emotional

dissonance (in addition to, a decline in OCB), which, in turn, engenders burnout, e.g.,

emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and lack of personal accomplishments (e.g., self-

efficacy). According to Cheung and Cheung, stressor-strain outcome is a reaction from

increased stress outcomes that are contributed form environmental factors that adversely

affect employees behaviorally and psychologically. Two hundred and sixty-four Chinese

schoolteachers were surveyed. The results indicated there were positive relationships

between emotional dissonance and all three dimension of burnout. It was also found that

there was a relationship with emotional dissonance as a mediator of increased burnout,

and burnout as mediator of lower (OCB) organizational citizenship behaviors. However,

there was no direct relationship between OCB and burnout. These findings were in line

with the stressor-strain model as the contributing stress factor that links burnout (strain)

as a mediating component between emotional dissonance and OCB. Consequently,

research by Kobasa and Puccetti (1983) has substantiated that negative emotions or

negative emotional states derived from stressor-strain relationship can be modulated

through social relations.

Similarly, Abraham (1998) also demonstrated how social support was associated

with emotional dissonance. Because negative emotions have been correlated with

negative affectivity (e.g., Abraham, 1998; Dubey & Pandey, 2013), there has been

research interest in trying to understand personality traits and emotional dissonance.

These findings will be crucial for this current dissertation study in understanding the

relationship between personalities and emotional dissonance among police officers.

Abraham (1998) examined the relationship of negative affectivity as a moderator

of emotional dissonance, job satisfaction, and emotional dissonance. In a correlational

study, 110 customer service representative working in various career fields (e.g.,

telecommunication, food service, clothing retail industries) were evaluated. The results

were analyzed using structured equations and hierarchical regression analysis. The results

indicated that there was a substantial relationship with negative affectivity as moderator

of emotional dissonance, job satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion. Based on a

continuum, the level (high or low) negative affectivity will determine the adverse effect

of emotional dissonance experienced by employees (Abraham, 1998).

Goussinsky (2011) investigated the moderating effect of positive affectivity (or

extraversion) and negative affectivity (or neuroticism) on emotional dissonance and job

satisfaction, as they related to customer service workers who experienced aggression

from customers. To note, Goussinsky also indicated extraversion is a facet of positive

affectivity traits and neuroticism is a facet of negative affectivity. The study was

comprised of 156 undergraduate college students from Northern Israel. A Pearson r

Coefficient and hierarchical analysis was used to analyze the data. The results

substantiated that neuroticism had a positive relationship with emotional dissonance (r =

.20, p <0.05); in addition to extraversion acting as a moderator of emotional dissonance

(𝛽 = .19, p < 0.05). Consequently, the objective of the study was to determine if positive

affectivity (extraversion) was a moderator of customer aggression. The results indicated

that the interaction customer aggression and extraversion had a positive relationship with

emotional dissonance. The findings indicated that individual’s high positive affectivity

(extraversion) had no impact in reducing customer aggression experienced by customer

representatives. However, when customer aggression and emotional dissonance were

examined together, there was a positive relationship when individuals were high in

positive affectivity.

In similarity with this current study that’s investigating the relationship between

five-factor model and emotional dissonance among police officers. Diamond (2005) also

examined the relationship between five personality traits (e.g., extroversion,

agreeableness, consciousness, anger (neuroticism), helpfulness); however, one five-factor

model personality trait was subsequently replaced, and openness was not examined with

the studies variables. For example, openness was replaced because Diamond (2005)

reported that there was no research connecting openness to experience with debt

collectors job functions. Then, anger was utilized in place of neuroticism, first, because it

is a facet of neuroticism, and that debt collectors have to often display anger when

dealing with clients (Diamond, 2005).

Meanwhile, Diamond investigated the relationship between five-personality traits

and emotional dissonance among debt collectors. The study was comprised of 183

participants working for a large debt-collecting firm located in the mid-west. Survey

questionnaires were used to collect data, which was analyzed using a pathway analysis

and correlational matrix, and path coefficient. Diamond also used t-test to analyze the

difference of gender in emotional dissonance. First, the results indicated a significant

relationship between anger (neuroticism) and emotional dissonance. The results further

indicated that consciousness had a positive relationship with emotional dissonance. This

relationship consisted of debt collectors who were high in consciousness, had a low level

of emotional dissonance. In line with this study, it is also hypothesized that police

officers high in consciousness will have a decrease in emotional dissonance. Further,

because openness was not examined in Diamond’s study, this dissertation study has

provided current knowledge on the relationship of this variable with emotional

dissonance, in which is hypothesized to have a negative relationship with emotional

dissonance among police officers. Additionally, Diamond indicated a negative

relationship between agreeableness and emotional dissonance among debt collectors,

which supported the hypothesis; individuals high in agreeableness will have an increase

in emotional dissonance. However, this study hypothesizes that there will be a significant

inverse relationship between agreeableness and emotional dissonance among police.

Finally, a t test was used to compare gender and emotional dissonance and revealed a

negative relationship between women and emotional dissonance.

However, males had a significant effect, with both anger (neuroticism) (.34) and

consciousness (.31) with their relationship emotional dissonance among debt collectors

(Diamond, 2005).

Diamond (2005) investigated the relationship between personality and emotional

dissonance among debt collectors. Debt collectors have customer interactions that are

strictly non-face-to-face encounters, and mainly communicate with clients over the

phone, expressing anger and disappointment through only the faceless contact of voice-

to-voice contact. On the other hand, police officers are faced with angry citizens and their

complaints, non-violent and violent deaths, and victims of crimes that are sometimes

seriously injured. Because of frequent face-to-face encounters with citizens, police

officers may often time have to suppress their felt emotions such as (discrete emotions)

anger, sadness, abhorrence, and happiness in order to maintain the appropriate displays

facial and bodily expressions of professionalism expected by superiors and their

communities (Van Gelderen et al., 2011). Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) reported,

“norm strength tends to be stronger in face-to-face service encounters, especially where

emotional expressions is central to the transaction” (p. 91).

Hopp, Rohrmann, Zapf, and Hodapp (2010) investigated the physiological effects

(physical) of face-to-face interactions (with angry and rude customers) with service

industry employees who experienced emotional dissonance as a consequence of

emotional demands, in which gender and neuroticism would act as moderators.

An experimental design was use to examine 59 college students, who imagined they were

service employees that worked for a telecommunications company. In order to check

physiological and biological reactions, survey questionnaires and a pulse checking device

was used to monitor blood pressures.

A t test was used to analyze the effect of negative physiological and customer

interaction. The results indicated there was a significant effect (t (58) = -3.88, p < .001)

of physiological state during customer interaction or face-to-face contact. There also was

a significant effect (t (58) = -7.13, p < .001) of physical complaints and customer

interaction. Furthermore, utilizing a hierarchical regression analysis it was substantiated,

during emotional dissonance, men had higher physiological states than women when

systolic blood pressures were compared. The results also indicated that when both

women were asked to be friendly (display rule) during the state of unfriendly customer

encounters (state of emotional dissonance), they both had an increase in systolic and

diastolic blood pressures. As for neuroticism, neuroticism was positively associated with

physiological state (increased systolic blood pressure) and physical complaints,

specifically when participants had to be friendly; however, when participants did not

have to preform the required display rule (e.g., be friendly) there was no increase in

systolic blood pressure and physical complaints.

The literature has established empirical support that personality is associated with

emotional dissonance experienced among police officers (Goussinsky, 2011; Van

Gelderen et al., 2011). However, the literature revealed that numerous studies on

personality and emotional dissonance have evaluated these variables mainly using

samples from other countries, e.g., Israeli and Dutch police officers. Therefore, this

current dissertation study will help provide insight on the relationship of personality

(five-factor model) and emotional dissonance utilizing a sample comprised of police

officers from the United States. To further understand the relationship between

personality and emotional dissonance, additional literature will be used to examine the

relation between personality and role-conflict. Rafaeli and Sutton (1987) suggested

emotional dissonance is a form emotional dissonance that is engendered from the

employee’s personal principles and role requirements.

Personality and role-conflict. Studying the antecedents, consequences, and

moderators, Abraham (1998) posited role conflict theory, theorized by Kahn et al. (1964)

provided the theoretical foundation for theorizing that emotional dissonance was a form

of role conflict. For this reason, Abraham argues a relationship between role conflict and

personality exist based on the assumption that the dissonance (emotional tension)

experienced by the individual would vary based on personality, in this way, making

personality a predictor of (based on role conflict theory) emotional dissonance.

In their seminal book Organizational Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and

Ambiguity, Kahn et al. (1964) suggested individual characteristics (personality traits)

contribute to role conflict that, in turn, contributes to (e.g., Sorić et al., 2013) emotional

stress caused from the individual differences in personal attributes, e.g., personality trait.

According to Rafaeli and Sutton (1987) theory on emotional dissonance, stress associated

with the employee’s lack of individual control of performing their expected role’s, will

result in a conflict between a conflict personal principles and required role expectations,

in this way, causing emotional dissonance. As a result, Abraham (1998) suggested that

emotional dissonance associated with role-conflict might be associated with personality.

Kahn et al. provided a model to delineate how personality contributes to various factors

associated with causing role-conflict. (see Figure 2; Kahn et al., 1964, p. 227).

Figure 2. Contributing factors of personality on role-conflict outcomes.

Personality Factors

Role expectations

perceptions

Role pressures;

degree of conflict and ambiguity

Experience: tension,

etc.

Response:

withdrawl,

etc.

Kahn et al. described role conflict as external pressures exerted by organizational

forces (management) that impose undesirable role expectations on employees in order to

enforce (role pressure) organizational behaviors. As result, employees experience a

psychological conflict between their own perceived role expectations and the

organizations role pressures to preform mandated behaviors. Kahn et al. substantiated in

their study a relationship between role-conflict and personality. The objective of this

research sets out to determine if the five-factor personalities is associated with

determining the level of emotional dissonance, in which Rafaeli and Sutton (1987)

suggested is a form of role-conflict.

Pandey and Kumar (as cited in Han, Wang & Dong, 2014) provide a definition for

role conflict describing a dual conflict between the person and role expectations as

theorized by Rafaeli and Sutton (1987):

A state of mind or experience, or perception of the role incumbent arising out of

the simultaneous occurrence of two or more role expectations such that

compliance with one would make compliance with the other(s) more difficult or

even impossible. (Han, Wang, & Dong, p. 475)

Furthermore, Kahn et al. indicated there are four types of role conflict, which include

(p.19-20):

1. Intra-sender conflict- different prescriptions and proscriptions from a single member of the role set may be incompatible, as, for example, when a supervisor

requests a man to acquire material which is unavailable through normal channels

and at the same time prohibits violations of normal channels.

2. Inter-sender conflict- pressures from one role sender oppose pressures from one or more other senders. The pressures on a foreman for close supervision from his

superiors and for looser supervision form his subordinates provide an example of

inter-sender conflict.

3. Inter-role conflict- here the role pressures associated with membership in one organization are in conflict with pressures stemming from membership in other

groups. Demands from role-senders on the job for overtime or take-home work

may conflict with pressures form one’s wife to give undivided attention to family

affairs during evening hours.

4. Person-role conflict- it can occur when role requirements violate moral values, as, for example, when pressures on an executive to enter price-fixing conspiracies are

opposed by his personal code ethics.

Further, Kahn et al. (1964) used a national survey to examine the relationship of

role conflict and personality. The results substantiated a relationship among personality

traits (e.g., high and low: neurotic anxiety, flexibility and rigid, and extrovert and

introverts) that were evaluated under various conditions (e.g., tension, frequency of

communication, and sense of futility) in order to learn their association with role conflict.

Han, Wang, and Dong (2014) examined 245 middle management managers across 32

companies in Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin China, to investigate the relationship of

proactive personalities as a moderator of role conflict. Major, Turner, and Fletcher (2006)

indicate that proactive personality has been found to be correlated three of the five-factor

model personalities, e.g., conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness. Meanwhile,

when examining role conflict, Han et al. only utilized two role conflict types, compared

to Kahn et al., who described four role conflict types that were aforementioned. Hang et

al. specifically selected inter-role and inter sender-role conflicts because they closely

identified with the role conflict experienced by middle managers. Further, proactive

personality was defined as, “individual differences in the extent of the tendency for

people to control situational forces and initiate change in their environment” (Hang et al.,

p.475). Han et al. further described proactive personality as high and low proactive

personalities; for example, (p. 476):

 High proactive personality: People high in proactive personality tend to identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until they have achieved

their goals and brought about significant change.

 Low proactive personality- proactive people tend to passively adapt to their environments and rely on others to initiate change.

Utilizing a hierarchal regression analysis, the results substantiated that proactive

personality was a moderator of role conflict, specifically, during high role conflict in

middle managers. The findings indicated managers with higher proactive personalities

had less work-related anxiety and higher job satisfaction than managers with lower

proactive personalities in high role conflict conditions. The implications of these findings

will help support that premise that personality, that is, proactive personality traits have a

relationship with various forms of role-conflict. Major, Turner, and Fletcher (2006)

indicate that proactive personality traits have been consistently found to be related to

consciousness and extraversion. Based on these findings further support will be provided,

in that, five-factor model personality traits act as a predictor of emotional dissonance.

Taylor and Kluemper (2012) examined the relationship of neuroticism,

agreeableness, and consciousness as moderators of role stress (e.g., role ambiguity, role

conflict, role overload) that contributed to incivility and workplace aggression. The

sample was comprised of 404 employees and managers who were paired together. The

results substantiated that, as a result of role stress, specifically, role conflict and role

ambiguity, employees and managers high in neuroticism (r =. 0.46 and r =0.24), low in

agreeableness (r=0.36 and 0.20), and consciousness (r=0.39 and r=0.22) were

moderators of interpersonal and organizational aggression, due to an indirect effect from

each dispositional characteristic. However, each personality trait had a negative

association with role overload. These finding are integral showing that personality acted

as moderators on various forms of role stress, specifically, role conflict. Since, emotional

dissonance has been described as form role-conflict (Hochschild, 1987; Rafaeli & Sutton,

1987), the findings will provide strong implications that the five-factor model will be a

predictor of emotional dissonance among police officers.

Wu (2009) investigated work and family role conflict experienced by police

officers, and its relationship with emotional exhaustion (burnout) and health problems,

and, in addition, the relationship of role conflict (intra-sender), that is, uncompromising

and friendly behaviors. The sample consisted of 672 Taiwanese police officers, using a

correlational study. The results substantiated a positive relationship with work and family

conflict (inter-sender role conflict) and emotional exhaustion and health problems. The

results also substantiated a partial relationship with emotional exhaustion acting as a

mediator with only health problems, and as for role conflict and health problems,

emotional exhaustion did not act as a moderator. Furthermore, it was substantiated there

was a relationship between uncompromising and friendly (intra-sender conflict)

behaviors and emotional exhaustion and health problems. The findings indicated both

forms of role conflict had a detrimental effect on contributing to burnout (emotional

exhaustion) and health problems experienced by police officers.

In another study investigating work and family conflict, Zaman, Anis-ul-Haque,

and Nawaz (2014) examined two facets of work and family interface (WFI), that is, inter-

role conflict (e.g., conflict between work and family roles) and inter-role integration (e.g.,

integrating work and family roles), and their relationship with job performance in order to

learn the mediating effect of consciousness and agreeableness. Zaman et al. reported

work and family interface maybe described as existing, “on a continuum of segmentation

and integration in which segmentation between work and family roles leads to inter-role

conflict whereas integration of work and family roles facilitates permeability” (p. 529).

The results substantiated inter-role conflict had a negative association with job

performance, consciousness, and agreeableness. The results further substantiated there

was a significant negative association between inter-role integration consciousness and

agreeableness. As for consciousness and agreeableness, they both acted, as moderators of

inter-role conflict and inter-role integration, only consciousness and agreeableness were

moderators of inter-role integration. Finally, the findings indicated consciousness and

agreeableness only had a partial relationship with one facet WFI, that is, inter-role

integration. Wu concluded particular traits associated with consciousness might not

regulate the negative effects of inter-role conflict associated with work and family

conflict. However, Wu pointed out that there is no clear explanation of why both

personality traits do not moderate inter-role conflict, and that further studies need to

examine the relationship with other cultures.

The literature on the connection between personality and role-conflict has clearly

established a link between personality and role-conflict, which has helped support the

implications of this current dissertation that proposes from the assumptions of

Hochschild, (1983) Rafaeli and Sutton (1987) that emotional dissonance is a form of role-

conflict, and that personality shapes (Kahn et al. 1964) the individual’s dual emotional

conflict, i.e., emotional dissonance. For this reason, it was vital for this study to learn

how five-factor model personality traits contribute to stress and emotional factors (e.g.,

positive and negative emotions) that cause the problematic (psychological strain)

emotional conflict that results from emotional dissonance among police officers (Bakker

& Heuven, 2006).

Understanding the five-factor model. The five-factor model has become the

contemporary method for understanding personality because five hierarchal personality

traits (e.g., neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, consciousness, openness to

experience) have been repeatedly identified as the main indicators of personality

(measured by the NEO-PI-R) across cultures, in 40 different languages (Ashton & Lee,

2007; McCrae & Costa; 1992; 2010; McCrae &Terracciano, 2005). McCrae and Costa

(2010; 2013) devised the five-factor model through a lexical approach (mainly used in

selecting facets for the NEO Personality Inventory), comparing personality

questionnaires, reviewing literature, and conducting factor analyses. In fact, McCrae and

John were so adamant about the utility of the five-factor model, they stated,“ If we reject

the information-processing explanation why there are five factors, what rationale

remains? We believe it is simply an empirical fact, like the fact that there are seven

continents on earth or eight American presidents from Virginia” (p. 194).

In Block’s (1995) review of the five-factor model, he refers to founders McCrae

and Costa (1992) as prescribing to empiricism because they solely used empirical

evidence based on factor analysis. Block (2010) further indicated that, “Although the

method of factor analysis can be extraordinarily illuminating, by itself the method alone

should not be empowered to make paramount and controlling decisions regarding the

concepts to be used within the field of personality (p.6), and that statistical methods

should not take president over the consensus of psychologist’s.

Block (1995) exclaimed personality should be encompassed from various factors within

individuals such as (p. 188): Energized by motivations, dynamically organize

perceptions, cognitions, and behaviors. Further, Block suggested more research should be

conducted to establish other models of personality because five-factor model of

personalities should not be considered an exhaustive standard for describing individual

personality.

In providing a different perspective on personality, Ashton and Lee (2007) offered

a new view on personality by constructing the HEXACO model. As described by Ashton

and Lee, the HEXACO model consists of honesty-humility (e.g., fairness vs.

entitlement), emotionality (e.g., attachment vs. avoidance), agreeableness (vs. anger)

(e.g., tolerant vs. confrontational), extraversion (e.g., sociable vs. leadership),

consciousness (e.g., task oriented), openness (learning, thinking). Ashton and Lee argue

that HEXACO brings a different outlook on personality assessment by adding sixth

personality trait that includes honesty and humility as new hierarchy personality trait.

However, in McCrae and Costa’s (2008b) review on five-factor personality theory, they

also argued that honesty and humility has been already assimilated in the five-factor

model, and that it was factored as a subtrait using the NEO-PI-R. Moreover, McCrae and

Costa (2008b) maintained through factor analysis, honesty and humility have already

been factored as traits associated with agreeableness, due to their close relations as social

interaction traits.

Meanwhile, the conceptualization of Ashton and Lee’s HEXACO model is

founded on the lexical approach where personality descriptors (e.g., physical and abilities

characteristics) are selected based on a trait adjective (nervous, energetic, careful)

selection process (e.g., McCrae & Costa, 2013). Ashton and Lee exclaimed:

The lexical approach has the important strength that the selected variables are

known to represent the full array of subjectively important personality

characteristics, as observed and described by generations of people within a given

language community. This approach, therefore, avoids the problem of researcher

biases in the selection of personality variables. (p. 151)

For this reason, Ashton and Lee suggested more attention should be emphasized

on the lexical approach, and less on the factor analysis, which is the means to analyze and

select similar personality facet through the process of elimination. Further, Ashton and

Lee’s indicate that there is an over emphasis’s on factor analysis, which is described by

Block (1995; 2010) as being the single factor for substantiating empirical grounds for

McCrae and Costa’s five-factor model. Consequently, Ashton and Lee maintained that

because HEXACO is a still a new model, it lacks substantive research that has been

produced by the five-factor model. Therefore, for the purpose of this study, the five-

factor model was used, and analyzed by the NEO-FFI, which was substantiated to have

moderate reliability and validity across: gender, age, culture and languages (McCrae &

John, 1992; McCrae & Terracciano (2005). Therefore, for the purpose of this study,

research has substantiated the strength of the different methodological strategies, that is,

sole reliability of factor analysis as empirical proof (McCrae & Costa, 2010; McCrae &

John, 1992), and the lexical approach (Ashton & Lee, 2007).

Conversely, Cervone (2004) provided a different perspective on personality

assessment that contrast with traditional (e.g., Five-Facto Model, HEXACO) approaches

of assessing personality. Cervone proposes that traditional personality assessments, as

compared to a social cognitive approach, only examine personality from a between-

person standpoint whereas his theory and other social cognitive personality theories

examine from within-person. Furthermore, Cervone suggested that five-factor model is

limited in producing empirical results on individual personality, and explaining behavior

for an individual perspective. For this reason, McCrae and Costa (2008a) stated that they

designed the five-factor theory to explain the limitation of the five-factor model by

creating an outline of guidelines for linking personality and behavior. Moreover, McCrae

and Costa explained that the premise of the five-factor model was to only generalize to

the broader population, as Cervone exclaimed in his review. McCrae and Costa stated

that the, “The distinction he wishes to draw between explanation and description is better

seen as a distinction between proximal and distal causes, and thus between mechanistic

and trait explanations” (p.289). Cervone suggested that when personality is assessed

according to social cognitive theory, a broader picture of the individual is attained.

