ABSTRACT—Research evidence supports the importance of a high-quality early education to foster young children’s school readiness and success. In particular, programs that focus on eliminating the readiness gap for young minority children, including dual language learners (DLLs), have increased in importance given the current demographic shifts in the United States and the need to promote learn- ing in the early years. This article discusses current knowl- edge about effective instructional strategies for promoting language and literacy development among young DLLs. It presents a brief summary of research on the relationship between oral language and literacy development, reviews instructional practices and language of instruction approaches, and concludes with recommendations for policy and future research.

KEYWORDS—dual language learners; English language learners; bilingual learners; oral language and literacy; early education; instructional strategies; language of instruction; programing

Prompted by recent policies and research on the importance of early education, the federal government and many states are making major investments in early childhood programs (Barnett, Hustedt, et al., 2007). This is occurring while enrollment of children whose primary language is not English is increasing dramatically in early childhood programs nationwide, a trend

projected to continue (Hernandez, 2004; Hernandez, Denton, & Macartney, 2007). This article discusses current knowledge about effective instructional strategies for promoting language and literacy development among young dual language learners (DLLs), offers policy recommendations, and identifies areas that need further research. National studies show that DLL children from low-income fam-

ilies lag behind their peers when they enter kindergarten, even if they attended early childhood programs. The gap in academic achievement widens as children grow older (e.g., Reardon & Galindo, 2006; U.S. Department of Education, 2000). These find- ings suggest the need for high-quality early education focused on reducing the school readiness gap. Such programs should utilize research-based instructional practices designed to address the specific needs of DLLs, promoting their school readiness and future school success (The Future of Children, 2005; National Task Force on Early Childhood Education for Hispanics, 2007).

IMPORTANCE OF ORAL LANGUAGE TO PROMOTE

LITERACY DEVELOPMENT

Studies with monolingual English speakers have demonstrated the central role of oral language in reading and academic suc- cess. Recently, some large and sophisticated studies have inves- tigated oral language development in DLLs. Reading comprehension is foundational for academic success

and an important instructional goal in preschool and primary grades. Comprehension becomes possible when children can decode unfamiliar words. Skilled decoding requires phonemic awareness—the ability to attend to phonemes, knowledge of letters, and association between graphemes and phonemes (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). Early decoding skills are fostered by strong oral language competence, and that language is key to subsequent reading comprehension (e.g., Dickinson, McCabe, Anastasopoulos, Peisner-Feinberg, &

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dina C. Castro, FPG Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 105 Smith Level Rd., CB# 8180, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-8180; e-mail: [email protected].

ª 2011 The Authors Child Development Perspectives ª 2011 The Society for Research in Child Development

Volume 5, Number 1, Pages 15–21

CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES

Poe, 2003; Vellutino, Tunmer, Jaccard, & Chen, 2007). The size of a child’s vocabulary is important to reading comprehension, but deep knowledge of words may be particularly important (Ouellette, 2006). Bilingual children’s need for deep knowledge (Verhallen & Schoonen, 1998) may be met by teaching word meanings explicitly in different linguistic contexts, with repeti- tion and multiple opportunities to use the words (Collins, 2005; Silverman, 2007). Longitudinal studies with monolingual English speakers find

that children’s language abilities at a given time play a powerful role in shaping their subsequent reading success (Scarborough, 2001; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998, 2001). For example, research with monolingual English speakers revealed that kindergarten vocabulary predicts fourth-grade (Spira, Bracken, & Fischel, 2005) and seventh-grade (Tabors, Snow, & Dickinson, 2001) reading. Likewise, preschoolers’ language skills were asso- ciated with third- and fourth-grade reading comprehension (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2005; Storch & Whitehurst, 2002). For DLLs, the development of language and literacy involves

