Topic: Autobiographical Psychosocial History
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Psy_150_Introduction_Crot.pptxWelcome to Psychology 150
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What is Psychology?
Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes
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Psychology As Science
Psychologists use the scientific method
Steps to the scientific method
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The Growth of Psychology
It is generally agreed that psychology started in 1879, when the first psychological laboratory was founded by Wundt.
Structuralism gave way to functionalism. Sigmund Freud developed psychodynamic psychology.
Behaviorism was a revolt against psychodynamic psychology.
In the 1960s, Gestalt and humanistic psychology were the precursors to the cognitive revolution.
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The Growth of Psychology
William James: Functionalism
Studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic psychology
Behavior results from forces at work within the individual, often at an unconscious level
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The Growth of Psychology
John B. Watson: Behaviorism
Studied only observable behaviors
Expanded upon the work of Pavlov
B.F. Skinner: Behaviorism revisited
Expanded behaviorism
Viewed the mind as a “black box” that was irrelevant
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Enduring Issues in Psychology
Person–Situation
Is behavior caused by factors inside the person or outside?
Nature-Nurture
Is a person the product of genetics (nature) or simply the sum of their experiences (nurture)?
Stability–Change
Are behavior patterns learned in childhood permanent or do people change over time?
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Enduring Issues in Psychology
Diversity-Universality
How are people similar to others and how are they unique?
Mind–Body
What is the relationship between the mind and the body?
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Contemporary Approaches to Psychology
Psychoanalytic
Behavioral
Humanistic
Cognitive
Biological
Sociocultural
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Phrenology encouraged psychologists to study the role of the brain, rather than the heart, in human behavior.
PSYCHOANALYTIC
Key ideas
childhood experiences
unconscious forces
Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939)
Unconscious motivations are responsible for human behavior
Techniques:
Free association
Psychoanalysis
Dream analysis
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BEHAVIORAL
Key ideas
Observable Behavior
Conditioning/Learning
Prior experience
John Watson (1878 – 1958)
Behavior the result of conditioning – “We are what we learn to be”
B.F. Skinner (1904 – 1990)
Reinforcement
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HUMANISTIC
Key ideas
Self-directed
Uniqueness
Potential to develop
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Humanistic psychology
Emphasizes realization of full potential
Recognizes importance of love, self esteem, belonging, and self-actualization
COGNITIVE
Key ideas
How we ….. Process, Store, Retrieve information
Thought patterns
Problem solving
Behavior results from memories, expectations
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Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes in the broadest sense, focusing on how people perceive, interpret, store, and retrieve information. Unlike behaviorists, cognitive psychologists believe that mental processes can and should be studied scientifically. This view has had a far-reaching impact on psychology.
BIOLOGICAL
A.k.a. Behavioral neuroscience
Key ideas
How the brain, nervous system, hormones, genetics influence behavior
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SOCIOCULTURAL
Key ideas
Cultural influence on behavior
Gender
Socioeconomic status
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New Directions in Psychology
Evolutionary psychology
Studies the adaptive value of behaviors and mental processes
Positive psychology
Study of the subjective feelings of happiness and well-being
Focus is on positive attitude
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Multiple Perspectives
There is no single right answer
Most contemporary psychologists do not adhere to just one school of thought. They believe that different theories can often complement each other and together enrich our understandings.
Several perspectives can provide insight into behavior
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By combining information from all of the approaches, psychologists stand a better chance of describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling behavior.
The Subfields of Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Physiological Psychology
Experimental Psychology
Personality Psychology
Clinical and Counseling Psychology
Social Psychology
Industrial and Organizational Psychology
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Developmental Psychology
Study of physical and mental growth from birth to old age
Subfields
Child psychology
Adolescent psychology
Life-span psychology
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Physiological Psychology
Investigates the biological basis of human behavior
Neurotransmitters
Effects of drugs on the nervous system
Development of the nervous system
Gender differences in brain structure and function
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Experimental Psychology
Perform experiments on basic psychological processes
Learning
Memory
Sensation and perception
Cognition
Motivation
Emotion
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Personality Psychology
Study of how people differ from one another on traits such as
Anxiety
Sociability
Self-esteem
Need for achievement
Aggressiveness
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Clinical and Counseling Psychology
Clinical psychologists are concerned with diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
Counseling psychologists deal with “normal” problems, such as stress caused by career change or marital problems
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Social Psychology
Study of how people influence one another
Topics include:
First impressions
Interpersonal attraction
Attitude formation
Prejudice
Behavior in a group
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Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Study of psychological principles in industry and business
Examples
Selecting and training personnel
Productivity improvement
Working conditions
Impact of automation on workers
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Careers in Psychology
Academic and Applied Psychology
Faculty positions
Research facilities
Clinical Settings
Licensed social workers
Counseling psychologists
Clinical psychologists
Psychiatrists
Psychoanalysts
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Careers in Psychology
Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall
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Licenses in Psychology
Psychologists - Ph.D., Psy.D.
Psychiatrists - M.D.
Psychoanalysts - M.D. or Ph.D.
Social Workers (M.S.W.) - LSW
Marriage Family Therapists - M.A.
Licensed Professional Counselor – M.A. or M.S.