Cervone’s theory on social-cognitive personality utilizes five guidelines for personality

assessment (p.119):

1. Distinguish between the assessment of internal personality structures and dynamics and overt behavioral tendencies.

2. Assess personal determinants of action.

3. Keep separate response systems separate.

4. Employ assessments that are sensitive to the individual.

5. Assess persons-in-context.

Thus, social cognitive theories prescribe to assessing personality by examining cognitive

processes and structures (Cervone, 2004).

Five-factor model personality traits. To further understand the connection

between personality and emotional dissonance among police officers, literature is

provided that describes how personality interrelates with emotions and stress, which are

some of the predispose factors that engender emotional dissonance. According to Larsen,

Augustine, and Prizmic (2009), “All of the Big Five personality traits are related to

affective experience” (p. 1412). For this reason, it is posited that each of the five-factor

model personalities will have a unique role in influencing emotional dissonance based on

their individual characteristics.

For example, individuals characterized as high in extraversion (exhibits pro-social

behaviors) will be outgoing, spontaneous, express warmth and happiness; will act in own

interest, over others (Beus, Dhanani, & McCord, 2015; Klimstra, Luyckx, Goossens,

Teppers, & De Fruyt, 2013). According to Beus, Dhanani, and McCord (2015)

individuals high in extraversion, “place primary importance on the higher order goal of

attaining status, or gaining social power and prestige” (p. 483). People who are high in

agreeableness can be characterized as pro-social, flexible (or uncooperative), and the

need to get along with others (Beus et al., 2015; Törnroos et al., 2013). Hence,

agreeableness can be associated with higher order goals of what Beus et al. mentioned as

their need for communion and altruism. Törnroos et al. also suggested agreeableness can

be associated with identity dimensions, where other individual’s opinions can alter a

person’s perceived identity. As for individuals high in openness, they can be

characterized as proactive behaviors, they can be portrayed as intellectual, curious,

adventurous or the need for exploration (Beus et al., 2015; Törnroos et al., 2013). These

characteristics can be considered higher order goals of autonomy (Beus et al., 2015).

According to Beus et al., individuals high in openness “are more inclined to question

authority” (p.483). Conversely, individuals high in consciousness are characterized to

exhibit higher order goals of achievement (will to achieve), in which causes them to take

less risk, to be more thorough, organized, task driven, and responsible. Furthermore,

people characterized as conscientiousness can be considered to have higher order goals of

achievement (Beus et al., 2015). Chiaburu, Li, and Gardner (2011) reported that pro-

social behaviors can be classified as individuals who are high in conscientiousness and

extraversion, for they seek respect social conventions, and they both seek the need for

impulse restraint. Finally, individuals high in neuroticism can be characterized as being

associated with negative emotions that are reflective of anxiety, stress, worrying, and

nervous impulsive behaviors (Beus et al., 2015; Törnroos et al., 2013. The higher order

goals for neuroticism will be more reflective of a person who has less achievement

oriented and communion, in which is more associated with individuals low in

neuroticism (e.g., calm, secure, confident) (Beus et al., 2015).

Connecting the five-factor model to emotional factors. McCrae and Costa’s

(200) research on the five-factor model has been substantiated across many different

contexts supporting its use as an indicator of personality using five hierarchy personality

types, that is, e.g., neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and

openness. Further, through the abundance of research using the five-factor personality

traits, the findings have established a connection between personality and emotional

factors such as: negative affectivity, negative emotions, stress and/or strain, and

emotional dissonance. Examining negative emotional factors is critical to this study

because negative emotional factors (psychological strain and/or stress and emotional

exhaustion) have been found to be linked to emotional dissonance, particularly for police

officers, who suppress their actual felt emotions in order to meet organizational display

rules (Bakker & Heuven, 2006). Therefore, by examining the relation between five-factor

model personality traits and negative emotional factors, evidence was provided to learn if

there is a relationship between personality (five-factor model) and emotional dissonance

among police officers.

Zanon et al. (2013) investigated the relationship between five-factor model

personalities and positive and negative affect, in a sample of 319 college students from

Brazil. Self-report psychometric instruments were used to collect the data. The results

revealed that neuroticism had a significant positive (.71) relationship with negative affect

and a significant negative (-.37) relationship with positive affect. Extraversion had a

moderate (.34) relationship with positive affect, but no relationship with negative affect.

As for agreeableness, there was a significant negative relationship with both positive and

negative affect. Conscientiousness had positive associations with both positive (.27) and

negative (.23) affect. Consequently, there was significant negative associations between

openness and positive and negative affect. However, Steel, Schmidt, and Shultz (2008)

reported in their meta-analysis that there was a significant relation between openness and

positive effect, and with happiness when measuring them with subjective wellbeing.

Komulainen et al. (2014) examined negative and positive affectivity on daily

emotional processes (e.g., nervous, cheerful, excited, sad, calm, content, sad, tired) and

their relationship with the five-factor of personalities using a sample of 104-college

students from Helsinki, Finland. The participants were all prescreened in order to assure

that no one had any psychiatric disorders. Further, in order to collect each participant’s

daily emotional responses and activities, an electronic device was used to obtain this data.

The results indicated that neuroticism was positively associated with participants having

increased daily nervousness and sadness, but participants were found to have lower,

activity, calmness, and positive affect on a daily basis. It was also found that

agreeableness was positively associated with participants having higher cheerfulness and

calmness on a daily basis; consequently, participants daily, had lower negative affect.

Next, conscientiousness was positively associated with participant’s daily having higher

activity, and in addition, there was positive association with participant’s daily having

lower nervousness and sadness. Extraversion was found to be positively associated with

participants having daily, higher cheer and excitement; however, negative affect had no

association with extraversion. Finally, there was no associations found with daily

emotional process, or positive or negative affectivity; however, there was strong

association with participants having higher activity daily.

Kehoe, Toomey, Balsters, and Bokde (2012) examined 23 right-handed women to

investigate if two of the five-factor personality traits (e.g., neuroticism and extraversion)

and their relationship with emotional processes, that is, emotional arousal and valence, in

which they set out to learn their proximity of brain functioning based on personality trait

using a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). According to Kehoe et al. both

personality traits were selected because both represent positive (extraversion) and

negative emotions (neuroticism), which were evaluated using Eysenck Personality

Questionnaire (EPQ-R) because the measures were designed to assess neurophysiological

properties of the brain. The results indicated that there was a negative relationship with

individuals high in extraversion, who experienced increased emotional arousal, resulting

in no brain activity in the right cerebellum right superior parietal lobule, the right

postcentral gyrus and the left posterior hippocampus. However, there was a positive

linear relationship with extraversion and the right insula. The results also indicated that

there was negative relationship with neuroticism and decreased neural activity with

association of positive valence. However, there was a positive relationship with

neuroticism and increased emotional arousal in the brain region of right and left medial

prefrontal cortex (mPFC). According to Kehoe et al. their study was the first to show that

individuals high in neuroticism and emotional arousal caused brain activity in mPFC

without any valence.

Sorić et al. (2013) used a convenience sample to investigate personality traits in

their study of 500 high school students from Croatia. They measured the Big-Five

personality traits, including other variables (e.g., cognitive control, value appraisals, and

student’s ability to suppress or reappraise emotions) in order to learn how they would

regulate negative achievement emotions (unhappiness, anger, anxiety, humiliation) of

students during their educational experience, e.g., chemistry learning. There was a

significant relationship between students with high conscientiousness, neuroticism

(emotional stability), and agreeableness on lower levels of negative emotions, e.g., anger,

humiliation, and anxiety. However, students high in agreeableness had higher anxiety.

These findings suggest that a few (i.e., agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional

stability or neuroticism) of the Big Five personality traits acted as distal personal

antecedents to how students regulate and use different strategies to control negative

achievement emotions. The findings further indicated that male (i.e., younger and older)

students experienced more negative emotions such as unhappiness, anger, and

humiliation than female students. However, there was no difference between male and

female students when experiencing anxiety. Soto, John, Gosling, and Potter (2011)

indicated that during late childhood and adolescence (males and females) personality

stays stable, but through maturity and personal experiences (e.g., college, new job,

marriage, divorce, retirement) various personality traits (e.g., conscientiousness,

openness, and neuroticism particularly for women) change begin to change throughout

the adult life span.

Ebstrup et al. (2011) investigated the relationship between the five-factor model

and perceived stress, and the role of self-efficacy as moderator between the two variables.

In a cross-sectional design, Ebstrup et al. utilized a random sample of 3,471 Danish

citizens selected from the Danish Central Personal Register. Pearson r correlation

analysis was used to measure all data. The results indicated that there was a positive

relationship between perceived stress and low extroversion, conscientiousness,

agreeableness and specifically, neuroticism. However, openness was hypothesized to

have a relationship, but there was no relationship. Consequently, it was found that general

self-efficacy moderated the relationship between perceived stress and consciousness,

extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, but with the acceptation of openness.

Similarly, Törnroos et al. (2013) investigated the relationship between the five-

factor model of personalities and perceived job strain (e.g., stress), investigating a sample

of 1,372 random full time employees using the demand-control model.

The demand control-model prescribes to the premise that (Törnroos et al., 2013):

Work stress originates when the demands an employees faces are high, but the

decision latitude is low. The demands of work are thought to be the stressors,

while the decision latitude component is thought to either alleviate or prolong

stressful situation. (p. 493)

In this way, demand-control model will be made up of two components, that is,

(psychological) work demands and job control, what is known as decision latitude.

Psychological demands are defined as, “workload demands, time pressures, and conflicts

in the workplace” (Sutin & Costa, Jr., 2010, p.260). Job control is composed of two

factors, which include (Törnroos et al., 2013):

1. Control over task performance (e.g., pace and repetitiveness)

2. Skill discretion (e.g., control over the use of skills) (p. 493).

Meanwhile, the study utilized a sample of 1,372 Finnish full time employees working

various job positions. A correlational analysis was used to measure all data. The results

indicated that there was a positive relationship between high neuroticism and higher

perceived job strain, whereas employees high in consciousness, agreeableness,

extraversion, and openness were associated with lower perceived job strain. However,

employees who were high in consciousness, agreeableness, extraversion, and openness

were found to have lower job demand and job control. According to Törnroos et al., when

the four other personality traits were controlled, agreeableness was found to have a higher

relationship with job strain, which resulted in higher perceived job demand and lower

perceived job control. These results were partially consistent with a study by Grant and

Langan (2007), who investigated the relationship between five-factor model personalities

and psychological strain, in a sample of 311 managers. Their findings indicated that

agreeableness and openness were unrelated to job strain using the stressor-strain model.

Grant and Langan further substantiated the relationship of neuroticism, extraversion, and

consciousness as being related to perceived psychological job strain, which was

consistent with Törnroos et al. findings. Incidentally, there was no association between

men and women personality and perceived job strain (Tornroos et al., 2013).

Current studies have substantiated that burnout is a by-product of emotional

dissonance resulting from a persistent psychological strain caused from a conflict

between emotional job demands (e.g., police officer are required to be calm and neutral

with all citizens and criminals) and suppressing felt emotions (Bakker & Heuven, 2006;

Cheung & Cheung, 2013; Kovács, Kovács, & Hegedűs, 2010). To further understand the

relationship between burnout and emotional dissonance, it is proposed by Armon,

Shirom, and Melamed (2012) and Hurt, Grist, Maleski Jr., McCord (2013), and Morgan

and de Bruin (2010) that personality can determine how individuals regulate their level of

burnout.

Morgan and de Bruin (2010) posited there would be a relationship between

personality, that is, five-factor model and burnout. They used a survey research design to

examine a sample of 297 South African college students. Using a correlational research

analysis, the results indicated that neuroticism had a significant relationship with both

emotional exhaustion and cynicism, but there was no relationship with professional

efficacy. Both consciousness and extraversion had positive negative relationships with

both emotional exhaustion and cynicism, but had positive correlations with professional

efficacy. Agreeableness was found to have positive relationship with professional

efficacy; however, there was no relationship with emotional exhaustion, but there was a

positive negative correlation with cynicism. As for openness, only a relationship was

found with professional efficacy.

In a longitudinal study, Armon et al. (2012) investigated the relationship of five-

factor model personalities (i.e., neuroticism and consciousness) and burnout, using the

Shirom-Melamed Burnout Measure (e.g., physical fatigue, emotional exhaustion,

cognitive weariness) among a sample of 1,105 healthy employees that were controlled for

chronic diseases and anti-depressive medications. The results indicated a significant

relationship between neuroticism and emotional exhaustion; however, there was no

relationship with physical fatigue and cognitive weariness. Consequently,

conscientiousness was also found to have no relationship with cognitive weariness, yet

there was an association with emotional exhaustion. Hurt, Grist, Maleski Jr., McCord

(2013) also revealed that conscientiousness was related to exhaustion. Meanwhile, there

was no relationship between agreeableness and emotional exhaustion, but there was a

positive association with physical fatigue and cognitive weariness.

Both extraversion and openness were found to have no association measuring burnout

with Shirom-Melamed Burnout Measure. However, extraversion was found to have

positive negative correlations with exhaustion and cynicism, and a positive correlation

with professional efficacy when measured with the Maslach Burnout Inventory (e.g. Hurt

et al., 2013; Morgan & de Bruin, 2010).

Hurt et al. (2013) also investigated burnout, but they used the Maslach Burnout

Inventory to measure burnout (e.g., exhaustions, cynicism, professional efficacy) in order

determine if personality (five-factor model) attributed to burnout in (ABA) applied

behavior analyst therapist. One hundred and thirteen ABA therapists were examined

using a correlational research design. The results showed that neuroticism was associated

with all three levels (exhaustions, cynicism, professional efficacy) of burnout. It was also

found that both extraversion and consciousness had significant negative relationships

with exhaustion and cynicism, and positive relationship with professional efficacy. These

findings suggest that ABA therapist high in extraversion and conscientiousness

experience higher levels of exhaustion and cynicism. Morgan and de Bruin (2010) who

also used the Maslach Burnout Inventory to measure burnout showed that extroversion

had negative correlations with emotional exhaustion and cynicism, but had a positive

correlation with professional efficacy. Meanwhile, Hurt et al. reported that agreeableness

was found to have a positive negative association with exhaustion and cynicism; instead

these two burnout levels were related to agreeableness. Conversely, Armon et al.

substantiated that agreeableness and exhaustion had no relationship. The findings

indicated there might be a discrepancy between Hurt et al. and Armon et al. results do to

the use of two different burnout measures, e.g., Maslach Burnout Inventory and Shirom-

Melamed Burnout Measure. As for openness, it was not examined due to the

inconsistency of research finding confirming a relationship with burnout (Armon et al.,

2012; Hurt et al. 2013; Morgan & De Bruin, 2010). However, Morgan and de Bruin

(2010) did substantiate a correlation between openness and professional efficacy.

The aforementioned findings have provided substantial evidence that various

personality traits from the five-factor model contribute to level of burnout experienced by

college students and ABA therapist. These findings have further provided connection

between negative emotional factors (e.g. negative affectivity, negative emotions, stress

and/or strain) such as burnout (e.g. negative affectivity, negative emotions, stress and/or

strain) that contribute emotional dissonance. Thus, supporting the premise that the

influence or degree of the five-factor model personality traits will act as predictors of

emotional dissonance among police officers.

Zillig, Hemenover, and Dienstbier (2002) investigated the five-factor model of

personalities (e.g., neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, consciousness)

and their level of effect as affective, behavioral, and cognitive. The study utilized a

personality inventory sample that consisted of four different personality instrument

measures (e.g., NEO-PI-R, ATD, ISAR-B5, BFI), and the addition of two subset

inventories (NEO-FFI/ short-version of the NEO-PI-R and ATD Mini) in order to

increase the generalizability of the 476-item personality sample inventory. A factorial

analysis was used to measure the results for ABC components between each Big-Five

personality trait and inventories. The results for behavior ratings indicated a positive

effect with personality traits. For example, with the use of Tukey’s HSD consciousness

(following extraversion and agreeableness) had the greatest link with behavior whereas

openness and neuroticism had the least amount of association with behavior. Cognitive

ratings between inventories indicated a significant effect, particularly with openness as a

main indicator of cognitive processes; however, extraversion and extraversion had the

least association. Affective ratings indicated a significant effect of between inventories

and personality traits that substantiated neuroticism with the highest relationship among

affectivity across inventories; however, consciousness had the least association with

affectivity. Further, the findings concluded that NEO personality inventories, that is,

NEO-PI-R and NEO-FFI, which will be used for this current study, were designed with

more of emphasis on affective traits than the other inventories. For example, Zillig et al.

stated:

The NEO inventories diverged from others in their inclusion of a substantial

(35%) affective component. In fact, the NEO inventories emphasize affect

somewhat over behavior, whereas the other inventories give a slight precedence to

behavior over affect. (p. 855)

The current literature has provided support that personality (various five-factor

model personality traits) is related to stress and emotional factors, specifically, negative

affectivity, negative emotions, stress or/and strain, negative emotions (Ebstrup et al.,

2011; Kehoe et al., 2012; Soric et al., 2013; Törnroos et al. (2013). The use of the five-

factor model personality traits as theorized by McCrae and Costa (2010) and McCrae and

John (1992) revealed that various personality traits have been associated with various

emotional factors. Furthermore, with the edition of the NEO-Five-Factory Inventory

(NEO-FFI) conceptualized by McCrae and Costa, a study by Zillig, Hemenover, and

Dienstbier (2002) compared various personality inventories, e.g., NEO-PI-R, ATD,

ISAR-B5, and BFI. The findings indicated that both the NEO- FFI and NEO-PI-R had a

stronger affect in measuring affectivity than, behavior because they were designed

specifically with the intent to measure affective traits. Therefore, based on empirical

support from the aforementioned findings, on the five-factor model traits and emotional

factors, there is sufficient evidence supporting that the five-factor model personalities

will determine the level of emotional dissonance among police officers.

Five-factor model measure. This current dissertation study has investigated how

the five-factor model personality traits predict emotional dissonance among police

officers. Further, based on McCrae and Costa’s (2010) conceptualization of the five-

factor model, they created the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) to measure the five

hierarchical personality traits e.g., neuroticism, extraversion, openness, consciousness,

and agreeableness. Each of the personality traits is measured through the process of

analyzing 30 sub-traits (dispositional adjectives, e.g., active, forgiving, worrying, etc.)

that make five-factor model personality traits. The NEO-FFI is the short version of the

NEO-PR-R, which is one of the most highly, used personality inventories because it has

been substantiated to have reliability and validity across cultures and languages (e.g.,

McCrae, R. R., McCrae &Terracciano, 2005 ). The NEO-FFI has also become highly

used as a measure of the five-factor model because it has been substantiated to show

practicability and reliability even though it does not measure all facets of personality

(Körner, Czajkowska, Albani, Drapeau, Geyer, & Braehler, 2015). The NEO-FFI

contains 60 items on a 5-point Likert scale. Further, the participants will be asked a series

of statements that will be measured from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)

(McCrae & Costa, 2010). Because the psychometric properties of the NEO-FFI have

shown robustness across many studies, it will contribute proving if the five-factor model

as predictor of emotional dissonance among police officers.

For example, PilÁrik and SarmÁny-Schuller (2011) used the NEO-FFI to

examine the relationship between the “Big Five” personality traits and decision-making

among in a sample of 92 paramedics. The participants were given a computer simulation

card game that required participants to select cards, and if they failed to make the right

decision when selecting cards, they either received a reward or punishment. According to

PilÁrik et al., the card simulation was designed to create risk decision-making.

Meanwhile, a correlational design was used to test the relationship between the variables,

which were analyzed using a linear regression analysis. The results yielded a significant

positive relationship of women having lower emotional variability (e.g., neuroticism and

extraversion) than men that resulted to a decline in decision-making during stressful

situations. PilÁrik and SarmÁny-Schuller report that signs of poor decision making

during stressful situations can be identified from increased procrastination and

hypervigilance. Therefore, the use of the NEO-FFI in PilÁrik and SarmÁny-Schuller

study, has provided as evidence on the validity of this measure in order to support the

usefulness of the NEO-FFI for this current dissertation that will examine the relationship

the five-factor model personality traits and emotional dissonance, among police officers.

Hetland, Saksvik, Albertsen, Berntsen, and Henriksen (2012) utilized the NEO-

FFI to examine the relationship between the five-model personality traits and over-

commitment in a sample of 256 college students from the University of Norway. Hetland

et al. posited that by identifying personality traits that are associated with over

commitment, organizations learn how future employees, that is, college student’s

transition into the work place. The results indicated that neuroticism, agreeableness, and

consciousness were related to over-commitment. Consequently, openness was found to

have a negative relationship with over-commitment, but when the other traits were added,

there was a significant relationship. Finally, there was no relationship between

agreeableness and over-commitment. Hetland et al. study also the robustness of the NEO

Five-Factor Inventory as robust measure for measuring the five-factor model

personalities, which further support the robustness of the five-factor model.

The NEO-FFI was selected for this study because it will be easier for police

officers take, and less time consuming than NEO-PI-R that has 240 questions, as

compared to the NEO-FFI that has 60 items. The NEO-FFI psychometric instrument is

line with the theoretical foundation (e.g. McCrae & Costa, 2010; McCrae & John, 1992),

that is, the five-factor model to analyze the data for this dissertation study. Other studies

have utilized the NEO-FFI to measure the five-factor model personality traits, based on

McCrae and Costa (2010) and McCrae and John (1992) conceptualization of the five-

factor model. For example, Saksvik and Hetland (2011) used the NEO-FFI to examine

the role of personality and stress factors to learn their relationship across various

vocational types (e.g., artistic, social, enterprising, conventional, artistic, investigative,

realistic). This study is closely related to this current dissertation study because Saksvik

and Hetland also used the five-factor model to determine its association with emotional

stress factors. Meanwhile, the results from Saksvik and Hetland research predicted a

positive relationship between neuroticism and openness, and their relationship with

distress and vocational types. Openness neuroticism (openness) and distress were both

associated with realistic and investigative vocations. Conversely, extraversion,

agreeableness, and consciousness had negative associations with distress and vocational

types. Consequently, there were significant positive associations between personality

types and specific vocational types. For example, extraversion had a significant

relationship with social and conventional vocations. Openness also had a significant

relationship with realistic and social vocations. Further, agreeableness had a significant

relationship with investigative and conventional vocations. Neuroticism had a significant

positive relationship with (1) realistic, (2) investigative, (3) artistic, and (4) enterprising.