the integration of component skills (e.g., sound-symbol aware- ness, grammatical knowledge, vocabulary knowledge), as well as more elusive sociocultural variables. Bilingual learners can and do develop second language literacy while acquiring second lan- guage oral proficiency. Furthermore, bilingual learners’ oral, reading, and writing skills interact with one another, creating complex relationships of mutual support (Brisk & Harrington, 2007). For example, children are exposed to language through listening and reading, which are receptive language uses, and this exposure leads to developments in speaking and writing, which are productive. Moreover, reading is important for devel- oping oral vocabulary, which in turn promotes speaking and can enhance writing. Research with DLLs indicates that instruction should focus on

developing oral language skills by providing rich and engaging language environments while simultaneously building early liter- acy skills. A recent research review concluded that instruction in the key components of reading, as identified by the National Reading Panel (2000)—including phonological and phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehen- sion—benefits DLLs (August & Shanahan, 2006). However, the reviewers added:

Instruction in the key components of reading is necessary—but not sufficient—for teaching language-minority students to read and write proficiently in English. Oral proficiency in English is critical as well—but student performance suggests that it is often over- looked in instruction. (August & Shanahan, 2006, p. 4)

Therefore, instruction of DLLs should emphasize the develop- ment of both oral language and early literacy skills. In addition, various studies have shown that a strong basis in

the first language promotes school achievement in the second language and is important to ensure that children do not become

alienated from their families and communities (Tabors, 1997; Wong Fillmore, 1991). Learning two languages does not cause confusion or language delays in young children, and teaching both languages actually facilitates English language learning (August & Hakuta, 1997; Bialystok, 2007). Research examining the precursors to literacy has also shown

the importance of phonological awareness and print knowledge, in addition to oral language proficiency, in supporting second language development. Investigations with DLLs indicate that phonological awareness skills transfer from the first to the second language (Chiappe & Siegel, 1999; Cisero & Royer, 1995). However, this transfer varies according to similarities and differ- ences between the two languages. Studies examining these rela- tionships among bilingual children from different language groups (e.g., Chinese, Spanish, Hebrew) found that the extent of transferability of these skills depends on the relations between languages and between writing systems (Bialystok, Luk, & Kwan, 2005). Also, seeing that texts written in different ways can have the same meaning gives DLLs insight about the invariance of print. Therefore, for DLLs, acquiring print knowledge in either language may facilitate the development of these abilities in the other language (Bialystok, 2007). We need further research to advance our understanding about

how young DLLs from different language backgrounds develop language and literacy skills. Nevertheless, there is already some knowledge that can guide the development of interventions for these populations. We know, for example, that oral and written language experiences for DLLs should be regarded as an addi- tive process, to ensure that children are able to maintain and develop their first language while learning to speak and read English. We also know that there are specific language and liter- acy practices that can promote learning during the early years and provide a solid foundation for reading success.

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES TO PROMOTE

LANGUAGE AND LITERACY IN YOUNG DLLS

Several research syntheses have identified specific instructional practices to promote language and literacy of DLLs (August & Shanahan, 2006; Gersten et al., 2007; Slavin & Cheung, 2005). Although most of this research focuses on K–12 instruction, it has important implications for preschool education that can be summarized in three major recommendations (Goldenberg, 2008): (a) using the primary language in teaching reading skills is more effective for English reading achievement than immers- ing children in English; (b) high-quality early childhood practices are as beneficial for DLLs as they are for non-DLLs; however, they are not sufficient to support an equal level of academic success among DLLs; therefore, (c) instructional enhancements are necessary to support DLLs’ language and literacy develop- ment, especially when instruction is conducted only in English. For most DLLs throughout the United States, language and lit-

eracy instructions occur within an English language environment,

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 5, Number 1, Pages 15–21

16 Dina C. Castro et al.

with monolingual English-speaking teachers. If DLLs have no support in their first language, they might find it very difficult to become active classroom members. This is what Tabors (1998) has defined as:

the double bind of second-language learning: to learn a new lan- guage, you have to be socially accepted by those who speak the language; but to be socially accepted, you have to be able to speak the new language. (p. 22)

