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Chapter Twelve

Work: Occupational and Lifestyle Issues in Young and Middle Adulthood

Introduction

What factors are attributed to job satisfaction?

What difficulties do middle-aged people face when they need to switch careers?

How do men and women differ regarding career choice?

How do parents juggle work and caring for children?

12.1 Occupational Selection and Development

Learning Objectives

How do people view work?

How do people choose their occupations?

What factors influence occupational development?

What is the relationship between job satisfaction and age?

The Meaning of Work, Part 1

Most people view work as a means for obtaining money and personal growth

Personal achievement is fulfilled through work based on whether or not meanings can be achieved

Developing self

Union with others

Expressing self

Serving others

The Meaning of Work, Part 2

Meaning-mission fit: the alignment between an executive’s personal intentions and the company’s mission

When aligned, executives care more about employees’ happiness, job satisfaction, and emotional well-being

Occupational Choice Revisited, Part 1

Three theories on adults’ choice of work:

Career construction theory: people build careers through own actions that result from personal characteristics and the social context

Holland’s personality-type theory: people choose work based on the fit between their individual traits and occupational interests

Social cognitive career theory (SCCT): career choice is the result of the application of Bandura’s social cognitive theory, especially self-efficacy

Occupational Choice Revisited, Part 2

Figure 12.1 The four-variable (paths 1–6) and six-variable (paths 1–13) versions of the SCCT

interest and choice models.

Occupational Development, Part 1

Personal experiences affect people’s occupational goals

Goals may change due to changing interests, not having a good fit with the job, or the need for further education to advance

People with the talent and opportunity to achieve their goals often obtain them

Young adults usually modify career expectations at least once

Occupational Development, Part 2

Millennials tend to change jobs more often than in other generations

However, they generally have the same level of satisfaction

Reality shock: what is learned in the classroom does not carry over to the real world, and does not represent all a person needs to know

Best addressed through internships and practicum experiences

Occupational Development, Part 3

Mentor/executive coach: part teacher, part sponsor, part model, and part counselor who facilitates on-the-job learning for present and future work

Helps protégé receive credit where due

High-quality relationship can lead to occupational success

Mentors practice leadership skills and sense of generativity from the relationship

Occupational Development, Part 4

Women and minorities particularly benefit from having a mentor

Creates higher expectations

Cultural background of the employee should be incorporated into the relationship

One possible downfall: having a poor mentor is worse than having no mentor

Careful matching of mentors to protégés is necessary

Job Satisfaction, Part 1

Job satisfaction: the positive feeling that results from the appraisal of one’s work

Generally increases with age for white-collar professionals

What contributes to job satisfaction?

Accumulation of experience

Stage of career development

Flexibility to meet family responsibilities

Job Satisfaction, Part 2

Alienation: when workers feel that what they are doing is meaningless and efforts are devalued

Also refers to if they cannot see connection between what they do and the final product

Positive work environments provide stability and commitment

Trust between employees and employer is key

Job Satisfaction, Part 3

Burnout: the depletion of a person’s energy and motivation, loss of occupational idealism, and the feeling of being exploited

Result of stress

Most common among those in helping professions

Not all workers in a profession experience burnout

May be related to the different types of passion one has for her job (model proposed by Vallerand)

Job Satisfaction, Part 4

Passion: strong inclination toward an activity that individuals like (or love), that they value, and in which they invest time and energy

Obsessive passion makes it hard to not think about the activity, therefore disrupting other areas in a person’s life

Harmonious passion results when a person feels free (not pressured) to perform the activity

Burnout can be lowered with intervention programs and stress-reduction for employees

Job Satisfaction, Part 5

Figure 12.2 Path analytic model of the relationships among passion, satisfaction at work, conflict, and burnout. Harmonious passion predicts higher levels of satisfaction at work, which predict lower levels of burnout. In contrast, obsessive passion predicts higher levels of conflict, which in turn predict higher levels of burnout. ***p < .001.