These finding have established the robustness of the NEO-FFI as an effective

psychometric instrument for measuring five-factor model personalities. For this reason,

the NEO-FFI will be used for the psychometric instrument to measure the five-factor

model personalities in order to learn how personality predicts level of emotional

dissonance among police officers.

Emotional dissonance measure. The examination of this study involves

determining if personality (five-factor model) will act as a predictor of emotional

dissonance among police officers. In order to learn the outcome of the level emotional

dissonance based the personality type, the emotional labor scale conceptualized by

Andela, Truchot, and Borteyrou (2015a) will be used. Andela et al.’s (2015a)

conceptualization of emotional labor scale utilizes a 4-item sub-scale to measure

emotional dissonance using a 5-point Likert scale, e.g., never to always. The four item

questions are (Andela, 2015a, p.31):

1. The emotions that I feel in my job not correspond to these I would like to feel.

2. My work situation brings me to experience emotions at variance with those I would like to feel.

3. I experience a discrepancy between the emotions I express to be professional and what I feel.

4. The emotions I show in order to be professional are not in phase with my inner feelings.

The emotional dissonance subscale was designed to measure emotional

dissonance with an emphasis on display regulation process, e.g., surface and deep acting.

Andela et al. (2015a) indicates that some of the most frequently used emotional

dissonance sub-scales such as the FEWS and the DEELS does not measure surface and

deep acting. Andela et al. (2015a) further indicates that FEWS does not measure either

surface or deep acting whereas the DEEL instrument measures surface acting, but does

not measure deep acting when measuring emotional dissonance. The DEEL instrument

was used in a similar study by Diamond who also examined the relationship between

personality and emotional dissonance among debt collectors. Consequently, this current

dissertation study will provide a different perspective when measuring emotional

dissonance using Andela’s et al. (2015a) emotional dissonance scale; which is designed

to measure both surface and deep acting. Andela et al. (2015a) also stated that each item

for measuring emotional dissonance has been designed with an emphasis, “…only on the

feeling of discrepancy.” (p.325). Furthermore, all participants will be required to answer

only 4 items on Andela’s et al. (2015a) emotional-dissonance sub-scale. Therefore,

Andela’s et al. (2015a) emotional labor psychometric instruments use will provide as a

great tool for measuring emotional dissonance according to Hochschild’s (1983) theory

on emotional labor where the expression of emotions is preformed through the process of

emotional regulation strategies such as surface and deep acting.

Andela’s et al. (2015a) emotional labor scale is new scale designed to measure the

limitations of other emotional labor and emotional dissonance scales. Andela’s et al.

(2015a) scale on emotional dissonance yielded a Cronbach alpha reliability of (.81).

Consequently, this emotional dissonance sub-scale has been used in a few studies

including its conceptualization in Andela’s et al. (2015a) study; thus, providing reliability

and validity.

Andela et al. (2015a) designed the emotional labor scale in order to provide a new

emotional labor scale, in order to address the shortcomings (that is, conceptualization and

operationalization) of other emotional labor scales that measured emotional labor and

emotional dissonance. The study set out to examine the relationship between emotional

labor and health outcomes associated with burnout, in a sample of 688 health care

professional (e.g., nursing assistants, nurses, social workers, doctors) working in France.

Burnout was measured using Maslach Burnout inventory (MBI), which measures

emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and self-efficacy, or personal accomplishments.

Utilizing an exploratory factor analysis, the results indicated the emotional labor scale

having construct validity.

The results further indicated that there was a positive relationship between

emotional dissonance and burnout, that is, emotional exhaustion and cynicism, but had no

association with self-efficacy. These findings will help strengthen the validity and utility

of the use of Andela’s et al. (2015a) emotional dissonance sub-scale when measuring

emotional dissonance among police officer.

To further substantiate the validity and utility of the emotional dissonance sub-

scale used in Andela et al. (2015a), emotional labor scale, Andela, Truchot, and Van der

Doef (2015b) conducted another study examining the relationship between job stressors

(e.g., workload, patient and relative requirements, patient suffering, team collaboration

problems) and burnout among sample of 455 nurses and health care assistance. This

study also used Maslach Burnout inventory (MBI) to measure burnout, and job stressors

were measured using the WSNIO that was specifically designed for examining work

problems associated with oncology nurses. The results showed that emotional dissonance

had a significant relationship with burnout. It was further substantiated that there was

significant associations between emotional dissonance and job stressors, workload,

patient suffering, and team collaboration. However, there was no relationship found

between emotional dissonance and patient and relative requirements. These results

further proved that Andela’s et al. emotional dissonance sub-scale will help strengthen

the validity and utility of using this measure-to-measure emotional dissonance among

police officers.

Summary

The review of empirical research highlighted the various models and theories

supporting the implications of this study in order to learn if there is a significant

relationship between personality (e.g., five-factor model) and emotional dissonance

among police officers working street patrol. First, the literature review revealed that there

was a significant association between personality and role-conflict. The strong

association between personality and role-conflict was significant to this study, for Wu

(2009) confirmed in their study that police officers for go various types of role-conflict

(person-to role conflict, inter-sender, intra-sender) that presents a similar conflict

experience in emotional dissonance. Khan et al. (1964) and Rafaeli and Sutton (1987)

indicated that this form of role-conflict is a result of employees battling to express their

personal interest in order to meet the role expectations (display rules) expected by the

organization.

Furthermore, in reviewing the literature, various five-factor model personality

traits, that is, neuroticism, agreeableness, consciousness, and extraversion had a

significant relationship and/or effect on role-conflict, workload, and burnout (Taylor &

Kluemper, 2012). Additionally, the literature also revealed that besides five-factor model

personality traits, (high and low) proactive personalities acted as a moderator on high role

conflict associated with work-related anxieties in middle management (Hang et al.,

2014). These findings will further support Kahn et al.’s (1964) classic study that role-

conflict is influenced by specific personality traits. Thus, supporting Raefaeli and Sutton

(1987) and Abrahams (1998) implications that emotional dissonance is a form of person

role-conflict. Further review of the literature suggests that five-factor model personalities

will predict levels of emotional dissonance among police officers. After reviewing the

literature, the literature provided strong support that various factors (e.g., role conflict,

negative affectivity, stress, negative and positive emotions) were associated with

personality (Kehoe et al., 2012; PilÁrik & SarmÁny-Schuller (2011) Sorić et al., 2013;

Taylor & Kluemper, 2012). These variables were examined because the objective of the

study was to link personality with emotional dissonance in order to learn if five-factor

model personalities would predict the level emotional dissonance experienced among

police officers. According to the literature role-conflict, stress, and negative emotions

have been found to be the influencing elements that cause emotional dissonance,

particularly among police officers (e.g., Abraham, 1998; Bakker & Heuven, 2006; Van

Gelderen et al., 2011).

In response to Diamond’s study on five-factor model personalities, other

personality traits maybe related to the level of emotional dissonance experienced among

police officers in face-to-face interactions. The literature provided information that

neuroticism (as a defined by the five-factor model, and not its facet, anger) will be more

associated with the antecedents of emotional dissonance, that is, stress and negative

emotions (Sorić et al., 2013; Ebstrup et al., 2011; Törnroos et al., 2013). However, the

literature revealed that individuals high in extraversion, agreeableness, consciousness and

openness had lower workplace stress (Törnroos et al., 2013). Törnroos et al. also

indicated that when using the stressor-strain model, agreeableness and openness had the

lowest association with job strain. Bakker and Heuven (2006) reported that police officer

main source of workplace burnout that leads to emotional dissonance is chronic

emotional strain caused by daily interactions with citizens.

Consequently, negative affectivity was examined because negative emotions and

stress are the by-product or precursor of negative affectivity. Abraham (1998; 1999a)

verified in their study that negative affectivity (closely related to neuroticism) was found

to have a significant relationship with emotional dissonance among service industry

employees. To further understand negative affectivity, the literature provided further

evidence that some five-factor model personalities were associated negative affectivity.

Komulainen et al. (2014) and Zanon, Bastianello et al. (2013) Steel, Schmidt, and Shultz

(2008) showed positive correlations between personality and neuroticism,

conscientiousness and agreeableness; however, extraversion and openness had the lowest

correlations. Furthermore, research finding consistently substantiated that openness had

no relationship with negative affectivity. Conversely, Zanon et al. (2013) suggested that

the reason for the possible negative results between openness and negative affectivity,

maybe due to the premise that individuals high in openness may have lower negative

affect because these individual are adventure seeking (may reduce boredom) and often

find new ways of thinking (free thinkers), which is associated with greater freedom of

autonomy. As a result, individuals high in openness, according to Zanon will have greater

life satisfaction, in this way, reducing the adverse effects of negative affectivity.

The review of the literature has helped establish empirical support using theories

and models in order to provide evidence to determine if personalities (five-factor model)

predict the level of emotional dissonance among police officers. Through the use of

current literature role-conflict has been found to be associated with various five-factor

model personality traits. These findings will help link emotional dissonance to

personality because emotional dissonance has been posited to be form of role conflict

(Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). It was further confirmed that negative affectivity, negative

emotions, and workplace stress and/or strain have all been found to be associated with

various five-factor model personality traits. Therefore, the findings from this dissertation

study have help further advance the body knowledge in emotional dissonance and five-

factor model research by examining the relationship between personality (five-factor

model) and the level of emotional dissonance experienced among police officers.

In order to examine how five-factor model personalities predict emotional

dissonance among police officers; Chapter 3 describes in detail the methodology to

analyze the multiple variables. The methodology section encompassed: basis for the

methodology, research question, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis methods,

limitations of the study, and future studies.

Chapter 3: Methodology

Introduction

The literature reviewed in Chapter 2 provided information that there is a need to

further examine if the five-factor model was an indicator emotional dissonance among

police officers. It is not known how or to what extent five-factor model predicts

emotional dissonance experienced by police officers. The design of this study was a

quantitative methodology, in which a positivism approach was used to determine if there

is a correlation between the five-factor model personalities and emotional dissonance.

Understanding the relationship between five-factor model and emotional

dissonance was vital in learning how individual personality among police officers may

contribute to the emotional stress factors associated with emotional dissonance. Because

the mass of research on emotional dissonance has strictly addressed stressor factors (e.g.,

burnout and wellbeing, e.g., physical and psychological) that have been a result of an

emotional conflict (i.e., psychological strain) experienced by employees to perform

required organizational display rules, which come into conflict with their genuine felt

emotions (e.g., Bakker & Heuven, 2006; Cheung & Cheung, 2013; Cheung & Tang,

2012; Cheung & Tang, 2012; Diesel & Schmidt, 2011; Pugh, Groth, & Hennig-Thurau,

2011; Mishra & Bhatnagar, 2010; Kovács, Kovács, & Hegedűs, 2010). Hence, for the

purpose of this study a correlational research design was selected on the basis of

determining if, and how, five-factor model acts as a predictor of the level of emotional

dissonance experienced among police officers.

Finally, the use of chapter was used to highlight the various sections of this

research such as statement of the problem, research question and hypotheses, population

and sample, variables and measures, validity and reliability, data collection and analysis,

and ethical considerations. Based on the research question, a correlational research design

was best suited for determining the relationship between five-factor personalities and

emotional dissonance.

Statement of the Problem

Due to an exhaustive search of emotional dissonance literature there has been

minimal, if any, research linking personality traits (e.g., five factor model) as predictors

of emotional dissonance on police officers. It is not known how or to what extent a

relationship existed between five-factor model and emotional dissonance experienced by

police officers. Furthermore, the mass of research on emotional dissonance has strictly

addressed stressor factors (burnout, e.g., emotional exhaustion, depersonalization,

cynicism) that have been found to be responsible for stress contributed from felt

emotions, which are in conflict with organizational display rules (e.g., Bakker & Heuven,

2006; Cheung & Cheung, 2013; Cheung & Tang, 2012; 2007; Diesel & Schmidt, 2011;

Pugh, Groth, & Hennig-Thurau, 2011; Mishra & Bhatnagar, 2010; Kovács, Kovács, &

Hegedűs, 2010). Consequently, there is no research examining the relationship of five-

factor model and emotional dissonance experienced by police officers. However, in a

dissertation study by Diamond (2005) she analyzed the relationship of personality as an

antecedent of emotional dissonance in debt collectors. Therefore, the purpose of this

study was to learn if the five-factor model is a predictor of emotional dissonance in police

officers.

Research Question and Hypotheses

The objective of this study was to learn, if any and to what degree, do the five

factor model personality traits contribute to emotional dissonance experienced among

police officer. Therefore, for the purpose of this study, the below research questions and

hypotheses guided this study:

R1: What influence, if any and to what degree, do the 5 Factor Model personality

traits contribute to emotional dissonance experienced among police officers?

H0: Police officers scores in Five-Factor Model of personality will show no

correlation with differences in scores in emotional dissonance.

H1: Police officers high in neuroticism will show a proportional correlation with

scores in emotional dissonance.

H2: Police officers high in agreeableness will show an inverse correlation with their

scores in emotional dissonance.

H3: Police officers high in conscientiousness will show an inverse correlation with

their scores in emotional dissonance.

H4: Police officers high in extraversion will show a proportional correlation with their

scores in emotional dissonance.

H5: Police officers high in openness to experience will show a proportional

correlation with their scores in emotional dissonance.

The use of a correlational research design was selected to answer the research

question and hypotheses that are linked to the relationship between five-factor model and

emotional dissonance. In order to answer each research question, emotional dissonance

was measured using a scale specifically designed to measure emotional dissonance in

police officers, and the five-factor model of personalities were measured using the NEO

Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). To examine the relationship between five-factor model

and emotional dissonance, the Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used. The second

statistical analysis used was a multiple regression analysis, selected to measure all five-

factor model personalities and their relationship as a whole with emotional dissonance;

including, demographic variables: gender, age rank, and tenure.

Research Methodology

The following research was a quantitative correlative study of police officers to

examine the relationship between the five-factor personality model and emotional

dissonance among police officers. The justification for selecting a quantitative study over

a qualitative or mixed-methods study is because this study investigated the correlation

between variables. The use of a qualitative research design was not selected because of

several factors. Landrum and Garza (2015) indicated that qualitative research uses non-

numerical framework that examines phenomenon’s using dimension and magnitudes

(e.g., phenomenological, ethnography, narrative approaches, ground theory) to

understand the human experience. Research has suggested that because qualitative

research does not use traditional positivism approach that prescribes to quantitative

analysis, qualitative research lacks empirical proof (Gelo, Braakmann, & Benetka, 2008).

However, qualitative research has its strengths (e.g., triangulation methods) by providing

a more in-depth outlook of the human experience and/or descriptive accounts, whereas

quantitative research design uses aggregate data to explain a phenomenon (Gelo,

Braakmann, & Benetka, 2008).

Therefore, a quantitative research methodology was the best approach for

answering the research question, which proposes the five-factor model, will act as a

predictor of emotional dissonance experienced among police officers. Finally, mixed-

methods research approach was not used because the goal of this correlational study is to

determine a relationship between criterion and predictor variables. Once a relationship is

determined, a predictive direction will be learned (e.g., Rumrill, 2004), which provided

valuable data. Further, the data learned contributed to using other approaches (e.g., mixed

methods experimental and qualitative research designs) in future studies in order to learn

a cause and effect, and the individual perspective on personality on personality (five-

factor model) and emotional dissonance.

Research Design

The following research is a quantitative correlative study of police officers to

examine the relationship between the five-factor personality model and emotional

dissonance among police officers. Rumrill (2004) reported that the correlational research

design is commonly used in research in order to examine how much variation (e.g.,

coefficient of variation) is associated between independent and dependent variables.

Therefore, purpose of the correlational research design was to analyze the relationship

between the five-factor model personalities as predictor’s of emotional dissonance among

police officers.

A non-experimental (correlational study) study was chosen to determine the

correlation between criterion and predictor variables, which helped learn the relationship

between the five-factor model and emotional dissonance among police officers.

Correlational study offered the benefits of using aggregate data to highlight the variation

between the criterion and predictor variables. Further, quantitative studies provide the use

of various statistical analyses that use descriptive statistics to analyze data (Bordens &

Abbott, 2011). Furthermore, numerous empirical studies (e.g., Cheung & Cheung, 2013;

Hosie, Gilbert et al., 2014; Jones & Woods, & Hutchinson, 2014) have used correlational

analysis to examine the relationship of emotional dissonance and five-factor model

variables.

An experimental study was not selected for this study because the objective of

this study was to learn if a correlational relationship exists between five-factor model

personalities and emotional dissonance. Further, experimental research design does have

strengths that a correlational research design does not have such as providing a higher

level of control over research variables (Bordens & Abbott, 2011). Experimental research

designs use manipulation of data, random selection, experimental and control groups

(control extraneous variables), and stronger statistic analysis in order to determine a

causal relationship. In order to determine a causal relationship the presents of another

variable indirectly or directly affects another variable (Bordens & Abbott, 2011).

Conversely, this current dissertation study has set out to learn if there is a correlational

relationship in order to learn if the changes in one variable (e.g., five-factor model

personalities) enact changes in another variable (e.g., emotional dissonance in police

officers). The NEO Five-Factory inventory (McCrae & Costa, 2010) and Andela,

Truchot, and Borteyrou, (2015a) emotional dissonance subscale was used as the

psychometric instruments to obtain participant responses for this study. Each participant

had access to each measure on a secure online website. To examine all data collected,

psychometric instruments were utilized to provide information on each participant in

order to learn if police officers’ personalities (five-factor model) would be a predictor of

emotional dissonance. Furthermore, the selected psychometric instruments utilized scaled

measures to acquire numerical data that will be analyzed and described using descriptive

statistics, tables and graphs, to either prove or disapprove the null hypotheses. It was also

substantiated through the use of other empirical studies both psychometric have shown

strong reliability and validity. Landrum and Garza (2015) indicated that data has to be

deduced to aggregate data in order to conduct statistical analyses. According Landrum

and Garza (2015), the main objectives of quantitative research design is to highlight:

counting occurrences, volumes, or the difference in sizes between variables. For these

reasons, the Pearson r correlation and multivariate statistical analysis was used to

measure ordinal data in order to determine the relationship between five-factor model

personalities and emotional dissonance among police officers.

Utilizing a correlational design has specifically help identify if there is a

relationship between five-factor model and emotional dissonance among police officers.

According to Rumrill (2004) the use of correlational design does not provide a cause and

effect, but provides information to the researcher the relationship between predictor and

criterion variable. Rumrill (2004) reported that when determining relationships between

variables, correlational research designs typically do not rely on the process of

manipulating variables, which is commonly done in experimental research. Furthermore,

a correlational research design will help determine the level of variation criterion and

predictor variable (Rumrill, 2004). When determining a positive or negative relationship

for correlational analysis, correlations closet to 0 will represent a negative relationship

whereas the closer the correlation is to 1, the correlation will represents a positive

relationship (Rumrill, 2004). Therefore, the correlation can consist of a positive or

negative relationship. Finally, evidence was established why correlational research design

would serve as the most appropriate research design to examine the relationship between

five-factor model personalities emotional dissonance. Keiss and Green (2010) indicate

that variables that are deemed as characteristics or attributes are defined as subject

variables, e.g., anxiety level, personality, age and gender. Thus, because both variables in

this study would be considered subject variables, a Pearson correlation coefficient

analysis will be suited for analyzing the relationship between five-factor model of

personalities and emotional dissonance.

Population and Sample Selection

The following research is a quantitative correlative study of police officers that

examined the relationship between the five-factor personality model and emotional

dissonance among police officers. The sample selected for this study consisted of police

officers that work for the Detroit Police Department, which is the largest police

department in Michigan. The target participants for this study were street patrol officers.

The sample was selected to investigate the relationship between personality (e.g., five-

factor model) and emotional dissonance. To investigate this gap in emotional dissonance

research, a correlational research design was used to examine 1000 Detroit area police,

working street patrol. Furthermore, the process in selecting the participants from the

sample of 1000, a purposive sampling (type, homogenous sample) was used to select 138

police officers working street patrol. A purposive sample can be used in both quantitative

and qualitative research, which prescribes to the non-random selection process, which

participants are selected based on their unique and similar (e.g., homogenous)

characteristics such as occupation (street patrol officers, e.g., often have emotional

charged encounters with violent and non-violent criminals, and victims of crimes) and/or

personality traits (Kachurik, Ruiz, & Staub, 2013; Robinson, 2014). The information

obtained from the population of Detroit Police Officers will provide additional

information on demographical variables, e.g., gender, race, educational level, and tenure

as police officer. Police officers working street patrol were informed about the details of

this current study via Detroit Police Department memorandums and intranet, and

unofficial fliers that were posted throughout the Detroit Police Department.

Before the research could be conducted, permission was obtained from the Chief

of the Detroit Police Department and Detroit Police Officers Association. In addition, the

Institutional Review Board (IRB) granted approval before the study was conducted. After

IRB approval, research participants were selected on voluntary bases where they were

notified through the Detroit Police Department intranet. Each participant was sent emails

explaining the details of the study, and the hyper link to the secure website

(SurveyMonkey) that explains the research objectives and confidentiality. All research

participants were informed in the emails that before taking survey questionnaires, they

would be required to take the surveys in a secure and comfortable location, preferably,

not in the presence of other participants. Informed consent disclaimers will be uploaded

to SurveyMonkey’s site, which will state that implied consent is given if participants

continue to the survey section on the website. In addition, it was explained that all

participant identities would remain anonymous, and at anytime they could drop out of the

study.