General recommendations for promoting language and literacy development among DLLs include: (a) keeping consistent rou- tines and classroom organization so that children can follow activities, feel comfortable, and become socially integrated; (b) creating language- and literacy-rich environments and using sup- portive methods: visual aids, gestures, emphasizing important words in a sentence, keeping the message simple, and repeating key vocabulary words; and (c) using a curriculum that helps DLLs actively participate by providing concrete experiences and materials, and being responsive to cultural and linguistic differ- ences (Dickinson & Tabors, 2002; Tabors, 1998). Additionally, research has shown that the following general

strategies can enhance and tend to be associated with improved language learning for all children: (a) extended talk on a single topic, (b) opportunities to converse with teachers, (c) exposure to sophisticated vocabulary, and (d) intellectually challenging group discussions (Dickinson, Flushman, & Freiberg, 2009). To be effective with DLLs, the implementation of these strategies should take into account children’s proficiency in English, using children’s first language as needed. Considerable research evidence indicates that the use of bilin-

gual children’s first language in instruction leads to higher social, cognitive, and academic achievement levels (for a review, see Garcia, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). Supporting this approach is research demonstrating linguistic interdependence between lan- guages, including linguistic factors, familiarity with language and literacy practices, and ways of using languages (Cummins, 1979, 1981, 2000). Use of the first language will depend on chil- dren’s developmental phase of second language learning and the goals of the instructional approach used (i.e., English-only, bilingual transitional, two-way instruction). Also, it will vary according to the availability of bilingual staff. It may seem daunting for monolingual English-speaking teachers to consider supporting DLLs in their first language, but it is possible, and there is research documenting strategies to help teachers incor- porate support for children’s first language. For example, the pri- mary language can be used to promote vocabulary development and oral language comprehension through systematically planned storytelling activities (Gillanders & Castro, 2007). Several studies have identified strategies to support DLLs:

(a) conduct ongoing and frequent assessments to monitor children’s English language acquisition and development in the different developmental domains (Lesaux & Siegel, 2003); (b) provide focused small-group interventions, especially to DLLs

at risk for reading and math difficulties (e.g., McMaster, Shu- Hsuan Kung, & Cao, 2008; Vaughn et al., 2006); (c) provide explicit vocabulary instruction that can be done through read- alouds and direct teaching of core vocabulary, using the primary language strategically (Carlo et al., 2004; Castro, Gillanders, Machado-Casas, & Buysse, 2006); (d) ensure development of academic English (Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kiefer, & Rivera, 2006); and (e) promote socioemotional development through posi- tive teacher–child relationships and facilitate children’s partici- pation in the sociocultural group of the classroom (Gillanders, 2007; Howes & Ritchie, 2002). To implement these instructional practices, schools need

program policies and resources, as well as teacher characteristics and a curriculum that will provide an adequate context for them. For example, programs will need to allow the use of the primary language in instruction, hire qualified bilingual staff, provide ongoing professional development and materials (such as bilin- gual books and music), and engage families of DLLs in partner- ing with the program or teacher to support their children’s language and literacy development in both their primary lan- guage and English (Castro, Espinosa, & Páez, 2010). Teachers, both bilingual and nonbilingual, will need to be knowledgeable about how language and literacy development unfolds in DLLs and about instructional practices that support development and learning among these children (see Zepeda, Castro, & Cronin, this issue, for a review on teacher preparation for work- ing with young DLLs). The curriculum will need to support the use of first and second language development, providing opportu- nities to incorporate instructional enhancements targeting DLLs. Many factors may affect the impact of these instructional strat-

egies on promoting language and literacy in DLLs, including the amount of exposure to rich primary language, the amount of exposure to English, the extent of DLLs’ early literacy learning opportunities, the socioeconomic status and family resources available to support the child, and the timing and circumstances of immigration to the United States, as well as factors related to the child, such as personality, motivation, and learning style (Espinosa, Castro, Crawford, & Gillanders, 2007).

LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION APPROACHES IN EARLY

EDUCATION

A key issue in the education of young DLLs is language of instruction. Four major research reviews have recently concluded that children in bilingual programs typically score higher on tests of English than do children in all-English immersion programs (Francis, Lesaux, & August, 2006; Genesse, Lindolm-Leary, Saunders, & Christian, 2005; Rolstad, Mahoney, & Glass, 2005; Slavin & Cheung, 2005). Despite the accumulating evidence that bilingual and first language education are at least as effective as English immersion, these approaches remain controversial (Barnett, Yarosz, et al., 2007). Most studies reviewed in these publications concern students in early elementary and upper

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 5, Number 1, Pages 15–21

Promoting Language and Literacy in Young DLLs 17

grades, with limited research investigating language of instruction in preschool settings. Studies of preschool DLLs suggest that bilingual programs and

approaches that support and develop children’s first language skills may have important advantages (Barnett et al., 2007; Páez, Tabors, & López, 2007; Tabors, Páez, & López, 2003). Current research on the relationship between first and second language acquisition suggests that access to bilingual programing can assist young DLLs in their language and literacy development (August & Shanahan, 2006). For example, research with Span- ish-speaking bilingual children has shown that first language skills and growth in Spanish contribute to the development of reading skills in English (Hammer, Lawrence, & Miccio, 2007; Páez & Rinaldi, 2006; Rinaldi & Páez, 2008). Among language of instruction approaches, two-way immer-

sion (TWI) is emerging as an effective and common approach to address the needs of bilingual learners (Barnett et al., 2007; Howard, Sugarman, & Christian, 2003). Also referred to as dual language programs, TWI provides DLLs and native English speakers with an education in two languages. A recent study by Barnett et al. used random assignment of DLLs and monolin- gual English speakers to either a TWI or an English immersion preschool program, to compare the educational effectiveness of these approaches. Their findings indicate that both TWI and English immersion approaches boosted learning and develop- ment in English for all children, including DLLs. More impor- tantly, TWI also improved the Spanish language development of DLLs and native English speakers without losses in English language learning. However, as Barnett et al. (2007) noted, more research regarding the effectiveness of the TWI model is needed to provide a sound basis for policy and practice in early education.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY

Policy recommendations derived from the research we dis- cussed before involve establishing and implementing evi- dence-based curriculum and classroom practices in language and literacy, including differentiated instruction for all chil- dren. We argue that to provide high-quality early education to an increasingly diverse child population, instruction should include specific classroom practices targeting DLLs, in addi- tion to those known to enhance language and literacy devel- opment for all children. Therefore, language and literacy early learning standards, and the curricula and classroom practices that derive from them, should reflect the current understanding of development and learning for all children, including DLLs. Recently, the number of states establishing early learning

standards has increased, but there is no consistency among states about how to support DLLs’ learning. Some states’ early learning standards include provisions to support DLLs that reflect an understanding of the current knowledge base, but

others do not. For instance, although some states acknowledge and promote the development of DLLs’ primary language, others have banned the use of the primary language in the classroom. We propose that to provide the appropriate context for the

implementation of instruction that is effective in promoting language and literacy in DLLs, early learning standards and program policies should include provisions that promote and enhance dual language learning, including teacher preparation, family support, and availability of resources. Examples of those provisions include the following:

1. Institute teacher licensure regulations and teacher education accreditation criteria requiring coursework in second lan- guage acquisition and in specific teaching strategies to sup- port DLLs and their families, combined with at least minimal proficiency in a second language.

2. Offer teachers ongoing support to implement early learning standards including systematic efforts to ensure that teachers employ strategies that foster children’s learning of the lan- guage used in the classroom, and use the children’s primary language to support instruction.

3. Ensure that curriculum models and teaching strategies are designed for, and evaluated with, the population with which they will be implemented, and include content and learning strategies that reflect the current state of knowledge.

4. Ensure the provision of resources for enhancing language and literacy-based materials, incorporating culturally relevant materials that inspire interesting conversations, as well as books in children’s first languages, and

5. Incorporate strategies and resources to assist families in sup- porting DLLs first language development and maintenance that is linked to classroom instruction.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

As we discussed above, there are gaps in our current knowledge about basic dual language and literacy learning and effective classroom practices. To improve instruction for DLLs, researchers must address these gaps. Some important research topics to advance our understanding of language and literacy development for young DLL are as follows:

1. Language development of preschool children who are learn- ing English for the first time after the acquisition of their first language.