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Human Diversity In Psychology
Psychology has begun to focus attention on issues of diversity
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Gender Issues
Defined as the psychological and social meanings attached to being biologically male or female
Gender stereotypes
Limited view of people based on gender
For example, “Only men can be police officers”
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Gender Issues
Feminist psychology
Study of the psychology of women
Argue that
Much research is based on all-male samples, thus does not
Reports of gender differences focus too much on extremes and ignore similarities
Psychologists only study what they consider to be important
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Gender Issues
Sexual orientation
Gender to which one is sexually attracted
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Race and Ethnicity Issues
Race is a subpopulation defined by identifiable characteristic, e.g., skin color or facial features
Ethnicity is a common cultural heritage, such as religion, language, or ancestry
Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall
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Culture Issues
Tangible goods and values, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs that are passed on from generation to generation
Psychology must take cultural differences into account, e.g., the difference between individualistic and collectivist societies
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Research Methods in Psychology
Naturalistic Observation
Systematic observation in natural setting
The main drawback is observer bias
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Perhaps the simplest form of research is Naturalistic Observation.
Observing behavior in their natural environment
Often involves counting behaviors, such as number of aggressive acts, number of smiles, etc.
Advantages: Behavior is naturally occurring and is not manipulated by a researcher and it can provide more qualitative data as opposed to merely quantitative information.
Limitations: Even the presence of someone observing can cause those being observed to alter their behavior. Researcher’s beliefs can also alter their observations. And, it is very difficult to coordinate multiple observers since observed behaviors must be operationally defined (e.g. what constitutes an aggressive act)
Research Methods in Psychology
Case Studies
Detailed description and analysis of one or a few people
Prominent in psychology
Observer bias is a problem
Unable to make generalizations past person being studied
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Following a single case, typically over an extended period of time
Can involve naturalistic observations, and include psychological testing, interviews, interviews with others, and the application of a treatment or observation
Advantages: Can gather extensive information, both qualitative and quantitative and it can be helpful in better understanding rare cases or very specific interventions
Limitations: Only one case is involved, severely limiting the generalization to the rest of the population. Can be very time consuming and can involve other problems specific to the techniques used, including researcher bias.
Research Methods in Psychology
Surveys
Questionnaires or interviews, such as polls prior to an election
Can generate a lot of information for a fairly low cost
Questions must be constructed carefully so as to not elicit socially appropriate answers
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Everyone has probably heard of this and many of you have been involved in research involving surveys. They are often used in the news, especially to gather viewer opinions such as during a race for president
Advantages: Can gather large amounts of information in a relatively short time, especially now with many surveys being conducted on the internet.
Limitations: Survey data is based solely on subjects’ responses which can be inaccurate due to outright lying, misunderstanding of the question, placebo effect, and even the manner in which the question is asked
Research Methods in Psychology
Correlational Research
Research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables
Often used to make predictions, such as the relation between SAT scores and school success
Cannot be used to determine cause and effect
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Correlation means relationship, so the purpose of a correlational study is to determine if a relationship exists, what direction the relationship is, and how strong it is.
Advantages: Can assess the strength of a relationship. Is popular with lay population because it is relatively easy to explain and understand.
Limitations: Can not make any assumptions of cause and effect (explain how third a variable can be involved, or how the variables can influence each other).
Research Methods in Psychology
Experimental Research
The only research method that can be used to determine cause and effect
Often called the experimental method
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I will leave you to re-read the section on Experimental Methods. EM involves randomized assignment of subjects and standardized instructions. There are several other types of research that are not as rigorous, but that you need to be aware of.
Components of an Experiment
Participants or subjects
Independent variable (IV)
Cause (what you are studying)
This is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter
Dependent variable (DV)
Effect (result of experiment)
This is the variable that is measured by the experimenter
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Components of an Experiment
Experimental group
Receives treatment
Control group
Does not receive treatment, but is the same in every other way
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Research Methods in Psychology
Multimethod Research
Studies often combine several methods
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The Importance of Sampling in Research
Sample
Small representative subset of a larger population
Random sample
Every subject had equal chance of being selected
Representative sample
Characteristics of participants correspond to larger population
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Teamwork Class Assignment
A psychologist is planning to conduct a study that would examine pathological liars and the quality of their romantic relationships. You have been asked to recommend an effective research method for the psychologist to gather data on the pathological liars and their significant others. You and your team provide a recommendation to the psychologist and explain the rationale behind your team’s choice.
Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall
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My assessment
This psychologist is interested in both pathological liars and their significant others.
Because there are really two sets of participants, one should start with a survey, to gather as much data as possible about each side of the identified relationship. The survey questions must be clearly defined to ensure everyone is answering based on the same assumptions. Subjects for this study may have to be referred through social or legal services that have documented a history of such pathological behavior.
The psychologist could then use this data to identify a smaller subset of pathological liars, perhaps those with higher reported frequencies of the behavior. From this smaller set, correlations could be identified on the basis of the data collected in the survey. Additionally, it would be interesting to conduct a case study on a few selected couples. The case study, including observations and interviews, would bring to light more details about the interpersonal relationships that were not captured in the survey.
Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall
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Ethics in Research on Humans
Participants must be informed of nature of research
Informed consent should be documented
Risks and limits on confidentiality must be explained
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Ethics in Research on Humans
If participation is a course requirement in an academic setting, alternative activities must be offered
Deception cannot be used about aspects of research that would affect participant's willingness to participate
Deception about the goals of research used only when absolutely necessary
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Ethics in Research on Animals
Psychologists using animals must ensure “appropriate consideration of the animal’s comfort, health, and human treatment”
Animals must not be exposed to pain, stress, or privation when alternative procedures are available
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