There has been much dilemma about sample size; particularly how sample size

dictates effect size (Marszalek, Barber, Kohlhart, & Holmes, 2011). Marszalek, Barber,

Kohlhart, & Holmes (2011) examined in their study sample sizes in psychological studies

over 30 years, as a whole (all sub-fields psychological research) in psychological

research have not been large samples sizes, but instead the sample sizes were smaller,

ranging from 32 to 60 in size. Furthermore, McShane and Böckenholt (2016) indicate

that the size of the sample has a direct effect in the level of power for obtaining effect

size of at least 80% or higher. According to McShane and Bökenholt report that

determining effect size is, “…difficult to implement in practice because ‘we never know

true power…because we do not know the true effect size” (p.1).

The total population of Detroit Police officers was 1000 (N= 1000), and the

sample was determined with Faul, Erdfelder, Burchner, and Langs (2009) G*Power,

analysis. The power analysis was composed of a two-tailed correlation analysis that has

effect size 0.3 (medium effect size) and power = 0.95, and confidence interval of 95%,

which all specified a sample size of 138 participants (Faul et al., 2009). Thus, providing a

sufficient statistical power for substantiating the results for this current dissertation study.

Marszalek et al. noted that the larger the sample size, the higher sample effect and

statistical power.

Instrumentation

The following research is a quantitative correlative study of police officers, to

examine the relationship between the five-factor personality model and emotional

dissonance among police officers. Data was collected using two psychometric

instruments, which are, Andela, Truchot, and Borteyrou’s (2015) emotional dissonance

sub-scale used from their emotional labor scale, and a copyrighted assessment tool named

the NEO Five-factor model inventory (McCrae & Costa, 2010).

Emotional dissonance psychometric survey. The study utilized Andela et al.

(2015a) emotional dissonance subscale to measure emotional dissonance in police

officers. Further, psychometric properties were evaluated by examining two previous

studies that showed strong validity and reliability (e.g., Andela, Truchot, and Borteyrou,

2015a; Andela, Truchot, & Margot Van der Doef, 2015b). Andela et al. (2015a)

emotional dissonance subscale has a 4-item, 5-point nominal Likert scale, e.g., strongly

agree to strongly disagree.

The questions for the four items are (Andela, 2015a, p.31):

1. The emotions that I feel in my job not correspond to these I would like to feel.

2. My work situation brings me to experience emotions at variance with those I would like to feel.

3. I experience a discrepancy between the emotions I express to be professional and what I feel.

4. The emotions I show in order to be professional are not in phase with my inner feelings.

The questions for Andela’s et al. (2015a) emotional dissonance subscale yielded a

Cronbach alpha level of. 81. Furthermore, some of the main qualities of Andela’s

emotional dissonance subscale is that (a) it measures both surface and deep acting (b)

place more of emphasis in measuring only feelings of discrepancy (c) and it provides a

different perspective, counter to the DEEL (does not measure surface and deep acting)

emotional dissonance subscale used in another dissertation by Diamond (2005), who also

examined the relationship between five-factor personalities and emotional dissonance.

NEO-five-factor inventory. The study also utilized the NEO-Five-Factor

Inventory (NEO-FFI), Version 3 (McCrae & Costa, 2010), to measure the five-factor

model personality traits (e.g., neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness,

extraversion, and openness) in police officers. The NEO-FFI was copyrighted by Parinc,

who gave explicit instruction that only three questions could be displayed on this

dissertation study; however, Parinc did give permission to use the NEO-FFI on

SurveyMonkey’s secure website, provided that there is a secure password. The NEO

Five-Factor Inventory utilized 60 items using a 5-point Likert nominal scales that ranged

from 0 ‘strongly disagree’ to 5 ‘strongly agree’ (Körner et al., 2015). The NEO-FFI

utilizes five specific sub-personality traits of each hierarchy personality trait (i.e.,

neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, and openness) to determine

an individual five-factor model personality trait. Three questions used in the NEO-FFI

are:

1. At times I have been so ashamed I just wanted to hide.

2. I really enjoy talking to people.

3. Some people think of me as cold and calculating.

The NEO Five-Factor Inventory yielded a Cronbach alpha level of 0.63 to 0.83. The

Cronbach alpha level for each five-factor model consists of: neuroticism (.81),

extraversion (.73), openness (.67), agreeableness (.75), and consciousness (.78) (Kröner

et al., 2015). Factors that make NEO-FFI valuable for this study are (a) five-factor mode

be used to describe a broad population, and (b) NEO-FFI has been used in many studies,

in this way, providing strong validity.

Validity

When selecting psychometric instruments for this study, construct and criterion

validity was a critical factor, in that, each instrument for this study should measure what

they were designed to measure. The first emotional dissonance instrument scale selected

was Andela, Truchot, and Van der Doef (2015) emotional dissonance sub-scale, in which

they maintain that construct validity was obtained through factor analysis. Construct and

criterion validity was further validated by another study conducted by Andela et al.

(2015b) where their emotional dissonance sub-scale showed a significant relationship of

emotional dissonance using emotional dissonance sub-scale. In obtaining criterion

validity, Andela et al. (2015a) setout in creating new criterion for measuring emotional

dissonance by comparing their emotional dissonance sub-scale criterion, with commonly

used emotional dissonance sub-scales such as the DEELS and FEWS. The assessment of

these two instruments caused Andela et al. (2015a) to come to the conclusion that

criterion for their scale would emphasize on surface and deep acting. This assessment

was due to the fact that FEWS did not measure neither surface nor deep acting as

criterion; in addition to, the DEELS did not include deep acting as a criterion. For these

reasons Andela (2015a) designed the emotional dissonance sub-scale to discern the

emotional conflict discrepancy from emotion regulation processes, e.g., surface and deep

acting. Therefore, the validation of this psychometric instrument has been substantiated

for this study, and Andela et al. (2015a) are confident on the construct and criterion-

related validity for this study. As previously mentioned, the Cronbach alpha level for the

emotional dissonance survey designed specifically for police officers yielded .81, which

validates the validity and internal consistencies of Andela et al. (2015a) emotional

dissonance subscale.

Regarding the NEO Five-Factory model, it has been heavily used in research that

has established validity, e.g., construct and criterion related validity. For example, Korner

et al. (2015), McCrae & John (1992), and McCrae and Costa (2010) provided detailed

information on the psychometrics and validity and reliability that show consistencies of

each personality trait through the Cronbach alpha level values. Even though the Cronbach

alpha is used for measuring internal consistency for reliability, states that reliability is

contingent on validity (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). Cronbach alpha levels for the NEO

Five-Factory Model Inventory ranged from 0.63 to 0.83; however, openness (.67) is the

only Cronbach alpha level below .70, which will not hurt the overall consistency of the

survey (McCrae & Costa, 2010; McCrae & John, 1992). Therefore, the validation of this

survey has been substantiated for this dissertation study, and this researcher is confident

on the validity (construct and criterion-related) for this study.

To control internal validity, a few demographic variables were tested in order to

reduce the effect of extraneous variables when testing participants. By testing for

demographic extraneous variables, the researcher has achieved internal consistency

between research participants that may vary from, for example, race or gender.

Consequently, external validity for this study was affected do to the lack of representation

of other police departments, in this way, making it difficult to generalize to the

population. Using a large metropolitan police department that has diverse population will

reduce some limitations of the external validity. In addition, because a non-probability

does not generalize to the population, this will also contribute to external validity issues.

Reliability

The use of psychometric survey instruments have to go through a rigorous inter-

rater reliability testing ensuring that measures have internal consistency throughout

survey responses from raters. This phenomenon is known as reliability, in which

reliability can be referred to as: test-retest reliability, alternate forms reliability, inter-rater

reliability, and internal consistency reliability (Bordens & Abbott, 2011). Crobach alpha

level measures for internal consistency reliability utilizing coefficient that uses

coefficient scores that can be rated from 0 (e.g., .10) to (e.g., .70) 1 expressing the level

of reliability (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). The minimum acceptable reliability score for

Crobach’s Alpha level is .70 (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). Therefore, for the purpose of

this study internal consistency reliability was tested for using Crobach’s alpha or

coefficient of reliability. To evaluate the reliability for Andela’s et al. (2015) emotional

dissonance sub-scale, the use of Cronbach’s alpha was utilized to measure for the internal

consistency. The internal consistency (inter-rater reliability) for this emotional dissonance

sub-scale yielded a Cronbach alpha level of .81when tested in both Andela et al. 2015a

and Andela et al. 2015b studies, which is above the reliability coefficient of .70. The final

instrument evaluated for reliability was the NEO Five-factory Inventory (McCrae &

Costa, 2010; McCrae & John, 1992), in which each of the five personalities yielded

Cronbach alpha levels that ranged from 0.63 to 0.83. The Cronbach scores for each

personality trait were: (.81), extraversion (.73), openness (.67), agreeableness (.75), and

consciousness (.78). Cronbach alpha revealed that all except one five-factor model

personality trait scored above 0.70, except agreeableness, which had a score of (.63). As

mention above, the Cronbach alpha for agreeableness would not affect the overall power

of the NEO Five-Factory model for internal consistency (McCrae & Costa, 2010:

McCrae & John, 1992). Finally, in discussing the reliability for both instruments,

Cronbach alpha level’s substantiated that each instrument would provide the necessary

strength providing reliability or internal consistency among survey responses.

Data Collection and Management

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Grand Canyon University and Detroit

Police Department granted their approvals before conducting the study. In addition, to

this process, participation letter request letter were sent to the Chief Police of the Detroit

Police Department, explaining the objectives of the study such as: purpose, benefits, risk,

time to complete the study, and contact information.

Once the approval letters were received, the participants were notified through

Detroit Police Department intranet, memorandums and unofficial fliers about

participating voluntarily in the study. The selection criteria for participation consisted of

the following: (a) a certified police officer of the State of Michigan, (b) only police

officers and Sergeants; executive officers are excluded (e.g., Lieutenants and Captains),

and (c) a minimum of 1-year experience working street patrol.

SurveyMonkey was responsible for collecting and storing all data, in which

participants were notified that implied consent was implied once each participant began

taking the surveys. In addition, all participants were informed that no names were used on

the surveys, in this way, keeping their identities anonymous. Furthermore, two

questionnaires (e.g., NEO-FFI and emotional dissonance psychometric instrument

designed Andela et al., 2015a) and demographic variables were downloaded to the

100

SurveyMonkey site. In addition, any participant who is not able to take the online

surveys will have the option to take the paper version of the survey tools.

Each participant was provided with request letters outlining the objectives of the

study, the goal of the survey, consent and confidentiality, and operating functions for

submitting the surveys anonymously. Informed consent disclaimers will be downloaded

to the SurveyMonkey site, which will infer implied consent if participants continue to

the survey section of the website. Time to complete the questionnaires will take each

participant approximately 10 to 15 minutes to complete, and much of the time will be

spent on the NEO-FFI because it is comprised of 60 questions, and Andela’s et al.

(2015a) emotional dissonance sub-scale will consists of 4 items. Further, each participant

was notified that the final date to take questionnaires would end after two weeks from the

first notification of the study. After the study began, a follow- up email was given after 7

days to encourage further participation. Therefore, the time goal allotted for collecting

data will be three weeks. The data collected from SurveyMonkey was secured on a

private link, provided with a secure password. The data collected by SurveyMonkey

was secured on a private link provided with a secure password. The researcher and

administrator (conducting data analysis) at SurveyMonkey can only retrieve access to

collected data on SurveyMonkey. Furthermore, all data was locked in private safe at the

researchers’ residence where the passcode is accessible to the researcher. The data was

held for three years, and then discarded by the researcher.

101

Data Analysis Procedures

The objective of the research questions was to determine if the five-factor model

personalities would or would not act as predictors of emotional dissonance among police

officers. More specifically, the goal of this research was to try to answer the research

questions in order to learn if each of the five-factor model personalities, e.g., neuroticism,

agreeableness, consciousness, openness, extraversion would be associated with the level

(low or high) of emotional dissonance experienced among police officers. For example,

the research question and hypothesis was:

What influence, if any and to what degree, do the 5 Factor Model personality traits

contribute to emotional dissonance experienced among police officers?

H10: Police officers scores in Five Factor Model of personality will show no

correlation with differences in scores in emotional dissonance.

H1a: Police officers high in neuroticism will show a proportional correlation with

scores in emotional dissonance.

H2b: Police officers high in agreeableness will show an inverse correlation with their

scores in emotional dissonance.

H3c: Police officers high in conscientiousness will show an inverse correlation with

their scores in emotional dissonance.

H4d: Police officers high in extraversion will show a proportional correlation with

their scores in emotional dissonance.

H5e: Police officers high in openness to experience will show a proportional

correlation with their scores in emotional dissonance.

102

To measure emotional dissonance, Andela et al. (2015a) emotional dissonance sub-scale

was used to measure the level of emotional dissonance demonstrated by police officers.

The 4-item survey scale measured emotional dissonance, that has four response choices:

1 = never to 5 = always strongly disagree. The calculations of the scores were calculated

by adding up sum of each item, in which a high score reflects an increase in emotional

dissonance.

The NEO-Five-Factor Inventory was used to measure five-factor model (McCrae

& Costa, 2010; McCrae and John, 1992) personalities. The five-factor model is

comprised of 60 items measured on the basis of 30 sub-traits that make up each of the

five hierarchical personality traits, e.g., neuroticism, agreeableness, consciousness,

openness, extraversion. Each item was measured using five-response choices: 1 (strongly

disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The calculations of the scores were calculated by adding

the sum of all items, in which a high score, scored for each, reflect increased emotional

dissonance.

The first step for conducting the data analysis consisted of collecting all survey

instruments from SurveyMonkey. Next, the surveys were checked for their

completeness and accuracy, all numerical data was computed into SPSS (version 21) in

order to conduct a descriptive, Pearson correlation coefficient and multi-regression

analysis on the independent and dependent variables. In addition, a missing value

analysis was conducted to identify missing values.

The second step consisted of a descriptive analysis that will be used to evaluate

the means, median, mode, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis used to evaluate

103

each of the predictor and criterion variables. The descriptive analysis provided a

summary analysis for demographic variables: age, gender, race, and tenure.

The third step of the data analysis; a correlational analysis was used to analyze the

relationship between emotional dissonance and each of the five personality variables

independently. A Pearson r Correlation was the method used to answer the research

question related to the relationship between each of the five-factor model personalities

and their relations to the level of emotional dissonance experienced among police

officers. Rumrill (2004) stated the use of correlational analysis provides an informed

analysis of the correlation coefficient between the independent (predictor) variable and

dependent (criterion) variable that indicates a linear relationship. Thus, for the purpose of

this study a Pearson r correlation was used to measure the relationship between each five-

factor model personality trait and emotional dissonance among police officers.

The results provided by the Pearson r correlation would either reflect a positive or

negative valence between each five-factor model personality trait and emotional

dissonance among police officers. The minimal level of significance for testing each

variable was a significance level of 5% or a p-value of 0.05 was utilized.

In the fourth step, a stepwise multiple-regression analysis was used to assess the

relationship as whole to rank the independent variables, as they relate in strength in

predicting emotional dissonance. A stepwise analysis was conducted to select the most

significant five-factor model personalities associated to emotional dissonance. For

instance, a stepwise analysis utilizes a model that uses a system that selects predictor

variables one at a time, which then, after a third variable is selected has the capability to

deselect independent variables if they do not have a significant level of (p ≤ .05) or

104

higher (Meyers, Gamst, & Gurarino, 2013). Therefore, for the purpose of the study, the

stepwise analysis added statistical power to the multi-regression analysis by only

selecting five-factor model personalities with a significant level lower than (p ≤ .05) to

assure that predictor variables are significant in predicting emotional dissonance.

In the fifth step of the data analysis, a multiple regression analysis was used to

measure both the relationship of five-factor model and emotional dissonance in addition,

to their relationship with demographic variables: age, gender, race, and tenure. Meyers,

Gamst, & Gurarino (2013) note that when examining multiple or dichotomous variables,

multiple regression analysis provides greater prediction of criterion variables than

correlational linear regression. By utilizing a multi-regression analysis, a full perspective

can be gained by examining multiple predictor variables in order to simultaneously

acquire the variances of each five-factor model personality trait and their relationship

with the emotional dissonance; in this way, identifying predictors for emotional

dissonance.

Finally, the multiple regression analysis provided data to tests for the multiple

assumptions (e.g., linearity, normality, homoscedasticity, independence) needed to

conduct the analyses, which are assumed to be independent of each other (Williams,

Gömez, Grajales, & Kurkiewicz, 2013).

Williams et al. (2013) reported that there can be numerous assumptions violations

that can cause various assumption violations; for example, (p.1):

 Biased estimates of relationships.

 Over or under-confident estimates of the precision of regression coefficient (i.e. biased standard errors).

 Untrustworthy confidence intervals and significance tests.

105

The assumption of normality assumes that there is a normal distribution between

criterion and predictor variables (Williams et al., 2013). The assumption of

homoscedasticity also assumes normality, but assumes that because one variable sample

has normal distribution, all other variables will also have a normal distribution (Bordens

& Abbott, 2011). Homoscedasticity can be identified through the process, “…plotting

standardized (or studentized) residuals against the predicted values of Y” (p.10).

The assumption of linearity assumes that continuously variables will have a linear

pattern (e.g., scatter plot) after being measured (Bordens & Abbott, 2011). The

assumption of independence assumes that all errors are independent, which can lead to

biased estimates of standard of errors and significance (Williams et al., 2013).

Finally, in presenting all data for interpretation, each of the results from the

Pearson r correlation and multi-regression analysis were presented visually using multiple

aggregate devices. The visual tools used to highlight the results consisted of descriptive

analysis, tables and graphs, correlation matrices, and regression tables. In order to answer

the research questions, the results provided, an explanation in determining the

relationship between variables in examining which five-factor personalities are predictors

of emotional dissonance among police officers.

Ethical Considerations

Before conducting this correlational study, it was guided by the policies of the

Institutional Review Board (IRB). The participants were selected on a voluntary basis,

and were advised they could withdraw from the study at any time. Furthermore, all

participants completed all survey instruments on a secure website, in which they were

advised to take in private, preferably at their place of resident to ensure that there will be

106

no contact with other research participants. In order to prevent researcher bias, no names

will be used on survey instruments. Furthermore, all data collected was secured by

SurveyMonkey’s secure website where access to data was only be permitted to the

researcher and the SurveyMonkey administrator.

Information provided on the informed consent disclaimers consisted of the name

of the researcher, contact information, purpose of the study, risk and benefits. Informed

consent disclaimers were downloaded to SurveyMonkey’s site, and before the

participants begin taking the surveys, they were asked if they agree with (check x in the

box) the terms of the study, and if they begin the next step of taking the psychometric

survey questionnaires, implied consent will be inferred. During the study, at no point

were any participant coerced or intimidated during the study. To protect anonymity of

informed consent documents, they were locked in small private safe where the researcher

only has access. Furthermore, it was explained to each participant that their legal rights or

claims would not be waived, and at any time they could withdraw their consent.

Further, in order to prevent mishandling of data, precautions were set in place in

order to uphold confidentially through entirety of the study. For example, precautions

consisted of no duplication of completed data; no shift or times were placed on surveys;

no participant I.D. numbers were printed on surveys. Any survey uncompleted were

destroyed and/or deleted from SurveyMonkey’s files, and in addition, all data was

discarded after three years. During the study, at no point were any participant coerced or

intimidated during the study.

107

Limitations and Delimitations

When conducting scientific research, limitations of the study must be carefully

evaluated to ensure that scientific integrity is upheld through transparency, which will

provide for some plausibility to limitations that may occur. The limitations for this

current study reside in the representation of sample to the population, and the use of a

purposive sampling.

First, the sample was limited in representing the total population of police officers

nationwide. Survey instruments were only given to police officers and sergeants that

work patrol, or have worked street patrol. Bordens and Abbott (2011) reported that in

order to have adequate representation, the sample should have characteristics that

generalize to the population. Because Detroit Police Department is a large metropolitan

city, it may not have generalizability in smaller and rural police departments. The

characteristics of smaller and rural police department could be vital in the large scheme

of understanding how personality (five-factor model) could be a predictor of emotional

dissonance. Additionally, the sample from the Detroit Police Department was limited in

representing the total population of staffed police officers. For example, supervisors (e.g.,

Sergeants), investigators and other ancillary sworn positions were considered patrol

officers. Thus, limiting the generalizability of the findings in this current study.

Second, a purposive sample was used to select the sample from the Detroit Police

Department, who were solely selected on voluntary participation. Furthermore, the use of

a purposive sampling (non-probability) was limited because it does not provide the same

strengths (e.g., generalizability of results, decreased researcher bias, random selection

and increased external validity) as provided from random sample (Bordens & Abbott,

108

2011). Therefore, by utilizing a purposive sampling, this current study was limited due to

that random sampling methods were not used. Random sampling methods allow random

selection, and the capability to generalize findings to the general population of the Detroit

Police Department.

Finally, all surveys were administered electronically to Detroit police officers by

utilizing SurveyMonkey’s secure website. Consequently, Baker (2012) and Weigold,

Weigold, and Russell (2013) reported that electronic survey maybe cost effective and can

reach a broader population of participants, but has a few limitations. For example,

limitations are: confidentiality issues (e.g., internet privacy), researcher and participant

contact, contact with other participants and laypersons, and not considering participants

who may not have private Internet access (Baker, 2012; Weigold, et al. 2013). Another

limitation is how the surveys tools will be entirely online, which may exclude participant

who do not have computers at home. Therefore, to eliminate this issue, participants with

no home computers had the option to take paper surveys.

By understanding the limitations and delimitations of utilizing one large

metropolitan police department located in Detroit, Michigan, it was considered that using

more than one police department could have reduced the generalizability of the study.