2. Impact of English immersion programs on children’s first lan- guage development.

3. How learning early literacy skills in the first language affects literacy development in English.

Also, research studies are needed to examine strategies and interventions to improve outcomes for young DLLs. Relevant research questions include the following:

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 5, Number 1, Pages 15–21

18 Dina C. Castro et al.

1. What are the most effective instructional approaches to promote language and literacy in young DLLs? Do those instructional approaches have a long-lasting effect on chil- dren’s development and learning? To what extent does general program quality influence the effectiveness of language of instruction approaches and instructional practices?

2. How do language of instruction and specific instructional enhancements affect language and literacy development of DLLs from diverse language minority groups?

3. To what extent do factors related to the school, family, and child moderate the impact of instructional practices on DLLs’ language and literacy development? How do teacher knowl- edge of language and literacy development and bilingual development relate to teaching strategies and child out- comes? What effect do teacher and parent attitudes about first language maintenance have on child learning?

These are some relevant recommendations based on the current state of knowledge regarding the education of young DLLs. Although there are still many questions unanswered, a body of knowledge exists that should guide teachers and policy makers in implementing practices that will start closing the school readiness gap, thus providing the opportunity of school success to the growing number of DLL children in the United States.

REFERENCES

August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997). Improving schooling for language-minority children. A research agenda. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

August, D., & Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2006). Developing literacy in second- language learners: Report of The National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Barnett, W. S., Hustedt, J. T., Friedman, A. H., Boyd, J. S., & Ainsworth, P. (2007). The State of Preschool 2007: State Preschool Yearbook. New Brunswick, NJ: National Institute for Early Education Research.

Barnett, W. S., Yarosz, D. J., Thomas, K. J., & Blanco, D. (2007). Two- way and monolingual English immersion in preschool education: An experimental comparison. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22, 277–293.

Bialystok, E. (2007). Acquisition of literacy in bilingual children: A framework for research. Language Learning, 57, 45–77.

Bialystok, E., Luk, G., & Kwan, E. (2005). Bilingualism, biliteracy and learning to read: Interactions among languages and writing systems. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9, 43–61.

Brisk, M., & Harrington, M. (2007) Literacy and bilingualism: A handbook for all teachers (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Carlo, M. S., August, D., McLaughlin, B., Snow, C. E., Dressler, C., Lippman, D., et al. (2004). Closing the gap: Addressing the vocabulary needs for English language learners in bilingual and mainstream classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 39, 188– 215.

Castro, D. C., Espinosa, L., & Páez, M. (2010). Defining and measuring quality of early childhood practices that promote dual language learners’ development. In M. Zaslow, I. Martinez-Beck, K. Tout, &

T. Halle (Eds.), Measuring quality in early childhood settings (pp. 267–290). Baltimore: Brookes.

Castro, D. C., Gillanders, C., Machado-Casas, M., & Buysse, V. (2006). Nuestros niños early language and literacy program. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute.

Chiappe, P., & Siegel, L. S. (1999). Phonological awareness and reading acquisition in English and Pujabi-speaking Canadian children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 20–28.

Cisero, C. A., & Royer, J. M. (1995). The development and cross- language transfer of phonological awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20, 275–303.

Collins, M. F. (2005). ESL preschoolers’ English vocabulary acquisition from storybook reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 40, 406–408.

Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49, 222–251.

Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California State Department of Education. Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3–49). Los Angles: California State University, Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center.

Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children caught in the crossfire. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Dickinson, D. K., Flushman, T. R., & Freiberg, J. B. (2009). Language, reading, and classroom supports: Where we are and where we need to be going. In B. Richards, M. H. Daller, D. D. Malvern, P. Meara, J. Milton, & J. Trefers-Daller (Eds.), Vocabulary studies in first and second language acquisition: The interface between theory and application (pp. 23–38). Hampshire, UK: Palgrave-MacMillan.