From “On the role of passion for work in burnout: A process model,” by R. J. Vallerand, Y. Paquet, F. L. Philippe, and J. Charest, in Journal of Personality, Vol. 78, Figure 1, p. 300. © Wiley-Blackwell 2010.

12.2 Gender, Ethnicity, and Discrimination Issues

Learning Objectives

How do gender and ethnicity factor into the occupations people choose and how their careers subsequently develop?

What types of bias and discrimination hinder the occupational development of women and ethnic minority workers?

Gender Differences in Occupational Selection, Part 1

Women in the U.S. represent 47% of the workforce

See Fig. 12.3

In the past, women chose traditional, female-dominated occupations

Secretarial work, teaching, etc.

Non-traditional women’s occupations are those that have 25% or less of women employed

Gender Differences in Occupational Selection, Part 2

Figure 12.3 Women’s labor force participation rates in selected countries, 1970–2012.

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. International Comparisons of annual labor force statistics, 1970-2012. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/fls/flscomparelf.htm#chart04.

Gender Differences in Occupational Selection, Part 3

Figure 12.4 Employment of women by industry, 2011.

These data are from the Current Population Survey (CPS), annual averages, Table 11. Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity (PDF).

To learn more about women’s employment, see Women in the Labor Force: A Databook (2011 Edition), BLS Report 1034, December 2011.

Gender Differences in Occupational Selection, Part 4

Women who choose non-traditional occupations are viewed more negatively than their male colleagues

Generational differences exist regarding women’s occupations

21st century women can be entrepreneurs and work from home

Can now negotiate for career development and a positive work environment

Gender Differences in Occupational Selection, Part 5

Women leave their jobs for two main reasons, other than family obligations:

Organizations idealize and reward masculine values of working

Women prefer organizations that value relationships, interdependence, and collaboration

Women may feel disconnected from the workplace

Ethnicity and Occupational Development

Little research has been done on this topic

When an organization is responsive to the needs of minorities, these employees report more positive feelings

Bias and Discrimination, Part 1

Why are there few women at the top (politicians, CEOs, etc.)?

Gender discrimination: denying a job to someone based solely on the basis of gender

Stricter job performance standards for women

Glass ceiling: level to which women may rise in an organization but cannot go beyond

Pervasive across higher management and professional workplace settings

Limitation to women’s careers around the world

Bias and Discrimination, Part 2

Glass cliff: a situation where a woman’s leadership position is precarious

Usually done at times of crisis

How can the glass ceiling and cliff be eliminated?

Women must take action to be assertive in rising to their rightful place in an organization

Women should negotiate salary more effectively

Companies can measure productivity in different ways

Bias and Discrimination, Part 3

Women CEOs such as Mary Barra tend to come into their positions during times of crisis, such as what confronted General Motors during vehicle recalls.

Bias and Discrimination, Part 4

Whether or not an action is considered sexual harassment depends on the situation, people involved, and the setting

40%-50% of women in European Union experience workplace sexual harassment

30%-40% of women in Asia Pacific countries experience workplace sexual harassment

Gender awareness training can help keep a work environment free from harassment

Bias and Discrimination, Part 5

Age discrimination: denying a job or promotion based solely on one’s age

Particularly affects middle-aged people

Laws exist that state that workers must be hired for their ability, not their age

Discrimination is often covert

Mental- or physical-based tasks may be a component of some evaluations

Retirement incentives may be used in attempts to get rid of older workers

12.3 Occupational Transitions, Part 1

Learning Objectives

Why do people change occupations?

Is worrying about potential job loss a major source of stress?

How does job loss affect the amount of stress experienced?