Further, examining other police department also could have provided more information

on the relation of individual personality and emotional dissonance among police officers

working in small suburban and rural police departments. Consequently, Bakker and

Heuven (2006) used only one police department, in was a large metropolitan police

department in order to examine the relationship between emotional dissonance and

burnout among police officers. Further, Bakker and Heuven made no mention of utilizing

109

one police department as being a limitation, but did infer that police officers in other

countries should be examined.

Delimitations for this study ensured that SurveyMonkey does not store

participants IP address or attach IP addresses to surveys. Instead, in order to keep

participants anonymous, each participant was directed to an encrypted http server, and

secure privacy code to protect their identity from the researcher and all others. In a study

by Weigold, Weigold, & Russell (2013) they conducted a study on confidentiality and

electronic questionnaires using IRB members from various universities, and 76% of the

sample were highly in favor of encrypted http servers, which they concurred were more

than adequate to meet research participant confidentiality requirements.

By using these precautionary steps, each Detroit Police Officer was provided

confidentiality, and their identities were kept anonymous.

Summary

Chapter 3 expounded on a quantitative methodology design that was designed for

the purpose of this study to examine the relationship between five-factor personalities and

emotional dissonance among police officers. Furthermore, the objective of the study was

theorized based on the lack of research on personality and emotional dissonance among

police officers. To address this gap, a correlational research design using electronic

questionnaires was selected to measure a medium sample size of Detroit police officers

working patrol, or have worked street patrol. Furthermore, all participants had 2 weeks to

take both surveys; then the data was collected and analyzed.

The data will be collected through SurveyMonkey, using secure link, which will

not identify any participant’s names or IP servers. Further, all participant confidentiality

110

will be maintained from beginning to the end of the study, and in addition, all data will be

secured in a private location. The demographic variables (e.g., age, gender, race, and

tenure) selected for this study were also examined in conjunction with five-factor model

(personalities) and emotional dissonance among police officers. Additionally, extra

precautions were taken in providing confidentiality in order to protect the anonymity of

the participant’s surveys by not placing names, dates, and times on surveys.

This study utilized Andela’s et al. (2015a) emotional dissonance sub-scale, and

the NEO Five-Factory inventory (McCrae & Costa, 2010) to assess the relationship

between five-factory model personalities and emotional dissonance among police

officers. The relationship between personality and emotional dissonance was assessed

using a Pearson r coefficient, multi-regression analysis, and Cronbachs alpha reliability

coefficient in order to determine which of the five-factor model personalities are the

significant predictors of emotional dissonance among police officers. The data was

analyzed using SPSS version 21 that provided analysis and summarization.

Finally, Chapter 4 emphasizes on the data analysis and results portion of the study

providing detailed insight on the research findings. Through the use of descriptive

statistics, correlational, and multi-regression analysis, the results will provide answers to

each of the research question and hypotheses as provided in Chapter 4. Therefore, a

broader understanding of the results and findings was explained in detail in Chapter 4 on

the relationship between five-factor model personalities and emotional dissonance among

police officer.

111

Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results

Introduction

The objective of this quantitative, correlational research design was to investigate

if, and to what degree, a correlational (proportional or inverse) relationship exists

between five-factor model personalities (e.g., neuroticism, agreeableness,

conscientiousness, extraversion, openness) and emotional dissonance experienced among

police officers. This study set out to examine police officers (Sergeants) working street

patrol in the largest city in Michigan that has been described by the FBI (2011) as one of

the most dangerous cities in America. Because of the increased criminal activity

associated with large cities, police officers working in these cities may experience higher

emotional dissonance based on their five-factor model personality type. In order to

examine this relationship, quantitative statistical methods were used, that is, Pearson r

correlation and multiple regression analysis to determine if any relationship exists

between five-factor model personalities and emotional dissonance experienced among

police officers. Further, other research studies have used quantitative, correlational

research methods to establish a relationship between personality and emotional

dissonance, and antecedents of emotional dissonance, e.g., negative affectivity, stress

and/or strain, and negative emotions (e.g., Diamond, 2005; Goussinky, 2011;

Komulainen et al., 2014; Zanon, Bastianello, Pacico, & Hutz, 2013).

The criterion variable for this study was emotional dissonance measured by

Andela, Truchot, and Van Der Doef (2015) emotional dissonance sub-scale. The

predictor variables for this study were each of the five-factor model personalities, and

they were measured using the NEO-Five-Factor Inventory (McCrae & Costa, 2010). The

112

participants were selected from a sample of 1000 Detroit police officers and sergeants,

utilizing a purposive sampling method.

Utilizing a secure web link supplied by SurveyMonkey, 138 participants were

recruited by Detroit Police Department intranet and fliers based on a purposive sampling

approach. In response, a total of 138 police officers and sergeants responded; however,

(n=16) surveys were not used in the data analysis due to a large amount of participants

who did not answer any of the NEO-Five-Factor Inventory questions. In addition, all

survey measures were put together where all participants could take all surveys all

together. The small percentage of missing data may have been contributed from

participants not completing the NEO-FFI because they only answered the demographic

questions. The post hoc power analysis showed that the sample size of 122 had a power

of .92 (see Appendix K).

Further, this research was guided by assuring the research design was in

alignment with the problem statement. The objective of the study was to disprove the null

hypothesis, and show that five-factor model personality traits were predictors of

emotional dissonance experienced by police officers. The primary research question was:

RQ1: What influence, if any and to what degree, do the 5 Factor Model personality

traits contribute to emotional dissonance experienced among police officers?

H10: Police officers scores in Five-Factor Model of personality will show no

correlation with differences in scores in emotional dissonance.

H1𝐴: Police officers scores in Five-Factor Model of personality will show no

correlation with differences in scores in emotional dissonance.

113

This chapter contains a summary of descriptive data (e.g., tables, graphs, scatter

plots), highlighting demographic variables. The rest of the chapter discusses data analysis

procedures (data cleaning and evaluation, and parametric assumptions), results, and key

findings. In addition, a summary of the aggregate statistical data is used to highlight the

correlational statistics (Pearson r correlations and multiple regression), which is used to

delineate the statistical data in order to interpret the results. The aggregate data are further

be described and aligned with each research question and hypothesis.

Descriptive Data

This section uses descriptive data to provide an overview the demographic data.

One hundred and thirty-eight police officer and sergeants from the Detroit Police

Department responded, but only 122 participated by taking both the NEO-FFI and the

emotional dissonance subscale. The next section provides and overview of the data

obtained from the NEO-FFI and emotional dissonance subscale. The following tables and

figures include the participants’ demographics, such as police officers rank, gender, and

tenure.

Table 1

Demographic-Rank

Frequency

Percent

Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid

Police

Officer 88 72.1 72.1 72.1

Sergeant 34 27.9 27.9 100.0

Total 122 100.0 100.0

114

Table 1 shows the breakdown of demographics between police officers and sergeants.

The table shows that there were 88 police officers, representing 72.1%, and 34 sergeants,

representing 27.9 of the sample. The sample represents the sample of police officers,

including sergeants who have worked street patrol in a large Midwestern police

department.

Table 2

Demographics-Gender

Frequency

Percent

Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid

Male 89 73.0 73.0 73.0

Female 33 27.0 27.0 100.0

Total 122 100.0 100.0

Table 2 shows the demographic breakdown of gender. The table shows that there were 89

males, representing 73% of the sample, and 33 females, representing 27% of the sample.

This sample represents the population of the Detroit Police Department, and other large

metropolitan police departments.

115

Figure 3. Gender histogram.

Figure 3 represents the demographic breakdown gender in which gives a visual analysis

on the difference between males and females used in the sample. The visual inspection

showed that there were more male police officers than, female police officers. Moreover,

this gender difference may represent the broader population of large Metropolitan Police

Department because law enforcement is a predominant male occupation. However, large

Metropolitan Police Departments have a larger population of females than small and rural

police departments (Barratt, Bergman, & Thompson, 2014).

116

Table 3

Group Statistics of Gender Differences

Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Emotion Dissonance Male 89 12.23 4.24 .450

Female 33 10.46 5.00 .870

Neuroticism Male 89 16.71 7.13 .757

Female 33 15.33 5.60 .974

Openness Male 89 28.82 6.08 .644

Female 33 29.90 6.39 1.11

Extraversion Male 89 28.49 6.08 .644

Female 33 29.67 5.92 1.03

Agreeableness Male 89 29.80 6.12 .649

Female 33 32.85 6.62 1.15

Conscientiousness Male 89 34.52 6.34 .672

Female 33 37.21 4.91 .854

Table 3 provides a statistics breakdown of group statistics showing the mean

difference between gender and the research variables. The grouping of criterion and

predictor variables will be grouped by gender. Table 3 shows that N represents the

number of male and female police officers (sergeants), which males represented the

highest percent of police officers. These statistics are current with the national statistics

between men and women in law enforcement, and even a smaller percentage of women

in smaller and rural police departments (Barratt, Bergman, & Thompson, 2014).

Moreover, these statistics could be used to generalize to the population of large

metropolitan police departments in future studies. For this reason, acquiring enough

representation between genders was important for this study.

Further, Table 3 displays the average mean scores for each group variable based on

gender, which shows that there was no great mean difference for the five-predictor

variables. This reveals that the gender mean and standard deviations difference across

117

predictor variables were consistent with each other. Table 3 further display the standard

error of the mean that provides the variation (standard deviation) between the sample

means, and because there was a moderate sample size, there will be a lower standard

error, which is more representative of the population sample. Therefore, the low values

estimated, that is, standard error of mean from Table 3 reflected a closer representation to

the population mean based, which is also reflective of the different sample standard

deviations.

Table 4 highlights the frequency and percentage of tenure work by Detroit Police

Officers. Table 4 shows a disproportionate frequency where a large percent of police

officers have 15 to 20 years (46.7%), and police officers with more than 20 years (34%).

This disproportionate percentage is representative of the population of the Detroit Police

Department; in which is a result of a hiring freeze. Consequently, the hiring freeze

resulted in an older police Department. Figure 4 allows an actual visual analysis of the

disproportionate difference of number of years between officers with 2 years and officers

with 15 years of more.

Table 4

Demographics-Tenure

Frequency Percent

Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Less than 2 years 2 1.6 1.6 1.6

Between 2 and 6 years 3 2.5 2.5 4.1

Between 6 and 10 years 8 6.6 6.6 10.7

Between 10 and 15 years 10 8.2 8.2 18.9

Between 15 and 20 years 57 46.7 46.7 65.6

More than 20 years 42 34.4 34.4 100.0

Total 122 100.0 100.0

118

Figure 4. Tenure histogram.

Table 5

Demographics-Age

Frequency Percent

Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid

21 to 29 2 1.6 1.6 1.6

30 to 39 27 22.1 22.1 23.8

40 to 49 59 48.4 48.4 72.1

50 to 59 29 23.8 23.8 95.9

60 or older 5 4.1 4.1 100.0

Total 122 100.0 100.0

119

Figure 5. Tenure histogram.

Table 5 shows the frequencies and percentages of the ages of police officers

(sergeants), and these data were reflective of the vast difference in the number of years

(tenure) police have worked. Figure 5 provides a visual analysis that shows a large

population of police officers from the ages 30 to 50 years of age. This visual

representation also shows that there were very few police officers less than 30 years of

age, particularly from the ages of 18 to 30, which was only a total of 2 police officers.

120

Table 6

Demographics-Race

Frequency

Percent

Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid

Black or African American 66 54.1 54.1 54.1

White 52 42.6 42.6 96.7

Hispanic 2 1.6 1.6 98.4

Some Other Race 2 1.6 1.6 100.0

Total 122 100.0 100.0

Table 6 gives a breakdown on the frequency and percentage of police officer race, which

shows only an 11.5% difference between African American and white police officers.

However, there was a very small percentage of Hispanics and other races that participated in

this study.

Figure 6. Race histogram.

121

Figure 6 gives a visual breakdown of the amounts of participants’ race by visually identifying

the gender of each race. Further, the histogram shows that the amount African American

males and white males were almost equal when participating for the study. The amount of

women among races was a lot smaller compared to men.

Data Analysis Procedures

Correlational statistics was used to analyze and draw conclusions from the selected

Sample. To analyze the data, the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version

21.0 was utilize to code and sum scores collected from the survey measures. SPSS provided a

summary of applicable data using tables, charts, and graphs that provided summarized data

such as: means, central tendency, variance, standard deviation. A Pearson r correlation and

multiple regression analyses were conducted to answer the research question and hypotheses:

RQ1: What influence, if any and to what degree, do the 5 Factor Model personality traits

contribute to emotional dissonance experienced among police officers?

H0: Police officers scores in Five-Factor Model of personality will show no correlation

with differences in scores in emotional dissonance.

H1: Police officers high in neuroticism will show a proportional correlation with scores in

emotional dissonance.

H2: Police officers high in agreeableness will show an inverse correlation with their

scores in emotional dissonance.

H3: Police officers high in conscientiousness will show an inverse correlation with their

scores in emotional dissonance.

H4: Police officers high in extraversion will show a proportional correlation with their

scores in emotional dissonance.

122

H5: Police officers high in openness to experience will show a proportional correlation

with their scores in emotional dissonance.

The next section will discuss the evaluation process of measuring the criterion and

predictor variables. Then, a statistical test of assumption was conducted to check for outliers,

normality, linearity, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity. Finally, the results were

obtained using a Pearson r correlation and multiple regression analysis to determine if a

relationship existed between criterion and predictor variables. Table 7 provides a visual a

summary of the criterion and predictor variables, and the analyses used to analyze the data.

Table 7

Summary of Variables and Statistical Tests Used to Evaluate Research Question 1

Research Question Predictor Variables Criterion Variables Analysis

Neuroticism Emotional dissonance Pearson r Correlation

RQ1 Agreeableness Multi ple Regression

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Openness

Data evaluation. The research question and hypotheses were evaluated using a

Pearson r correlation and multiple regression analyses in order to determine if a (inverse or

proportional) relationship existed between five-factor model personalities and emotional

dissonance experienced among police officers. The criterion variable for the research

question was emotional dissonance experienced among police officers. Emotional dissonance

scores were measured using a 4-item emotional dissonance sub-scale that uses 5-point Likert

scale; the highest score a participant can score is 5 points and the lowest 0 (Andela et al.,

2015a). For example, 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neutral, 2 = disagree, and 0 =

strongly disagree. The scores were summed and calculated creating a composite score for

each individual participant. The predictor variables for the research question were the five-

123

factor model personalities, e.g., neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion,

and openness. Five-factor model personalities were evaluated using the NEO-FFI that uses

60 items, 5-point Likert scale (McCrae & Costa, 1992). For example, 5 = strongly agree, 4 =

agree, 3 = neutral, 2 = disagree, and 0 = strongly disagree. These scores were summed and

calculated, creating a composite score for each individual participant.

Data cleaning. Before evaluating the sample of 122 police officers (sergeants)

working street patrol for a large Midwestern police department, each of the basic parametric

assumptions (e.g., normality, linearity, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity) were

checked. In addition, before the data were screened, missing data, and univariate and

multivariate outliers were checked. The missing data were screened using frequency

(descriptive) data sums that revealed no missing data. Consequently, 16 participants’ scores

that were associated with the criterion and predictor variables had a score of zero; thus,

showing cause to be removed from the statistical analyses. Next in order to examine

univariate outliers, raw scores were transformed to z-scores that were compared to the critical

value of +/- 3.29, p<. 001 (Meyers, Gamst & Gurarino, 2013). Thus, after the comparison,

any scores exceeding over the critical value three standard deviations from the mean were

signified as outliers. The analysis revealed that there were outliers for neuroticism and

consciousness, which had some extreme outliers. Further, there were very few outliers

because, if they significantly affected the skewness and kurtosis within the neuroticism and

conscientiousness scores, they were deleted. Meyers, Gamst, and Gurarino (2013) indicated

that Outliers that have no explanation should be considered for deletion. The goal of this

study was to keep missing data under 5%. According to Klein (2011), missing data should

not exceed over 5 %, and that, the larger the sample, missing data will present very little

124

problems to statistical analysis. This study achieved the goal of having less than 5 % missing

values. Once the outliers were deleted, scores that were skewed were now below the critical

value of -/+3.29 (.001). The skewness and kurtosis is further discussed below in the

normality section. Finally, the deletions can be visibly noticed in Table 3 by the reduction in

sample sizes for neuroticism and consciousness.

Next, multivariate outliers were assessed in order to meet the check the outliers for

the multiple regression analysis. To check for multivariate outliers, the Mahalanobis distance

was used to evaluate the data scores. Meyers et al. indicated that the Mahalanobis distance is

the most suitable analysis to examine multivariate outliers. The Mahalanobis distance

measures the distance between all multivariate means. Thus, if any of Mahalanobis distance

values are above the critical value should be removed (Meyers et al., 2013). Once the

Mahalanobis distance values were obtained, they were compared to chi-square critical value,

in which no values exceeded the critical value of 20.515. Table 3 highlights the descriptive

statistics for the Mahalanobis distance values for the five-predictor variables.

Table 8

Mahalanobis Distance Values for the Predictor Variables

Case Number Value

Mahalanobis Distance

Highest

1 1 12.68

2 2 12.36

3 3 11.51

4 4 7.66

5 5 7.52

Lowest

1 122 .014

2 121 .016

3 120 .040

4 119 .047

5 118 .056

125

Reliability. Substantiating reliability for this study was vital in order to prove that

each measure measured what they were supposed to measure with similar accuracy for each

participant taking the same measurement scale (Bordens & Abbott, 2011). In order to show

reliability for the criterion variable, that is, emotional dissonance, Andela et al. (2015a)

verified their emotional dissonance subscale that was used for this current dissertation study.

Further, the Andela’s et al. (2015a) scale on emotional dissonance yielded a Cronbach alpha

reliability of (.91), which is substantially higher than critical value for reliability of (.70).

Therefore, the internal consistency for Andela’s emotional dissonance subscale provides

adequate robustness for predicting emotional dissonance. In order to assure validity

(construct), Andela et al. (2015a) established validity by conducting another study using the

same emotional dissonance subscale. In addition, to test criterion validity they measured

emotional dissonance by comparing their emotional dissonance subscale criterion, with

commonly used emotional dissonance subscales such as the DEELS and FEWS, in which

established criterion validity with both measurement scales. Therefore, the validation of this

psychometric instrument has been substantiated for this study, and Andela et al. (2015a)

stated they are confident of the criterion validity of their emotional dissonance subscale,

which was used for this current study.

To show reliability of the NEO-Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), Körner et al.

(2015) substantiated internal consistency of the NEO-FFI by using Cronbach’s alpha level,

which had an average score of .67 to .82. For example, the Cronbach alpha levels were:

neuroticism (.82), agreeableness (.72) conscientiousness (.82), extraversion (.73), openness

(.63). Cronbach alpha revealed that all except one five-factor model personality trait scored

above 0.70, openness, which had a score of (.63). As mention above, the Cronbach alpha for

126

openness would not affect the overall power of the NEO-FFI model for internal consistency

(McCrae & Costa, 2010; McCrae & Costa, 1992). Körner et al. set out to determine in their

study the difference of a shorter NEO-Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI-30; 30 items) and the

original short version of the NEO-Five-Factor Inventory (60 items), which was comprised of

a sample (n=1908). Regarding validity for the NEO Five-Factory model, it has been heavily

used in research that has established validity, e.g., construct and criterion related validity. For

example, Korner et al. (2015), McCrae and Costa (2010), and McCrae and John (1992)

provided detailed information on the psychometrics and validity and reliability that showed

consistencies of each personality trait through the Cronbach alpha level values. Therefore,

the validation of this survey has been substantiated for this dissertation study, and this

researcher is confident on the validity (construct and criterion-related) for this study.

Normality. To meet the parametric assumptions, the basic assumptions (e.g.,

normality, linearity, homoscedasticity, multicollinearity) were assessed before analyzing the

research question. After evaluation Levene’s test of homogeneity and the examination of

scatter plots, the assumptions for homoscedasticity and linearity were met. In order to test

normality of the data, the skewness and kurtosis were examined using a technique suggested

by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) where critical range between -3.29 and +3.29 (p< .001)

suggest non-normality. To calculate the z-skewness and kurtosis coefficients they both were

divided by their standard of errors. After evaluating the z-skewness and kurtosis coefficients,

no scores exceeded the critical range of +/-3.29 (p< .001). In addition, the analysis found that

the z-skewness and kurtosis coefficients for the criterion variable (emotional dissonance) had

no scores exceeding the critical range of +/-3.29. Therefore, the assumption normality has

been met for further statistical analysis for analyzing the results.

127

Table 9

Skewness and Kurtosis used to Evaluate the Predictor Variables

Emotional

Dissonance

Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeable Conscientiousness

N 122 120 122 122 122 120

Skewness -.385 .253 .329 -.031 -.309 -.565

Std. Error of

Skewness .219 .221 .219 .219 .219 .221

Kurtosis -.456 .126 -.190 -.352 .142 .961

Std. Error of

Kurtosis .435 .438 .435 .435 .435 .438

Multicollinearity. To meet the assumptions for multicollinearity, each of the five

predictor variables (e.g., neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion,

openness) were tested using correlations and collinearity statistics, that is, tolerance and

variance inflation factor (VIF). The tolerance was analyzed using the formula T = 1- 𝑅2 and

VIF that is computed by 1 divided by tolerance. The results revealed that there were no

correlational coefficients that exceeded the critical values higher than, .80. The parameters

for determining the VIF for multicollinearity were T < .10 and VIF > 10. The results revealed

that no predictor variables exceeded the critical values for VIF coefficients, indicating there

was no presence of multicollinearity. Therefore, based on the critical values for tolerance and

VIF the assumption for multicollinearity was met.

Results

This dissertation study is comprised of one research question. Further, the research

question contains five hypotheses, in which the predictions for this study will be determined

by the null or alternative hypotheses. Pearson r correlational and multiple regression analysis

were used to analyze the research question in order to determine if any significant positive

128

relationship exited between five-factor model personality traits and emotional dissonance.