Dickinson, D. K., McCabe, A., Anastasopoulos, L., Peisner-Feinberg, E., & Poe, M. D. (2003). The comprehensive language approach to early literacy: The interrelationships among vocabulary, phonological sensitivity, and print knowledge among preschool- aged children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 465–481.

Dickinson, D. K., & Tabors, P. O. (2002). Fostering language and literacy in classrooms and homes. Young Children, 57, 10–18.

Espinosa, L., Castro, D., Crawford, G., & Gillanders, C. (2007). Early school success for English language learners: A review of evidence-based instructional practices for pre-k to grade 3. In V. Buysse & L. Aytch (Eds.), Early school success: Equity and access for diverse learners. Executive Summary (pp. 9–14). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute.

Francis, D., Lesaux, N., & August, D. (2006). Language of instruction. In D. August & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing literacy in second- language learners: Report of The National Literacy Panel on Language—Minority Children and Youth (pp. 365–414). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Francis, D. J., Rivera, M., Lesaux, N., Kiefer, M., & Rivera, H. (2006) Practical guidelines for the education of English language learners: Research-based recommendations for instruction and academic intervention. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.

The Future of Children. (2005). School readiness: Closing racial and ethnic gaps, Vol. 15, Issue 1. Retrieved February 16, 2005, from http://www.futureofchildren.org.

Garcia, O., Kleifgen, J., & Falchi, L. (2008). From English language learners to emergent bilinguals. Equity Matters: Research Review No. 1. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 5, Number 1, Pages 15–21

Promoting Language and Literacy in Young DLLs 19

Genesse, F., Lindolm-Leary, K., Saunders, W., & Christian, D. (2005). English Language Learners in U.S. Schools: An Overview of Research. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 10, 363–385.

Gersten, R., Baker, S. K., Shanahan, T., Linan-Thompson, S., Collins, P., & Scarcella, R. (2007) Effective literacy and English language instruction for English learners in the elementary grades: A practice guide (NCEE 2007-4011). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee

Gillanders, C. (2007). An English-speaking prekindergarten teacher for young Latino children: Implications for the teacher–child relationship on second language learning. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35, 47–54.

Gillanders, C., & Castro, D. (2007, Fall). Reading aloud to English language learners. Children and Families, 21(3), 12–14.

Goldenberg, C. (2008, Summer). Teaching English language learners. What the research does—and does not—say. American Educator, 8–44.

Hammer, C. S., Lawrence, F. R., & Miccio, A. W. (2007). Bilingual children’s language abilities and early reading outcomes in Head Start and kindergarten. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 38, 237–248.

Hernandez, D. (2004). Demographic change and the life circumstances of children in immigrant families. The Future of Children, 14(2), 17–47.

Hernandez, D. J., Denton, N. A., & Macartney, S. E. (2007). Children in immigrant families—The U. S. and 50 states: National origins, language and early education. Children in America’s Newcomer Families. Child Trends & the Center for Social and Demographic Analysis, University at Albany, SUNY. 2007 Research Brief Series.

Howard, E. R., Sugarman, J., & Christian, D. (2003). Trends in two-way immersion education: A review of the research [Report 63]. Baltimore: CRESPAR ⁄Johns Hopkins University.

Howes, C., & Ritchie, S. (2002). A matter of trust. New York: Teachers College Press.

Lesaux, N. K., & Siegel, L. S. (2003). The development of reading in children who speak English as a second language. Developmental Psychology, 39, 1005–1019.

McMaster, K. L., Shu-Hsuan Kung, I. H., & Cao, M. (2008). Peer- assisted learning Strategies: A ‘‘Tier 1’’ approach to promoting English learners’ response to intervention. Exceptional Children, 74(2), 194–214.

National Reading Panel Report. (2000). Teaching children to read. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Development.

National Task Force on Early Education for Hispanics. (2007). Para nuestros niños: Expanding and improving early education for Hispanics. Tempe: Arizona State University.

NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2005). Oral language and reading: Reply to Bracken (2005). Developmental Psychology, 41, 1000–1002.