Occupational Transitions, Part 2

Occupational changes have become part of the modern career process

Losing a job is no longer has only negative meanings

Some people voluntarily change jobs and others are forced to do so

Obsolete skills and economic trends force people out of their jobs

Example: the decline of the U.S. auto industry

Retraining Workers

Skills needed to perform a particular job usually change over time

Career plateauing: when promotional advancement is either not possible or not desired by the worker

Results in lower job satisfaction and commitment

Retraining programs can help people advance in their occupation or find a new one

Lifelong learning is a necessity

Occupational Insecurity

Many people today feel insecure about their jobs due to economic downturns

Results in stress, and poor psychological and physical well-being

Subjective feelings of job insecurity result in the same levels of stress regardless of whether or not the insecurity really exists

People who use emotion-focused coping rather than problem-focused coping have higher levels of stress

Coping With Unemployment, Part 1

Unemployment can have a long-lasting personal impact

Significantly lower mental health, life satisfaction, and marital satisfaction: see Figure 12.6

Gender and age differences exist, mainly due to financial obligations and family responsibilities

Ethnic minorities experience greater unemployment rates

Length of unemployment matters

Coping with Unemployment, Part 2

Advice for managing occupational transitions:

Approach job loss with a healthy sense of urgency

Consider next career move and what must be done to achieve it

Acknowledge and react to change as soon as it is evident

Services such as LinkedIn can give job seekers more sense of control

12.4 Work and Family

Learning Objectives

What are the issues faced by employed people who care for dependents?

How do partners typically view the division of household chores? What is work–family conflict? How does it affect couples’ lives?

The Dependent Care Dilemma, Part 1

Two-thirds of mothers with children under 6 are in the labor force

Family and Medical Leave Act (1993) gave employees the right to unpaid time off to care for dependents with the right to return

Taking a leave after childbirth causes negative consequences for career advancement

If affordable and quality child care/elder care is not available, women may drop out of the workforce

The Dependent Care Dilemma, Part 2

Caregivers report negative consequences regarding career advancement and stress levels

Especially if employed full-time

Negative effects can be lessened:

If partners are supportive and women have high control over their jobs

If single mothers have support from their families

The Dependent Care Dilemma, Part 3

Backup care: emergency care for dependents so that the employee does not need to lose a day of work

Results are mixed on whether or not employees at companies with backup care are better off

Important for companies to allow employees to leave work early to care for family needs without penalties

Increased parental leave time linked to lower infant morality rates

Juggling Multiple Roles, Part 1

How do dual-earning couples divide household chores?

Women spend more time on chores: see Figure 12.7

Men have increased the amount of time they spend on housework, but usually only on weekends and only on tasks they find agreeable

European American men tend to spend less time on chores than men from ethnicity groups in the U.S.

Juggling Multiple Roles, Part 2

Country	Hours of Housework done by Women	Hours of Housework done by Men
Denmark	5.2	3.2
France	5	2
Germany	6.8	3.3
Greece	8.2	1.7
Ireland	10	4
Portugal	8.4	2.1
Turkey	8.1	1
Ukraine	8.3	5.1

Figure 12.6 Women spend much more time on household chores than men, even after the children have left (empty nest).

Data from “Cross-national reports of housework: An investigation of the gender empowerment measure,” by L. E. Ruppanner, in Social Science Research, Vol. 19, Table 1, p. 968. © Elsevier 2010.

Juggling Multiple Roles, Part 3

Work-family conflict: the feeling of being pulled in multiple directions by incompatible demands from job and family

Work and family roles influence each other in complex ways

Most U.S. households with dual-earners couples still use a gender-segregated system for doing chores and childcare

Men tend to wash the car, mow the lawn, etc. while women vacuum, change diapers, etc.

Juggling Multiple Roles, Part 4

Dual-earner couples must learn how to grapple with work–family conflict in balancing job and family demands.

Juggling Multiple Roles, Part 5

How can men and women have equitable divisions of labor?

Open communication with partner

Teach children that men and women should be equally responsible for chores

Work-family conflict requires a life-stage approach

Demands highest during peak parenting years

Juggling Multiple Roles, Part 6

Globally, women experience more conflict from competing work and family demands

Couples can work together to help mitigate the stress

By negotiating schedules around work commitments throughout their careers

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