The criterion variable for the research question was emotional dissonance.

The predictor variables were analyzed using the Pearson r correlation to measure the

five-factor model personalities (e.g., neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness,

extraversion, openness), measured by 60 items on the NEO-Five-Factory Inventory (NEO-

FFI). The scores were summed and calculated for composite scores across the 60 NEO-FFI

items, and were used as the predictor variables for the proposed research question. The

specified null and alternative hypotheses were:

Hypothesis 1. The first null hypothesis stated that police officers scores in Five-

Factor Model of personality will show no correlation with differences in scores in emotional

dissonance. Utilizing SPSS version 21, a Person r correlation (bivariate analysis) was used to

determine if any significant positive relationships existed between five-factor model

personality traits and emotional dissonance experienced by police officers.

Table 10

Pearson r Correlation Between Neuroticism and Emotional Dissonance

Variable Emotion Dissonance Neuroticism

Emotion Dissonance

Pearson

Correlation 1 .245**

Sig. (2-

tailed)

.007

N 122 120

Neuroticism

Pearson

Correlation .245** 1

Sig. (2-

tailed) .007

N 120 120

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

RQ1: What influence, if any and to what degree, do the 5 Factor Model personality traits

contribute to emotional dissonance experienced among police officers?

129

H1: Police officers high in neuroticism will show a proportional correlation with scores in

emotional dissonance.

H0: Police officers scores in Five-Factor Model of personality will show no correlation

with differences in scores in emotional dissonance.

For Hypothesis 1, the Pearson r correlation indicated that there was a significant and

propositional relationship between neuroticism scores and emotional dissonance experienced

among police officers, (r = .25, p =< .007). Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected for

Hypothesis 1. Displayed below in Figure 7 is a scatterplot that highlights the proportional

linear pattern between neuroticism and emotional dissonance. In addition, see Table 10 for

the Pearson r results listed above and scatter plot for both variables listed below.

Figure 7. Scatter plot of neuroticism and emotional dissonance

130

Hypothesis 2. The second null hypothesis stated that police officers scores in Five

Factor Model of personality would show no correlation with differences in scores in

emotional dissonance. For Hypothesis 2, the Pearson r correlation indicated a significant

inverse relationship between agreeableness and emotional dissonance, (r = -.31, p < .001).

The null hypothesis for Hypothesis 2 was also rejected. Displayed below in Figure 8 is a

scatter plot that highlights the inverse linear pattern between agreeableness and emotional

dissonance. Also, see Table 11 for the Pearson r correlation results listed.

Table 11.

Pearson Correlation Between Agreeableness and Emotional Dissonance

Variable Emotional Dissonance Agreeableness

Emotional Dissonance

Pearson

Correlation 1 -.310**

Sig. (2-

tailed)

.001

N 122 122

Agreeableness

Pearson

Correlation -.310** 1

Sig. (2-

tailed) .001

N 122 122

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

131

Figure 8. Scatter Plot of agreeableness and emotional dissonance.

Hypothesis 3. The third null hypothesis stated that police officers scores in Five-

Factor Model of personality would show no correlation with differences in scores in

emotional dissonance. For Hypothesis 3, the Pearson r correlation indicated a significant and

inverse relationship between agreeableness and emotional dissonance, (r = -.25, p < .007).

The null hypothesis for Hypothesis 3was also rejected. Displayed below in Figure 9 is a

scatter plot that highlights the inverse linear pattern between agreeableness and emotional

dissonance. Also, see Table 12 for the Pearson r correlation results.

132

Table 12.

Pearson Correlation Between Conscientiousness and Emotional

Dissonance

Variable

Emotional

Dissonance

Conscientiousness

Emotional Dissonance

Pearson

Correlation 1 -.245**

Sig. (2-tailed) .007

N 122 120

Conscientiousness

Pearson

Correlation -.245** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .007

N 120 120

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Figure 9. Scatter plot of conscientiousness and emotional dissonance.

133

Hypothesis 4. The fourth null hypothesis stated that police officer scores in Five-

Factor Model of personality would show no correlation with differences in scores in

emotional dissonance. For Hypothesis 4, the Pearson r correlation indicated a negative and

inverse relationship between extraversion and emotional dissonance, (r = -.16, p >.05). The

null hypothesis for Hypothesis 4 was accepted; thus, disproving Hypothesis 4. Displayed

below in Figure 10 is a scatter plot that highlights the inverse linear pattern between

extraversion and emotional dissonance. Also, see Table 13 for the Pearson r correlation

results.

Table 13

Pearson Correlation Between Extraversion and Emotional

Dissonance

Variable Emotional Dissonance Extraversion

Emotional

Dissonance

Pearson

Correlation 1 -.162

Sig. (2-

tailed)

.074

N 122 122

Extraversion

Pearson

Correlation -.162 1

Sig. (2-

tailed) .074

N 122 122

134

Figure 10. Scatter plot of extraversion and emotional dissonance.

Hypothesis 5. The fifth null hypothesis stated that police officer scores in Five-Factor

Model of personality would show no correlation with differences in scores in emotional

dissonance. For Hypothesis 5, the Pearson r correlation indicated a negative inverse

relationship between openness and emotional dissonance, (r = -.09, p >.05). The null

hypothesis for Hypothesis 5 was also accepted; thus, disproving Hypothesis 5. Displayed

below in Figure 11 is a scatter plot that highlights the inverse linear pattern between

extraversion and emotional dissonance. Also, see Table 14 listed for the Pearson r

correlations results.

135

Table 14

Pearson r Correlation Between Openness and Emotional Dissonance

Variable Emotional Dissonance Openness

Emotional Dissonance

Pearson

Correlation 1 -.092

Sig. (2-

tailed)

.312

N 122 122

Openness

Pearson

Correlation -.092 1

Sig. (2-

tailed) .312

N 122 122

Figure 11. Scatter plot of openness and emotional dissonance.

136

Multiple regression analysis. A multiple regression analysis was utilized in order to

learn if there was any significant relationship between all five predictor variables

(neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, openness) and emotional

dissonance. The results from the multiple regression analysis substantiated that there was a

significant relationship between emotional dissonance and a model consisting of the five-

predictor variables, (𝑅2 = .14, adjusted 𝑅2= .11, F (5, 114) 3.84, p < .003). For instance,

11% (adjusted 𝑅2 = .11) of the variability was consistent with the model comprised of the

five-predictor variables. Below is a model summary of the multiple regression analysis

presented in Table 15.

Table 15

Model Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis for Research Question 1

odel R R

Square

Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error

of the

Estimate

Change Statistics

R Square

Change

df1 df2 Sig. F

Change

1 .380a .144 .107 4.22 .144 3.84 5 114 .003

* Predictors: (Constant), Openness, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion

Model Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig. Correlations

B Std. Error Beta Zero-

order

Partial Part

(Constant) 18.163 4.02 4.52 .000

Neuroticism .132 .071 .179 1.85 .066 .245 .171 .161

Agreeableness -.184 .064 -.263 -2.88 .005 -.293 -.261 -.250

Conscientiousness -.088 .076 -.110 -1.16 .250 -.210 -.108 -.100

Extraversion -.013 .075 -.018 -.176 .861 -.137 -.016 -.015

Openness .019 .068 .027 .285 .777 -.093 .027 .025

* Note. Criterion Variable= Emotional Dissonance; n =122

Multiple regression-stepwise analyses. Finally, utilizing the multiple regression

analysis, a stepwise analysis was conducted to find the predictor variable best for predicting

137

emotional dissonance. The stepwise analysis revealed that the best fitting model for

predicting emotional dissonance was model 2. Model 2 included neuroticism and

agreeableness (𝑅2 = .1, adjusted 𝑅2 = .13, F (1, 117) = 6.23, p < .014). When combined,

both neuroticism and agreeableness explained 13% of variance in emotional dissonance.

Whereas Model 1 included agreeableness, and had a 9 % explanation for variance in

emotional dissonance, (𝑅2 = .10, adjusted 𝑅2 = .09, F (1, 117) = 12.55, p < .001). Listed

below in Table 16 is a stepwise model summary for both model 1 and 2 displayed. Finally, a

stepwise analysis was used to determine which demographic variables were predictors of

emotional dissonance. The stepwise analysis revealed that only one demographic variable

was found to be a predictor of emotional dissonance, (𝑅2 = .033, adjusted 𝑅2 = .025, F (1,

120) = 4.11, p < .05), which had a 3% explanation for variance in emotional dissonance. To

note, for further exploratory purposes, other demographic variables were also analyzed using

a Pearson r correlation, and it was found that no other variable had a significant Pearson r

correlation with emotional dissonance. To further note, there was no significant correlation

between male and female police officers that experience emotional dissonance.

138

Table 16

Models Summary Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis

Model Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig. Correlations

B Std. Error Beta Zero-

order

Partial Part

1 (Constant) 18.46 1.94 9.512 .000

Agreeableness -.219 .062 -.310 -3.53 .001 -.310 -.310 -.310

(Constant) 15.42 2.25 6.84 .000

Agreeableness -.203 .061 -.288 -3.33 .001 -.310 -.295 -.286

Neuroticism .160 .064 .216 2.50 .014 .245 .226 .215

a. Dependent Variable: Emotional Dissonance

Model R R

Square

Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of

the Estimate

Change Statistics

R Square

Change

df1 df2 Sig. F

Change

1 .310a .10 .09 4.30 .10 12.44 1 117 .001

2 .377b .14 .13 4.21 .05 6.22 1 116 .014

*Note. Criterion Variable = Emotional Dissonance; n =122

Summary

The objective of this quantitative study was to learn, if any and to what degree, a

relationship (proportional or inverse) exists between the level of five-factor model

personalities and emotional dissonance experience by police officers. This study consisted of

122 police officers working for a large Midwestern police department. First, this chapter

started out by presenting descriptive statistics to highlight demographic variables using

frequency distribution data tables and graphs. Then, statistical analyses were conducted to

examine the predictor and criterion variables, which were analyzed using the Pearson r

correlations and multiple regression analysis. Also, demographic variables (e.g., gender, age

rank, tenure) were briefly evaluated using frequency distribution data tables and graphs. A

139

total of one hundred and thirty eight police and sergeants responded; however, (n=16)

surveys were not used in the data analysis due to a large amount of participants who did not

answer any of the NEO-Five-Factor Inventory questionnaires and emotional dissonance sub-

scale. In this way, resulting in 0s for each of the 16 uncompleted questionnaires. As a result,

a total of 122 surveys were used for the analysis, providing an 88.4% response rate. Before

conducting the data analysis, the data were checked for missing values, outliers (e.g.,

univariate and multiple regression) and basic parametric assumptions. Data cleaning revealed

there were no missing values. Further, when checking for outliers both neuroticism and

consciousness had outliers that had a significant effect on the skewness and kurtosis (could

drastically effect normality). After the outliers were deleted, the skewness and kurtosis were

within the critical range of +/- 3.29. The assessment for checking for parametric assumptions

(e.g., normality, linearity, homoscedasticity, multicollinearity), revealed that all assumptions

were met for conducting a Pearson r correlation and multiple regression analyses.

The final result findings reported the following: First, Hypothesis 1 had a significant,

proportional relationship between neuroticism and emotional dissonance. This result means

that as neuroticism scores increased, so did emotional dissonance scores. Second, regarding

Hypothesis 2, there was a significant, inverse relationship between agreeableness and

emotional dissonance. This result means that as agreeableness scores increased, emotional

dissonance scores decreased. Third, for Hypothesis 3 there was a significant inverse

relationship between consciousness and emotional dissonance. This result means that as

conscientiousness scores increased, emotional dissonance decreased. Fourth, for Hypothesis

4, there was no significant (proportional or inverse) relationship between extraversion and

emotional dissonance. Fifth, for Hypothesis 5, there was no significant (proportional or

140

inverse) between openness and emotional dissonance. Finally, only one demographic

variable, that is, tenure (years of experience) was found to predict emotional dissonance.

Consequently, these findings may be due to the variation between various years of

experience, specifically, with a low representation of police officers with 10 years or less

work experience. Chapter 5 entails a detailed summary and discussion of the findings,

conclusion, implications, and recommendations for future research on the results and

findings for this study. Finally, Chapter 5 further restates the research question and the

finding related to the outcome of each hypothesis.

141

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Introduction

The objective of this current study was to examine if, any, and to what degree does a

correlation (proportional or inverse) exists between five-factor model personalities and

emotional dissonance experienced among police officers. Due to the limited amount of

published literature on the relationship between five-factor model personalities and emotional

dissonance, this study has set out to add to knowledge of literature and scholarship. Other

research studies have examined the relationship between five-factor model and emotional

dissonance, but have not used police officers in their samples (Diamond, 2005). For this

reason, current research was conducted to learn if five-factor model personalities were

predictors of emotional dissonance experienced by police officers. Furthermore, this current

study has addressed the problem statement by analyzing the criterion and predictor variables

using a quantitative correlational analysis.

Therefore, to address the shortage of literature, the following research question and

hypotheses directed the research goals of this study:

RQ1: What influence, if any and to what degree, do the 5 Factor Model personality traits

contribute to emotional dissonance experienced among police officers?

H0: Police officers scores in Five-Factor Model of personality will show no correlation

with differences in scores in emotional dissonance.

H1: Police officers high in neuroticism will show a proportional correlation with scores in

emotional dissonance.

H2: Police officers high in agreeableness will show an inverse correlation with their

scores in emotional dissonance.

142

H3: Police officers high in conscientiousness will show an inverse correlation with their

scores in emotional dissonance.

H4: Police officers high in extraversion will show a proportional correlation with their

scores in emotional dissonance.

H5: Police officers high in openness to experience will show a proportional correlation

with their scores in emotional dissonance.

The results provided valuable knowledge to help understand how personality

contributes to emotional dissonance among police officers. These finding are specifically

significant to all law enforcement professionals because they will bring awareness to the

various stress factors (e.g., burnout, PTSD, depression, and anxiety) that are contributed from

police officers having to present a professional demeanor (displaying organizational

emotions and/or behavior) where they have denying their own felt emotions. Finally, to

explain the results for this study, Chapter 5 provide a summary of the finding and

conclusions, implications, recommendations for research and practice were provided.

Summary of the Study

The researcher set out to present current literature to understand the relationship

between the five-factor model personalities and emotional dissonance experience by police

officers. This study emphasized exclusively on 122 police officers (sergeants) working for a

large Midwestern police department. The participants for the study were comprised of police

officers and sergeants. Meanwhile, even though there has been empirical research examining

the relationship between emotional dissonance, there has been limited research that has only

examined debt (no face-to-face contact with citizens). For this reason, the purpose of this

quantitative correlative study was to examine if, and to what degree a significant correlation

143

(inverse or proportional) exists between five-factor model personalities and emotional

dissonance experienced among police officers.

The findings for this study substantiated that there was a significant (proportional and

inverse) correlational between three (e.g., neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness) of

the five-factor model personality traits and emotional dissonance. Further, based on the

problem statement the findings provided from the data will contribute to the body of

knowledge by further informing emotional dissonance and personality literature.

First, Chapter 1 is outlined by first introducing the introduction, problem statement,

and purpose of the study, which discussed the lack of current research on emotional

dissonance and five-factor model literature. In order to support the purpose of the study the

research question and hypotheses were established to create current literature. Then, to

address the lack of current literature, advancing scientific knowledge and significance of the

study was discussed in Chapter Next, Chapter 1 delineates the rationale of the methodology

and research design used to conduct and analyze the hypotheses. Finally, Chapter1 finishes

with discussing definition of research terms, assumptions, limitation, and the delimitations

for this current dissertation study.

Chapter 2 discusses the literature review, which provided a synthesis of seminal and

current literature associated to emotional dissonance and five-factor model. Further, the

literature review encompassed, back to problem, theoretical framework, and a synthesis of

the literature that provided current literature on the measures used to collect data. Finally,

Chapter 2 provides a breakdown, using literature to highlight gaps within the literature that

accentuates methodology differences and strength and weaknesses.

144

Chapter 3 provides a detailed outline of the research methodology that used

quantitative methods (e.g., Pearson r correlation and multiple regression) to analyze the

collected data. Also, the research design that was selected, that is, correlation research design

was used. Abbott Rumrill (2004) stated that research that examines aggregate data is best

suited for quantitative methodology, particularly when employing a correlation research

design that measures the variation between two variables is associated between criterion and

predictor variables. The researcher used purposive sampling method that was used to collect

data from 122 participants. The data was collected using the NEO-FFI (McCrae & Costa,

1992) to measure the five-factor model personalities, and the second measure used was

Andela’s et al. (2015a) emotional dissonance sub-scale. Both measures were used to

determine the extent of the relationship between five-factor model personalities and

emotional dissonance. Finally, in Chapter 3 a detailed discussion explaining the data analysis

procedures were discussed in order to answer the research question and hypothesis.

Chapter 4 involved a detail breakdown of the methods used to describe the analyzed

data by using descriptive data and statistics to summarize the data. In addition, various

statistical analyses methods (e.g., Pearson r correlation and multiple regression) were used to

measure the correlation between the criterion and predictors variables used in this study.

Furthermore, Chapter 4 included detailed synopsis discussing the data analysis procedures,

and an explanation of the results that were used to answer the research question and

hypotheses.

Finally, Chapter 5 highlights the overall results of this research study, which will

contribute to the body of knowledge, specifically, in emotional dissonance and personality

literature. Further, Chapter 5 provides a reiteration of the research question and hypotheses,

145

and results that are explained in the findings, conclusion, and recommendations. Chapter 5

further discusses how the findings, theoretical and future implications, suggestion on stress

and PTSD training caused from the negative outcomes of emotional dissonance, which were

discussed in recommendation for future studies.

Summary of Findings and Conclusion

The finding obtained from this study has provided beneficial statistical data that will

address the various factors stress incurred from emotional dissonance. However, this study

has gleaned that the five-factor model maybe limited in predicting personality, but this study

has not exhausted the notion that numerous other personality approaches may also be used to

determine if personality is a predictor of emotional dissonance experience among police

officers.

Therefore, further research should include examining other personality approaches as

predictors of emotional dissonance, and stress factors (e.g., burnout, PTSD, anxiety) incurred

by emotional dissonance among police officers. For these reasons, this study will provide

specific recommendations, and other methods of research that will outline training methods

to address stress experienced from emotional dissonance. Moreover, the following

recommendation will be beneficial to the study of emotional dissonance.

Implications

The results provided from this study will be beneficial to the knowledge of literature

by highlighting the theoretical, practical, and future implications. Because there has been

limited research examining the relationship between five-factor model personalities and

emotional dissonance experienced among police officers. This current research sets out to

extend empirical research in personality and emotional dissonance literature. Further, the

146

information provided in this section will provide a synopsis of the research that has been

gleaned, and have impact future studies in this area of study.

Theoretical implications. The theoretical implications for this dissertation study

utilize foundational literature to help create the theoretical framework to answer the research

question that is derived upon both theories of emotional dissonance and five-factor model.

Furthermore, the theoretical framework, along with existing literature and data will help

interpret the research question. The foundation literature for emotional dissonance is

grounded on Hochschild’a (1983) and Rafaeli and Sutton’s (1987) theories on emotional

dissonance. First, Hochschild’s theory is grounded on emotional work or emotional labor

where employees are required to perform organizational displays of emotion and/or behavior

for wages (e.g., requirements for staying employed). Subsequently, there becomes a

discrepancy between the employees felt emotions and having to present (smiling and/or

being polite) organizational display rules. This phenomenon is known as emotional

dissonance, in which Hochschild posits as away person protects their individuality or the

“self”. In order to protect the self, and perform organizational display rules, employees will

employ the use particular emotional labor strategies: (a) surface acting (faking emotions) (b)

deep acting (an attempt to mental act out the emotion) (c) felt emotions (a person’s actual

emotions). The main tenet of Hochschild’s theory and this research study is that the

expression of organizational display rules is expressed outwardly (behaviorally) from an

internal emotional state that requires mind and feeling to act out the expression of behavior.

Whereas Morris and Feldman (1996) theorize that display rules are expressed in the form of

behavior. Rafaeli and Sutton (1987) introduced an emotional dissonance theory that suggest

that emotional dissonance is a result of a person to role conflict, in which inner feelings (felt

147

emotions) are hindered or altered because of role expectations. Rafaeli and Sutton describe

emotional dissonance and emotional conflict between personal principles and require role

expectations. Further, Rafaeli and Sutton indicated that role expectations can be put into two

organizational contexts (socialization, selection, and rewards and punishment), formal and

informal systems. Moreover, organizations use these contexts to instill in employees the

prescribed displays of emotions required to influence bystanders.

Finally, this study used McCrae and Costa’s (1992) theory on personality, that is, the

five-factor model. The five-factor model is composed of hierarchical personalities: (1)

neuroticism, (2) agreeableness, (3) conscientiousness, (4) extraversion, and (5) openness,

also known as openness to experience. The five-factor model was used to determine general

descriptions of individual personality traits based on McCrae and Costa theory.

Thus, with the use of each of the theoretical foundations and findings, has contributed

to the knowledge of literature, specifically, the five-factor model in giving a general

description of police officers personalities. The findings will further add to emotional

dissonance theories on the stress police incur from citizen contact when working street patrol.

Therefore, understanding the unique relationship between five-factor model personalities and

emotional dissonance will help other large police departments and other human service

occupations learn how to improve stressful encounters with citizens that contribute to

emotional dissonance.

Practical implications. The results from this quantitative correlational study

substantiated that neuroticism, conscientiousness, and agreeableness were significantly

associated with emotional dissonance experienced by police officers. In addition, these

findings were consistent with other studies investigating both variables, which were

148

discussed in chapter 2. These findings will help law enforcement agencies across the United

States with personnel training, specifically, neuroticism (p < .007) and agreeableness (p <

.001), which were found to be highly correlated with predicting emotional dissonance in

police officer working for a large Midwestern police department. Furthermore, this

quantifiable data can be applied by understanding how neuroticism, agreeableness,

conscientiousness, and their association with emotional dissonance can be used to help

improve and increase understanding how psychological (PTSD, anxiety, depression) and

physical wellbeing (strokes and various cardiovascular problems) effect police officers and

other human service in a family or work environment. These findings will also contribute to

I/O psychology, organizational development and human resource professionals to help create

training interventions and policies that will better help law enforcement officer address

PTSD, anxiety, depression that is contributed from emotional dissonance.