Ouellette, G. P. (2006). What’s meaning got to do with it: The role of vocabulary in word reading and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 554–566.

Páez, M., & Rinaldi, C. (2006). Predicting English word reading skills for Spanish-speaking students in first grade. Topics in Language Disorders, 26, 338–350.

Páez, M., Tabors, P. O., & López, L. M. (2007). Dual language and literacy development of Spanish-speaking preschool children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28, 85–102.

Reardon, S. F., & Galindo, C. (2006). Patterns of Hispanic students’ math and English literacy test scores. Tempe, AZ: National Task Force on Early Childhood Education for Hispanics.

Rinaldi, C., & Páez, M. (2008). Preschool matters: Predicting reading difficulties for Spanish-speaking students in first grade. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 6, 71–84.

Rolstad, K., Mahoney, K., & Glass, G. (2005). The big picture: A meta- analysis of program effectiveness research on English language learners. Educational Policy, 19, 572–594.

Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97–110). New York: Guilford.

Silverman, R. D. (2007). Vocabulary development of English-language and English-only learners in kindergarten. Elementary School Journal, 107, 365–384.

Slavin, R., & Cheung, A. (2005). A synthesis of research of reading instruction for English language learners. Review of Educational Research, 75, 247–284.

Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Spira, E. G., Bracken, S. S., & Fischel, J. E. (2005). Predicting improvement after first-grade reading difficulties: The effects of oral language, emergent literacy, and behavior skills. Developmental Psychology, 41, 225–234.

Storch, S. A., & Whitehurst, G. J. (2002). Oral language and code- related precursors to reading: Evidence from a longitudinal structural model. Developmental Psychology, 38, 934–947.

Tabors, P. O. (1997). One child, two languages: A guide for early childhood educators of children learning English as a second language. Baltimore: Brookes.

Tabors, P. O. (1998). What an early childhood educators need to know: Developing effective programs for linguistically and culturally diverse children and families. Young Children, 53(6), 20–26.

Tabors, P. O., Páez, M., & López, L. M. (2003). Dual language abilities of Spanish-English bilingual four-year olds: Initial finding from the Early Childhood Study of Language and Literacy Development of Spanish-speaking children. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 1, 70–91.

Tabors, P. O., Snow, C. E., & Dickinson, D. K. (2001). Homes and schools together: Supporting language and literacy development. In D. K. Dickinson & P. O. Tabors (Eds.), Beginning literacy with language: Young children learning at home and school (pp. 313– 334). Baltimore: Brookes.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics. (2000). Statistics in brief—March 2000: Home literacy activities and signs of children’s emerging literacy, 1993-1999. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Vaughn, S., Matches, P. G., Linan-Thompson, S., Cirino, P. T., Carlson, C. D., Pollard-Durodola, S. D., et al. (2006). First-grade English language learners at-risk for reading problems: Effectiveness of an English intervention. Elementary School Journal, 107, 153–180.

Vellutino, F. R., Tunmer, W. E., Jaccard, J. J., & Chen, R. (2007). Components of reading ability: Multivariate evidence for a convergent skills model of reading development. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11, 3–32.

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 5, Number 1, Pages 15–21

20 Dina C. Castro et al.

Verhallen, M., & Schoonen, R. (1998). Lexical knowledge in L1 and L2 third and fifth graders. Applied Linguistics, 19, 452– 470.

Whitehurst, G. J., & Lonigan, C. J. (1998). Child development and emergent literacy. Child Development, 69, 848–872.

Whitehurst, G. J., & Lonigan, C. J. (2001). Emergent literacy: Development from pre-readers to readers. In S. B. Neuman & D. K.

Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 11–29). New York: Guilford.

Wong Fillmore, L. (1991). When learning a second language means losing the first. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6, 323–346.

Zepeda, M., Castro, D. C., & Cronin, S. (2011). Preparing early childhood teachers to work with young dual language learners. Child Development Perspectives, 5, 10–14.

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 5, Number 1, Pages 15–21

Promoting Language and Literacy in Young DLLs 21

View publication statsView publication stats

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229881176