Future implications. After evaluating the findings of this study, and Literature

Review of similar studies, there were future implications gleaned from this study that will

help advance the body of knowledge in personality and emotional dissonance. These future

implications will help build on understanding the relationship between five-factor model

personalities and emotional dissonance. In future studies researchers should include the work

shift police officers (predictor variable) work when examining the correlation between five-

factor model and emotional dissonance. For example, researchers should assess the police

officers work shift because research has suggested that certain shifts (i.e., afternoon and

midnight shifts) cause more stress than other work shifts (Fekedulegn et al., 2013; Kurtz,

2012). As a result of stress sustained from shift selection, particularly night shifts it was

found that police officers experienced higher incidences of morbidity, psychological and

149

physical (cardiovascular disease) wellbeing problems, than police officers that worked day

shifts (Fekedulegn et al., 2013). For these reasons, researchers should examine the correlation

work shifts with personality and their relationship with emotional dissonance.

After further analysis of the findings researchers should examine other theories of

personality that provide a more full scope of personality. For instance, rather than, examining

personality from the perspective of the five-factor model (McCrae & Costa, 1992), the five-

factor model is typically used to generalize personality (e.g., neuroticism, agreeableness,

conscientiousness, extraversion, openness), to describe the broader population (e.g.,

organizations, police departments, and hospitals), instead of individual personality. Other

theories such as the social-cognitive theory of personality should be researched. Cervone

(2001) has argued that the five-factor model is limited in giving a complete assessment of

personality from the individual perspective. The Social-cognitive theory of personality will

provide assessment of social environment context and affective or cognitive outlook in

assessing personality. Therefore, future implications from this study suggests that researchers

should consider examining personality from a social-cognitive approach, and its relationship

with emotional dissonance experienced among police officers. Additionally, the use of the

five-factor model is also a limitation of the study because it limited in describing personality

from just an individual perspective. As previously mention, the five-factor model only uses

five personality traits to explain overall human behavior; thus, making it a system of

personality assessment that is insufficient in explaining personality from different contexts.

However, McCrae and Costa did construct the five-factor theory that evolves a system that

explains personality from various dynamic processes: biological, basic tendencies,

characteristics adaptations, and external processes. Although the five-factor theory has a

150

refined theory for personality, the theory has limited use as a supplemental theory when the

five-factor model has been used in a plethora of research studies.

Another limitation of the study involved a lack of representation of police officers

less than 10 years. This limitation proposed problem because a proper comparison less senior

police officers and senior officers with 10 or more years could not be examined.

Furthermore, only a total 13 police officers participated in the study compared to 119

participants with more than 10 years. This data could have greatly provided information on

the difference between experience and less experience police officers, in how they

experience emotional dissonance based on personality.

A final limitation of the study and future implications this study only had one police

department to make up the sample, which does not provide a strong representation of the

population of police officers. In future studies, researchers should have a sample using rural

police department, small suburban police and large metropolitan police departments, which

will provide a more robust study. Finally, the study showed similar findings as other studies

examining the relationship between five-factor model personality traits and emotional

dissonance. The findings showed that there were strong proportional and inverse and

significant correlations between five-factor model personalities and emotional dissonance

experienced among police officers.

Recommendations

The findings obtained from this study have provided beneficial statistical data that

will address the various factors stress incurred from emotional dissonance. However, this

study has gleaned that the five-factor model maybe limited in predicting personality, but this

study has not exhausted the notion that numerous other personality approaches may also be

151

used to determine if personality is a predictor of emotional dissonance experience among

police officers. Therefore, further research should include examining other personality

approaches as predictors of emotional dissonance, and stress factors (e.g., burnout, PTSD,

anxiety) incurred by emotional dissonance among police officers. For these reasons, this

study will provide specific recommendations, and other methods of research that will outline

training methods to address stress experienced from emotional dissonance. Moreover, the

following recommendation will be beneficial to the study of emotional dissonance.

Recommendations for future research. The study findings have shown positive

(proportional and inverse) significance between five-factor model and emotional dissonance;

specifically, as they relate to police officers. Furthermore, the findings indicated that police

officers high in neuroticism were high in emotional dissonance, and that police officers low

both agreeableness and conscientiousness were higher in emotional dissonance. Thus, future

research should investigate these variables, and the other five-factor model variables (i.e.,

extraversion and openness) using qualitative research to understand how police officers

individual personal experiences have to do with their emotional battle of dealing with felt

emotions and having to preform organizational display rules (antecedents of emotional

dissonance) when interacting citizens or bystanders.

Further, other studies replicating this study should examine the same sample variables

using an experimental research design where a two experimental groups can be examine with

a non-treatment group (control group) in order to determine cause or effect. The use of

experimental research design will provide random sampling (every person has an equal

chance to be selected) whereas this current study used a purposive sampling method that only

solicited police officers based on voluntarily participation. Additionally, further replication of

152

this study should utilize the NEO-PI-R instead of the short version (NEO-FFI) used for this

current study. The NEO-PI-R uses a measuring scale that measures the five-factor model

with 230 items (questions), instead of 60 items used by the NEO-FFI. Further, the use of the

NEO-PI-R will provide a more comprehensive outlook of each five-factor model sub-scale.

Additionally, because conscientiousness has been found to be a predictor of job performance

in numerous occupations, further research is recommended to examine five-factor model

personalities and emotional dissonance among police officers, with the addition of examining

job performance as an outcome of the effects of emotional dissonance.

Bakker and Heuven (2006) suggested, when examining emotional dissonance,

cognitive dissonance should be included because it is the core element where emotional

dissonance is derived. For instance, cognitive dissonance is when two conflicting cognitions

are in conflict with each other, and as consequence of dissonance (emotional strain) the

individual changes their cognition or belief to protect their self-image (Bakker and Heuven,

2006). Therefore, future studies should examine cognitive dissonance and emotional

dissonance, in that, changing the conflicting cognitions by adding or reducing dissonance

(emotional strain) with positive emotions (e.g., joy, satisfaction, contentment) (Bakker &

Heuven, 2006).

Finally, other studies replicating this study should use the same variables, but also

examine the difference between police officers with more experience and police officers with

less, in addition, to age (younger and older) differences between police officers. This current

study was not able to determine a concise relationship between these variables because the

large Midwestern police department selected, had several hiring freezes, in which affected

the sample demographics for tenure (amount of experience) and age. Therefore, the

153

aforementioned recommendations will help extend the body of literature and professional

practice by further the research in understanding the relationship and/or effect five-factor

model personalities and emotional dissonance experienced among police officers.

Recommendations for future practice. The results from this current study indicated

that there were significant proportional and inverse correlations among police officers that

will be beneficial to professional practice in law enforcement occupations, and other human

service occupations. Moreover, law enforcement human resource departments will benefit

from the findings of this study, specifically, when used for personnel selection. Research has

indicated that personality test have less adverse impact on minorities than, cognitive ability

test, which have been found to have higher incidence of discrimination lawsuits (Barrett,

Miguel, Hurd, Lueke, & Tan, 2003). Further, the findings from the study were significant

because it was revealed that conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neuroticism were

predictors of emotional dissonance experienced by police officers.

Statistical analyses revealed that neuroticism (.001) and agreeableness (.012) were the

strongest predictors of emotional dissonance among police officers. Empirical research has

also substantiated that specific personality traits have been found to be indicators of

employee job performance. For example, agreeableness and neuroticism (emotional

stability), and specifically conscientiousness have been found to be indicators of job

performance (e.g., Aamodt, 2010; Cascio & Aguinis, 2011).

This current study has showed significant findings based on strong quantifiable

statistics that substantiated correlations between various five-factor model personality traits

and emotional dissonance among police officers working for a large Midwestern police

department. The evidence supplied from this study highlighted the relationships that have

154

made it capable for law enforcement administrators, human resource and organizational

development specialist (industrial and organizational psychologist) to identify training

objectives and outcomes in order to reduce the negative psychological effects (e.g., burnout

and PTSD) of emotional dissonance. For example, Chapter 2, literature review, has shown

that numerous studies have found that burnout is highly associated with emotional

dissonance and personality, resulting in reduce personal efficacy, emotional exhaustion,

depersonalization, cynicism, cognitive weariness, and physical fatigue (Bakker & Heuven,

2006; Cheung & Cheung, 2013; Armon, Shirom, and Melamed (2012) and Hurt, Grist,

Maleski Jr., McCord, 2013). Bakker and Heuven (2006) indicated that do to workload and

job demands police officers often experience increased psychological strain that causes

burnout. As a result, of burnout caused by continuous psychological strain, post-traumatic

stress disorder (PTSD) can become problematic for individuals who have exposure to high

stress situations, in this way, causing individuals to having elevated sensitivity to stress

(Brattberg, 2006). One prospective training recommendation for burnout is HeartMath

Transformation stress workshop, and it is composed of two intensive sessions the first one is

for 4 weeks than, the participants return for a 2-hour session. The training uses rhythmic

breathing, techniques to enhance positive emotions (e.g., gratitude or empathy), and bio-feed

back to encourage desired psychological mental states (e.g., Larsen, Augustine, & Prizmic,

2009).

Finally, two prospective training recommendations for PTSD, are evidence based

psychotherapy (EBP) treatments, which were used to treat veterans suffering from both

burnout and PTSD (Garcia et al., 2015). The first EBP recommended is the Cognitive

Processing Therapy (CPT), which is 12-session therapy that emphasizes addressing

155

individual trauma experiences, which are associated with safety, trust, power, control, self-

esteem, and intimacy. The second recommended training sessions is the 9 to 12 session

Prolonged Exposure Therapy that uses two therapy techniques, vivo exposure (e.g.,

individual has to confront real life and fears face-to-face) and imaginal exposure (e.g.,

individual relives past traumatic memories) (Garcia et al. 2015). Therefore, these

recommendations can be considered for practical suggestions that will help improve the

psychological and physical wellbeing of law enforcement officers and other human service

workers who have experienced the negative effects of emotional dissonance.

156

References

Aamodt, M. G. (2010). Industrial/organizational psychology (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth-Cengage Learning.

Abraham, R. (1998). Emotional dissonance in organizations: Antecedents, consequences, and

moderators. Genetic, Social, And General Psychology Monographs, 124(2), 229-246.

Abraham, R. (1999a). Negative affectivity: Moderator or confound in emotional dissonance–

outcome relationships? The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary And Applied,

133(1), 61-72. doi:10.1080/00223989909599722

Abraham, R. (1999b). The impact of emotional dissonance on organizational commitment

and intention to turnover. The Journal Of Psychology: Interdisciplinary And Applied,

133(4), 441-455. doi:10.1080/00223989909599754

Abraham, R. (2000). The role of job control as a moderator of emotional dissonance and

emotional intelligence-outcome relationships. The Journal of Psychology:

Interdisciplinary And Applied, 134(2), 169-184. doi:10.1080/00223980009600860

Allen, J. A., Diefendorff, J. M., & Ma, Y. (2014). Difference in emotional labor across

cultures: A comparison of Chinese and U.S. service workers. Journal of Business

Psychology, 29, 21-35. doi:10.1007/s10869-013-9288-7

Andela, M., Truchot, D., & Borteyrou, X. (2015a). Emotional labour and burnout: Some

methodological considerations and refinements. Canadian Journal of Behavioural

Science, 47 (4), 321-332.

Andela, M., Truchot, D., & Van der Doef, M. (2015b). Job Stressors and Burnout in

Hospitals: The Mediating Role of Emotional Dissonance. International Journal of

Stress Management, doi:10.1037/str0000013

157

Armon, G., Shirom, A., & Melamed, S. (2012). The big five personality factors as predictors

of changes across time in burnout and its facets. Journal of Personality, 80(2), 403-

427. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00731. x.

Ashforth, B. E., & Humphrey, R. H. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: The influence

of identity. Academy of Management Review, 18(1), 88–115.

Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2007). Empirical, theoretical, and practical advantages of the

HEXACO model of personality structure. Personality and Social Psychology Review,

11, 150–166.

Baker, T. D. (2012). Confidentiality and electronic surveys: How IRBs address ethical and

technical issues. IRB: Ethics & Human Research, 34(5),

Bakker, A. & Heuven, E. (2006). Emotional Dissonance, Burnout, and In-Role

Barratt, C. L., Bergman, M. E., & Thompson, R. J. (2014). Women in federal law

enforcement: The role of gender role orientations and sexual orientation in mentoring.

Sex Roles, 71(1-2), 21-32. doi:10.1007/s11199-014-0388-2

Barrett, G. V., Miguel, R. F., Hurd, J. M., Lueke, S. B., & Tan, J. A. (2003). Practical Issues

in the Use of Personality Tests in Police Selection. Public Personnel Management,

32(4), 497-517.

Bastiaansen, L., Rossi, G., & De Fruyt, F. (2013). Comparing five sets of five-factor model

personality disorder counts in a heterogeneous sample of psychiatric patients.

European Journal Of Personality, 27(4), 377-388. doi:10.1002/per.1859

Bechtoldt, M. N., Rohrmann, S., De Pater, I. E., & Beersma, B. (2011). The primacy of

perceiving: Emotion recognition buffers negative effects of emotional labor. Journal

of Applied Psychology, 96 (5), 1087-1094.

158

Beehr, T. A., Ivanitskaya, L., Glaser, K., Erofeev, D., & Canali, K. (2004). Working in a

violent environment: The accuracy of police officers' reports about shooting incidents.

Journal Of Occupational And Organizational Psychology, 77(2), 217-235.

doi:10.1348/096317904774202153

Beus, J. M., Dhanani, & McCord, M. A. (2015). A meta-analysis of personality and

workplace safety: Addressing unanswered questions. Journal of Applied Psychology,

100 (2), 481-498.

Beutler, L. E., Nussbaum, P. D., & Meredith, K. E. (1988). Changing personality patterns of

police officers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(5), 503-507.

doi:10.1037/0735-7028.19.5.503

Block, J. (1995). A contrarian view of the five-factor approach to personality description.

Psychological Bulletin, 117(2), 187-215. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.2.187

Block, J. (2001). Millennial contrarianism: The five-factor approach to personality

description 5 years later. Journal of Research in Personality, 35, 98–107.

Block, J. (2010). The five-factor framing of personality and beyond: Some ruminations.

Psychological Inquiry, 21(1), 2-25. doi:10.1080/10478401003596626

Bordens, K. S. & Abbott, B. B. (2011). Research design and methods (8th ed.). New York,

NY: McGraw-Hill.

Brattberg, G. (2006). PTSD and ADHD: Underlying factors in many cases of burnout. Stress

And Health: Journal Of The International Society for The Investigation Of Stress,

22(5), 305-313. doi:10.1002/smi.1112

159

Carrasco, H., Martínez-Tur, V., Moliner, C., Peiró, J. M., & Ramis, C. (2014). Linking

emotional dissonance and service climate to well-being at work: A cross-level

analysis. Universitas Psychologica, 13(3), 947-960.

Cervone, D. (2004). The Architecture of Personality. Psychological Review, 111(1), 183-204.

doi:10.1037/0033-295X.111.1.183

Cervone, D., Shadel, W. G., & Jencius, S. (2001). Social-cognitive theory of personality

assessment. Personality And Social Psychology Review, 5(1), 33-51.

doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0501_3

Cheung, F. Y., & Tang, C. S. (2010). Effects of age, gender, and emotional labor strategies

on job outcomes: Moderated mediation analyses. Applied Psychology: Health and

Well-Being, 2(3), 323-339. doi: 10.1111/j.1758-0854.2010. 01037.x

Cheung, F., & Cheung, R. (2013). Effect of emotional dissonance on organizational

citizenship behavior: Testing the stressor-strain-outcome model. The Journal Of

Psychology: Interdisciplinary And Applied, 147(1), 89-103.

doi:10.1080/00223980.2012.676576

Cheung, F., & Lun, V. M. (2015). Emotional labor and occupational well-being: A latent

profile analytic approach. Journal of Individual Differences, 36(1), 30-37.

doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000152

Cheung, F., & Tang, C. (2012). The effect of emotional dissonance and emotional

intelligence on work–family interference. Canadian Journal of Behavioural

Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 44(1), 50-58.

doi:10.1037/a0025798

160

Cheung, F., Tang, C. S., & Tang, S. (2011). Psychological capital as a moderator between

emotional labor, burnout, and job satisfaction among school teachers in China.

International Journal of Stress Management, 18(4), 348-371. doi:10.1037/a0025787

Chiaburu, M. B., Li, N., & Gardner, R. G. (2011). The five-factor model of personality traits

and organizational citizenship behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied

Psychology, 96 (6), 1140-1146.

Choi, D., Oh, I., & Colbert, A. E. (2015). Understanding Organizational Commitment: A

Meta-Analytic Examination of the Roles of the Five-Factor Model of Personality and

Culture. Journal Of Applied Psychology, doi:10.1037/apl0000014.

Conn, S. M., & Butterfield, L. D. (2013). Coping with secondary traumatic stress by general

duty police officers: Practical implications. Canadian Journal of Counselling and

Psychotherapy, 47(2), 272-298.

Daderman, A. M., & De Colli, D. (2014). The significance of the sense of coherence for

various coping resources in stress situations used by police officers in on-the-beat

service. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health,

27(1), 3-15. doi:10.2478/s13382-014-0227-2

Detrick, P., & Chibnall, J. T. (2013). Revised NEO Personality Inventory normative data for

police officer selection. Psychological Services, 10(4), 372-377.

doi:10.1037/a0031800

Diamond, L. K. (2005). Antecedents and consequences of emotional dissonance:

Understanding the relationships among personality, emotional dissonance, job

satisfaction, intention to quit and job performance (Order No. 3168614). Available

from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text: The Humanities and Social

161

Sciences Collection. (305421205). Retrieved from

http://search.proquest.com/docview/305421205?accountid=7374

Diestel S, Schmidt K. (2011). The moderating role of cognitive control deficits in the link

from emotional dissonance to burnout symptoms and absenteeism. Journal of

Occupational Health Psychology [serial online]. July 2011;16(3):313-330. Available

from: PsycINFO, Ipswich, MA. Accessed October 29, 2014.

Dubey, A., & Pandey, R. (2013). Mental health problems in alexithymia: Role of positive

and negative emotional experiences. Journal Of Projective Psychology & Mental

Health, 20(2), 128-136.

Du Preez, E., Ghazinour, M., Cassimjee, N., Lauritz, L. E., & Richter, J. (2011). Personality

and mental health: An investigation of South African police trainees. Psychological

reports, 108 (1), 301-316.

Ebstrup, J. F., Eplov, L. F., Pisinger, C., & Jørgensen, T. (2011). Association between the

Five Factor personality traits and perceived stress: Is the effect mediated by general

self-efficacy? Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 24(4), 407-419.

doi:10.1080/10615806.2010.540012

Faul, F., Erdfedler, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G

power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavioral Research

Methods; 41 (4) 1149-60

FBI (2011). Crime in the United States 2011. Retrieved from https://www.fbi.gov/about-

us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2011/crime-in-the-u.s.-

2011/tables/table_16_rate_number_of_crimes_per_100000_inhabitants_by_populatio

n_group_2011.xls

162

Fekedulegn, D., Burchfiel, C. M., Hartley, T. A., Andrew, M. E., Charles, L. E., Tinney-

Zara, C. A., & Violanti, J. M. (2013). Shiftwork and sickness absence among police

officers: The BCOPS study. Chronobiology International, 30(7), 930-941.

doi:10.3109/07420528.2013.790043

Garcia, H. A., McGeary, C. A., Finley, E. P., Ketchum, N. S., McGeary, D. D., & Peterson,

A. L. (2015). Evidence-based treatments for PTSD and VHA provider burnout: The

impact of cognitive processing and prolonged exposure therapies. Traumatology,

21(1), 7-13. doi:10.1037/trm0000014

Gelo, O. Braakmann, D., & Benetka, G. (2008). Quantitative and qualitative research:

Beyond the debate. Integrated Psych Behavior, 42, 266-290.

Gore, W. L., & Widiger, T. A. (2013). The DSM-5 dimensional trait model and five-factor

models of general personality. Journal Of Abnormal Psychology, 122(3), 816-821.

doi:10.1037/a0032822.

Goussinsky, R. (2011). Does customer aggression more strongly affect happy employees?

The moderating role of positive affectivity and extraversion. Motivation and Emotion,

35(2), 220-234. doi:10.1007/s11031-011-9215-z

Grandey, A. A., Chi, N., & Diamond, J. A. (2013). Show me the money! Do financial

rewards for performance enhance or undermine the satisfaction from emotional

labor?. Personnel Psychology, 66(3), 569-612. doi:10.1111/peps.12037

Grant, S. & Langan-Fox, J. (2007). Personality and the occupational stressor-strain

relationship: The role of the big five. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12

(1), 20-33.

163

Hall, G. B., Dollard, M. F., Tuckey, M. R., Winefield, A. H., & Thompson, B. M. (2010).

Job demands, work–family conflict, and emotional exhaustion in police officers: A

longitudinal test of competing theories. Journal of Occupational And Organizational

Psychology, 83(1), 237-250. doi:10.1348/096317908X401723

Han, Y., Wang, M., & Dong, L. (2014). Role conflict and the buffering effect of proactive

personality among middle managers. Social Behavior and Personality, 42(3), 473-

486.

Hessels, C., Van Den Hanenberg, D., De Castro, B. O., & Van Aken, M. G. (2014).

Relationships: Empirical contribution: Understanding personality pathology in

adolescents: The five factor model of personality and social information processing.

Journal Of Personality Disorders, 28(1), 121-142. doi:10.1521/pedi.2014.28.1.121

Hetland, Saksvik, Albertsen, Berntsen, & Henriksen (2012)."All work and no play…”

overcommitment and personality among university and college students. College

Student Journal, 46 (3), 470- 482.

Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of Human Feelings.

Berkeley: University of California Press.

Hopp, H., Rohrmann, S., Zapf, D., & Hodapp, V. (2010). Psychophysiological effects of

emotional dissonance in a face-to-face service interaction. Anxiety, Stress & Coping:

An International Journal, 23(4), 399-414. doi:10.1080/10615800903254091

Hosie, J., Gilbert, F., Simpson, K., & Daffern, M. (2014). An examination of the relationship

between personality and aggression using the general aggression and five factor

models. Aggressive Behavior, 40(2), 189-196. doi:10.1002/ab.21510

164

Hulsheger, U. R. & Schewe, A. F. (2011). On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: A

meta-analysis of three decades of research. Journal of Occupational Health

Psychology, 16 (3), 361-389.

Hurt, A. A., Grist, C. L., Malesky, L. J., & McCord, D. M. (2013). Personality traits

associated with occupational 'burnout' in ABA therapists. Journal of Applied

Research In Intellectual Disabilities, 26(4), 299-308. doi:10.1111/jar.12043

Hwang, H. S., & Matsumoto, D. (2012). Ethnic differences in display rules are mediated by

perceived relationship commitment. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 3(4),

254-262. doi:10.1037/a0026627

Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2008). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and

mixed approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Kachurik, S., Ruiz, J., & Staub, M. (2013). Police officers killed on duty: a different view.

International Journal Of Police Science & Management, 15(2), 114-124.

doi:10.1350/ijps.2013.15.2.306

Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R. P., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. (1964).

Organizational stress: Studies in role conflict and ambiguity. New York: Wiley.

Kehoe, E. G., Toomey, J. M., Balsters, J. H., & Bokde, A. W. (2012). Personality modulates

the effects of emotional arousal and valence on brain activation. Social Cognitive And

Affective Neuroscience, 7(7), 858-870. doi:10.1093/scan/nsr059

Keiss, H. O. & Green, B. A. (2010). Statistical concepts for the behavioral sciences (4th ed.).

Boston, MA: Pearson.

Klein, R.B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, New

York: Guilford Press.

165

Klimstra, Luyckx, Goossens, Teppers, & De Fruyt (2013). Association of identity

dimensions with big five personality domains and facets. European Journal of

Personality, 27, 213-221.

Kobasa, E., & Puccetti, M. (1983). Personality and social resources in

Komulainen, E., Meskanen, K., Lipsanen, J., Lahti, J. M., Jylha, P., Melartin, T,…Wichers,

M. (2014). The effects of personality on daily life emotional processes. Personality

and Daily Processes, 9 (10), 1-9.

Körner, A., Czajkowska, Z., Albani, C., Drapeau, M., Geyer, M., & Braehler, E. (2015).

Efficient and valid assessment of personality traits: Population norms of a brief

version of the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Archives Of Psychiatry And

Psychotherapy, 17(1), 21-32. doi:10.12740/APP/36086

Kovács, M., Kovács, E., & Hegedűs, K. (2010). Is emotional dissonance more prevalent in

oncology care? Emotion work, burnout and coping. Psycho-Oncology, 19(8), 855-

862. doi:10.1002/pon.1631

Kurtz, D. L. (2012). Roll call and the second shift: The influences of gender and family on

police stress. Police Practice & Research: An International Journal, 13(1), 71-86.

doi:10.1080/15614263.2011.596714

Laher, S. (2013). Understanding the Five-Factor Model and Five-Factor Theory through a

South African cultural lens. South African Journal Of Psychology, 43(2), 208-221.

doi:10.1177/0081246313483522.

Larsen, R. J., Augustine, A. A., & Prizmic, Z. (2009). A process approach to emotion and

personality: Using time as a facet of data. Cognition and Emotion, 23(7), 1407-1426.

doi:10.1080/02699930902851302

166

Lee, Y., & Wu, W. (2015). Effects of medical disputes on Internet communications of

negative emotions and negative online word-of-mouth. Psychological Reports,

117(1), 251-270. doi: 10.2466/21.PR0.117c13z1

Leikas, S., & Lindeman, M. (2009). Personality, threat identification and emotional

processing. European Journal of Personality, 23 (6), 455-474.

Luong, G., Charles, S. T., Rook, K. S., Reynolds, C. A., & Gatz, M. (2015). Age differences

and longitudinal change in the effects of data collection mode on self-reports of

psychosocial functioning. Psychology And Aging, 30(1), 106-119.

doi:10.1037/a0038502

Major, D. A., Turner, J. E., & Fletcher, T. D. (2006). Linking proactive personality and the

Big Five to motivation to learn and development activity. Journal Of Applied

Psychology, 91(4), 927-935. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.4.927

Marchand, A., Nadeau, C., Beaulieu-Prévost, D., Boyer, R., & Martin, M. (2015). Predictors

of posttraumatic stress disorder among police officers: A prospective study.

Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, And Policy, 7(3), 212-221.

doi:10.1037/a0038780

Marszalek, J. M., Barber, C., Kohlhart, J., & Holmes, C. B. (2011). Sample size in

psychological research over the past 30 years. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 112(2),

331-348. doi: 10.2466/03.11.PMS.112.2.331-3

McCrae, R. R. (2010). The place of the FFM in personality psychology. Psychological

Inquiry, 21, 57-64.

167

McCrae, R. R. & Terracciano, A. (2005). Universal features of personality traits from the

observer’s perspective: Data from 50 cultures. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 88, 547–561.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (2008a). Empirical and theoretical status of the Five Factor

Model of personality traits. In G. J. Boyle, G. Matthews & D. H. Saklofske (Eds.),

The SAGE handbook of personality.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (2010). NEO inventories for NEO personality Inventory-3.

Lutz, FL: Parinc.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (2008b). The five factor theory of personality. In O. P.

John, R. W. Robins & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and

research (3rd ed., pp. 157–180). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

McCrae, R. R., & John, O. P. (1992). An introduction to the five-factor model and its

applications. Journal Of Personality, 60(2), 175-215. doi:10.1111/j.1467-

6494.1992.tb00970.x

McShane, B. B., & Böckenholt, U. (2016). Planning sample sizes when effect sizes are

uncertain: The power-calibrated effect size approach. Psychological Methods, 21(1),

47-60. doi:10.1037/met0000036

Meyers, L. S., Gamst, G., & Gurarino, A. J. (2013). Applied multivariate research: Design

and interpretation (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Mishra, S. K., & Bhatnagar, D. (2010). Linking emotional dissonance and organizational

identification to turnover intention and emotional well-being: A study of medical

representatives in India. Human Resource Management, 49(3), 401-419.

doi:10.1002/hrm.20362

168

Morgan, B., & de Bruin, K. (2010). The relationship between the big five personality traits

and burnout in South African university students. South African Journal Of

Psychology, 40(2), 182-191.

Morris, J. A., & Feldman, D. C. (1996). The dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of

emotional labor. The Academy of Management Review, 21(4), 986-1010.

doi:10.2307/259161

Park, H. I., O’Rourke, E., & O’Brien, K. E. (2014). Extending conservation of resources

theory: The interaction between emotional labor and interpersonal influence.

International Journal Of Stress Management, 21(4), 384-405. doi:10.1037/a0038109

Pe, M. L., Koval, P., Houben, M., Erbas, Y., Champagne, D., & Kuppens, P. (2015).

Updating in working memory predicts greater emotion reactivity to and facilitated

recovery from negative emotion-eliciting stimuli. Frontiers in Psychology, 6

Performance Among Nurses and Police Officers. International Journal of Stress

Management, 13(4), 423-440.

PilÁrik, Ľ., & SarmÁny-Schuller, I. (2011). Personality predictors of decision-making of

medical rescuers. Studia Psychologica, 53(2), 175-184.

Pugh, S., Groth, M., & Hennig-Thurau, T. (2011). Willing and able to fake emotions: A

closer examination of the link between emotional dissonance and employee well-

being. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(2), 377-390. doi:10.1037/a0021395

Rafaeli, A., & Sutton, R. I. (1987). Expression of emotion as part of the work role. Academy

of Management Review, 12, 23-37.

Rumrill, P. J. (2004). Non-manipulation quantitative designs. Work: Journal of Prevention,

Assessment & Rehabilitation, 22(3), 225-260.

169

Saksvik, I. B., & Hetland, H. (2011). The role of personality in stress perception across

different vocational types. Journal of Employment Counseling, 48(1), 3-16.

Sorić, I., Penezić, Z., & Burić, I. (2013). Big five personality traits, cognitive appraisals and

emotion regulation strategies as predictors of achievement emotions. Psihologijske

Teme, 22(2), 325-349.

Soto, C. J., John, O. P., Gosling, S. D., & Potter, J. (2011). Age differences in personality

traits from 10 to 65: Big Five domains and facets in a large cross-sectional sample.

Journal Of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(2), 330-348.

doi:10.1037/a0021717

Steel, P., Schmidt, J., & Shultz, J. (2008). Refining the relationship between personality and

subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 138-161. doi:10.1037/0033-

2909.134.1.138

stress resistance. Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 839-850.

Sutin, A. R. & Costa, Jr., P. T. (2010). Reciprocal influences of personality and job

characteristics across middle adulthood. Journal of Personality, 78 (1), 257-288.

Tabachnick, B. G. & Fidell, S. F. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA:

Pearson.

Tavakol, M. & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal

of Medical Education, 2, 53-55.

Taylor, S. G., & Kluemper, D. H. (2012). Linking perceptions of role stress and incivility to

workplace aggression: The moderating role of personality. Journal of Occupational

Health Psychology, 17(3), 316-329. doi:10.1037/a0028211

170

Törnroos, M., Hintsanen, M., Hintsa, T., Jokela, M., Pulkki-Råback, L., Hutri-Kähönen, N.,

& Keltikangas-Järvinen, L. (2013). Associations between Five-Factor Model traits

and perceived job strain: A population-based study. Journal of Occupational Health

Psychology, 18(4), 492-500. doi:10.1037/a0033987

Van den Tooren, M., & Rutte, C. (2015). Explaining emotional exhaustion and work

engagement: The role of job demands-resources and Type D personality.

International Journal of Stress Management, doi:10.1037/a0039754

Van der Velden, P. G., Kleber, R. J., Grievink, L., & Yzermans, J. C. (2010). Confrontations

with aggression and mental health problems in police officers: The role of

organizational stressors, life-events and previous mental health problems.

Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, And Policy, 2(2), 135-144.

doi:10.1037/a0019158

Van Gelderen, B. R., Bakker, A. B., Konijn, E. A., & Demerouti, E. (2011). Daily

suppression of discrete emotions during the work of police service workers and

criminal investigation officers. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal,

24(5), 515-537. doi:10.1080/10615806.2011.560665

Weigold, A., Weigold, I. K., & Russell, E. J. (2013). Examination of the equivalence of self-

report survey-based paper-and-pencil and internet data collection methods.

Psychological Methods, 18(1), 53-70. doi:10.1037/a0031607

Williams, M., Gómez Grajales, C., & Kurkiewicz, D. (2013). Assumptions of multiple

regression: Correcting two misconceptions. Practical Assessment, Research &

Evaluation, 18 (11/12), 1-14.

171

Wu, C. (2009). Role conflicts, emotional exhaustion and health problems: A study of police

officers in Taiwan. Stress And Health: Journal Of The International Society For The

Investigation of Stress, 25(3), 259-265. doi:10.1002/smi.1245

Zaman, S., Anis-ul-Haque, M., & Nawaz, S. (2014). Work–family interface and its

relationship with job performance: The moderating role of conscientiousness and

agreeableness. South African Journal Of Psychology, 44(4), 528-538.

doi:10.1177/0081246314541439

Zanon, C., Bastianello, M., C., Pacico, J. C., & Hutz, C. S. (2013). Relationships between

positive and negative affect and the five factors of personality in a Brazilian sample.

Paideia, 23 (56), 285-292.

Zillig, L. M. P., Hemenover, S. H., & Dienstbier (2002). What do we assess when we assess

a big 5?: A content analysis of the affective, behavioral, and cognitive processes

represented in big 5 personality inventories. Personality and Social Psychology

Bulletin, 28 (6), 847-858.

172

Appendix A

IRB Approval Letter

173

Appendix B

Informed Consent Form

Grand Canyon University

College of Doctoral Studies

3300 W. Camelback Road

Phoenix, AZ 85017

Phone: 602-639-7804

Fax: 602-639-7820

INFORMED CONSENT FORM

TITLE OF RESEARCH STUDY

The examination of the Five-Factor Model and its Relationship as a Predictor of Emotional

Dissonance in Police Officers

INTRODUCTION

The purposes of this form are to provide you (as a prospective research study participant)

information that may affect your decision as to whether or not to participate in this research

and to record the consent of those who agree to be involved in the study.

RESEARCH

Darrel Martin, Student Researcher, Grand Canyon University has invited your participation

in a research study.

STUDY PURPOSE

The purpose of the research is to determine how the five-factor personality model will act

as a Predictor’s of the level of emotional dissonance experienced among police officers.

DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH STUDY

If you decide to participate, then as a study participant you will join a study that is trying to

determine if five-factor model personalities (e.g., neuroticism, agreeableness, consciousness,

extraversion, openness) will have relationship with the level of emotional dissonance

experienced among police officers. The study requires each participant take two survey

measures that will take a minimum of 15 to 20 minutes. Each participant is required to

complete all questions listed on the survey measures once they began taking the survey

measures. The identity of each participant will be protected through a secure web link

provided by SurveyMonkey, in which only the researcher and the SurveyMonkey

researcher will have access. No identifying names will be disclosed.

Once the participants enter SurveyMonkey, the informed consent form will be posted on

the first page. Once each participant has begins taking the first survey question, consent will

be implied, implying that the participants has accepted the terms of the study. Further,

consent will last through the completion of however long it takes to complete the study.

174

Further, it advised that each participant take the survey measure in a private comfort able

place, preferably at the participant place of residents. Approximately 138 participants are

needed for the study.

RISKS

There are no known risks from taking part in this study, but in any research, there is some

possibility that you may be subject to risks that have not yet been identified.

BENEFITS

The possible/main benefits of your participation in the research are that participant will part

of a study that is trying to learn how personality maybe a factor in emotional dissonance,

which is an emotional discrepancy between the employees felt emotions and displaying

organizational display rules (e.g., be friendly to all citizens). Research has established that

emotional dissonance is one of the leading factors of various types of workplace burnout,

e.g., emotional exhaustion, cynicism, depersonalization. The results will also help learn how

police officers’ personalities, working in large cities contribute to emotional dissonance.

NEW INFORMATION

If the researchers find new information during the study that would reasonably change your

decision about participating, then they will provide this information to you.

CONFIDENTIALITY

All information obtained in this study is strictly confidential. The results of this research

study may be used in reports, presentations, and publications, but the researchers will not

identify you. In order to maintain confidentiality of your records, Darrel Martin will use

codes in the surveys and each individual will be assigned a specific code. Furthermore, all

data collected will be secured by SurveyMonkey’s secure website where access to data will

only be permitted to the researcher and the SurveyMonkey administrator. If there are paper

copies of survey measures or informed consent disclaimers, all documents will be locked in a

small private safe where the researcher will be the only person with the safe combination.

Finally, all data acquired from the study will be kept for three years after completion of the

study then destroyed.

WITHDRAWAL

Participation in this study is completely voluntary. It is ok for you to say no. Even if you say

yes now, you are free to say no later, and withdraw from the study at any time. Your

participation is voluntary and nonparticipation or withdrawal from the study, and it will not

affect your employment status in any way.

175

VOLUNTARY CONSENT

Any questions you have concerning the research study or your participation in the study,

before or after your consent, will be answered by Darrel Martin, and I be contacted by email

at [email protected]

If you have questions about your rights as a subject/participant in this research, or if you feel

you have been placed at risk, you can contact the Chair of the Institutional Review Board,

through the College of Doctoral Studies at (602) 639-7804.

This form explains the nature, demands, benefits and any risk of the project. By signing this

form, you agree knowingly to assume any risks involved. Remember, your participation is

voluntary. You may choose not to participate or to withdraw your consent and discontinue

participation at any time without penalty or loss of benefit. In signing this consent form, you

are not waiving any legal claims, rights, or remedies. A copy of this consent form will be

given (offered) to you.

Your signature below indicates that you consent to participate in the above study.

___________________________ _________________________ ____________

Subject's Signature Printed Name Date

___________________________ _________________________ ____________

Other Signature Printed Name Date

(if appropriate)

INVESTIGATOR’S STATEMENT

"I certify that I have explained to the above individual the nature and purpose, the potential

benefits and possible

risks associated with participation in this research study, have answered any questions that

have been raised, and have witnessed the above signature. These elements of Informed

Consent conform to the Assurance given by Grand Canyon University to the Office for

Human Research Protections to protect the rights of human subjects. I have provided

(offered) the subject/participant a copy of this signed consent document."

Signature of Investigator_____________________________________Date___________

176

Appendix C

Permission to Use and Publish the Survey Instruments

From: Darrel Martin <[email protected]>

Sent: Monday, December 28, 2015 7:56

To: Marie Andela [[email protected]]

Subject: Permission to use Your Study

Hello Dr. Andela,

I am writing to ask your permission to use your psychometric questionnaire that measures

emotional labor. I am a police officer working on my Ph.D. in general psychology with a

specialization in industrial and organizational psychology, and my research question is,

“Does the 5 Factor Model personality traits contribute to emotional dissonance experienced

among police officers?” In my dissertation study, I am measuring emotional dissonance, in

which your emotional labor measurement scale has an individual sub-scale for emotional

dissonance. The sub-scale for emotional dissonance will provide valuable information for my

dissertation study because it emphasizes on “feelings of discrepancy”. I am excited to start

my research in order to investigate the relationship between five-factor model personalities

and emotional dissonance among police officers. This vital knowledge gained from this study

will greatly contribute to emotional dissonance literature. In addition, I need to obtain copies

of your questionnaires, either electronically (preferably) or via paper copies. If you have any

questions, feel free to contact me at any time. I am expecting to begin the research shortly

after approvals are obtained.

I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Sincerely,

Darrel Martin, MSP

Doctoral Student

From: Marie Andela <[email protected]>

Sent: Friday, January 1, 2016 6:28 AM

To: Darrel Martin [[email protected]]

Subject: RE: Permission to use Your Survey

Dear Martin,

Thank you for your interest. Of course you can use my scale. You can find the English

version of the emotional dissonance scale in the attached document or on research gate.

You’ll find it when you’ll be done with your dissertation!

I wish you all the best with your work,

Kind regards,

Marie Andela

From: Darrel Martin <[email protected]>

Subject: Permission to use Your Study

Sent: Sunday, November 8, 2015 1:23 PM

177

To: Parinc Custup [[email protected]]

Subject: Permission to use Your Survey

To whom it concern,

I am student at Grand Canyon University, and I am asking permission to use the Five-Factor

model psychometric questionnaire designed by McCrae and Costa (1992). I am a police

officer working on my Ph.D. in general psychology with a specialization in industrial and

organizational psychology, and my research question is, “Does the 5 Factor Model

personality traits contribute to emotional dissonance experienced among police officers?” the

questions used in McCrae and Costas’ NEO- Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) psychometric

questionnaire will be extremely valuable in measuring the five-hierarchical personalities, so I

am seeking your permission to use the psychometric questionnaire. I am excited to start my

research in order to investigate the relationship between five-factor model personalities and

emotional dissonance experienced among police officers. The vital knowledge gained from

this study will greatly contribute to emotional dissonance literature. In addition, I need to

obtain copies of your questionnaires, either electronically (preferably) or via paper copies. If

you have any questions, feel free to contact me at anytime. I am expecting to begin the

research shortly after approvals are obtained.

I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Darrel Martin, MPsy

Doctoral Candidate

Darrel, MPsy

From: Vicki McFadden <[email protected]>

Sent: Friday, January 15, 2016

To: Martin, Darrel [[email protected]]

Subject: Permission to use Your Survey

Darrel,

We require that you purchase the NEO Manual and request a sample of the NEO-FFI. We do

not provide electronic versions of the published forms. Please see my prior email in regards

to the purchase of the manual.

In addition, PAR will not grant permission to include an entire test or scale in any

publication, including dissertations and theses. However, the inclusion of 3 sample items

may be approved. Do you mean your dissertation proposal, since you have not started

collecting data.

178

Appendix D

Emotional Dissonance Subscale

The emotional dissonance subscale uses a 5-point Likert scale, e.g., “1-strongly agree” to 5-

strongly disagree.

Emotional Dissonance 1

The emotions that I feel in my job do not correspond to these I would like to feel.

Emotional Dissonance 2

My work situation brings me to experience emotions at variance with those I would like to

feel.

Emotional Dissonance 3

I experience a discrepancy between the emotions I express to be

professional and what I feel.

Emotional Dissonance 4

The emotions I show in order to be professional are not in phase

with my inner feelings.

179

Appendix E.

NEO-Five-Factor Model Inventory Instrument

Because the NEO-Five Factor Model Inventory is a copyrighted measure by PAR Inc., they

gave implicit direction that only three questions can be placed on this current dissertation.

1. At times I have been so ashamed I just wanted to hide

2. I really enjoy talking to people

3. Some people think of me as cold and calculating

180

Appendix F.

Site Permission Letter to Conduct Study

Letter in file at Grand Canyon University

181

Appendix G.

Approval Letter from the Chief of Police

Site approval on file at Grand Canyon University

182

Appendix H.

Permission to Conduct Study from the Detroit Police Officers Association

Letter on file at Grand Canyon University.

183

Appendix I.

Power Analysis

184

Appendix K

Post-Hoc Power Analysis