Module 5 640

I N T E R N A T I O N A L L E A D E R S H I P J O U R N A L

SUMMER 2015

VOLUME 7, ISSUE 2

A refereed, online journal published thrice yearly by

Thomas Edison State CollegeI L J

101 W. State St., Trenton, NJ 08608 www.tesc.edu/ilj

IN THIS ISSUE ARTICLES Gender Congruity and Social Processes of Leadership: Is Gender Balance Important? Ken W. Parry, Ronald Fischer, and Darren Hanson

Leading by Example: Images of Diversity and Collaboration on University Web Pages Kristine F. Hoover and Deborah A. O’Neil

A New Kind of Palestinian Business Leadership Saliba Sarsar

The Relationship Between Authentic Leadership and Employee Job Satisfaction: A Cross-Industry-Sector Empirical Study Michael Onorato and Jishan Zhu

Project Leadership: An Emerging Phenomena Matthew P. Earnhardt, Tracey M. Richardson, and Jim W. Marion

No Laughing Matter: Understanding the Leadership of George W. Bush Through the Skewering of the President Michael A. Genovese

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

1

International Leadership Journal

Contents

Volume 7, Issue 2, Summer 2015

From the Editor

Joseph C. Santora .................................................................................................................. 2

ARTICLES

Gender Congruity and Social Processes of Leadership: Is Gender Balance Important? Ken W. Parry, Ronald Fischer, and Darren Hanson ............................................................... 3

Leading by Example: Images of Diversity and Collaboration on University Web Pages

Kristine F. Hoover and Deborah A. O’Neil .............................................................................. 46 A New Kind of Palestinian Business Leadership

Saliba Sarsar ................................................................................................................................... 67 The Relationship Between Authentic Leadership and Employee Job Satisfaction: A Cross-Industry-Sector Empirical Study

Michael Onorato and Jishan Zhu ................................................................................................... 81 Project Leadership: An Emerging Phenomena

Matthew P. Earnhardt, Tracey M. Richardson, and Jim W. Marion ........................................... 104 No Laughing Matter: Understanding the Leadership of George W. Bush Through the Skewering of the President

Michael A. Genovese ...................................................................................................................... 126

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

2

From the Editor June 2015 Welcome to this 21

st issue of the International Leadership Journal, an online, peer-

reviewed journal. This issue contains six articles. In the first article, Parry, Fischer, and Hanson explore the effects of gender balance on leadership processes at a workgroup and industry level. They conceptualize leadership as a social process occurring between individuals, rather than as the behavior or attribute of a single individual. They find that gender balance between work teams and industries affects leadership processes between individuals. Hoover and O’Neil also explore diversity in leadership with respect to race, gender, and collaboration. By analyzing the home page images of 24 leading universities around the world, they speculate that these images might be a resource to constructively communicate the leadership potential of men, women, Whites, and non-Whites to lead and collaborate with diverse others. Their findings identify specific opportunities for increased communication for collaboration with people of heterogeneous gender and race. Sarsar examines a new kind of Palestinian business leadership that is performing very well while overcoming major obstacles. He explains the general context under which Palestinians live and work and then highlights four successful Palestinian business leaders and compares their similar leadership qualities, which reveals the potential for enhanced business practices and a healthier economy and society. Onorato and Zhu investigate the influence of authentic leadership on employee job satisfaction through a nationwide, cross-industry-sector survey. They examine the authentic leadership influence at both the aggregate level and within each industry sector and conclude that authentic leadership is a reliable predictor of employee job satisfaction in every industry sector. Earnhardt, Richardson, and Marion study the phenomena of project management leadership development and its impact by analyzing 87 successful project managers’ descriptions of how their leadership evolved. Their findings indicate that on-the-job training is the primary means by which project managers become leaders. Responsibility, communication, initiative, and taking care of followers are also important for project leader effectiveness. Finally, Genovese uses humor as a lens to gain a deeper understanding of the complexities and contradictions of the presidency of George W. Bush. He explores how the popular image of Bush as a political joke impacted his leadership and how he was able to use that image to disarm some critics and take advantage of adversaries who took him for an intellectual lightweight. Please let us know your thoughts and feel free to submit articles for review. Enjoy! Joseph C. Santora, EdD Editor

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

3

ARTICLES Gender Congruity and Social Processes of Leadership:

Is Gender Balance Important? *

Ken W. Parry

Deakin University

Ronald Fischer Victoria University of Wellington

Darren Hanson

NEOMA Business School This article presents the results of a study investigating the effects of gender balance on leadership processes at a workgroup and industry level. Leadership is conceptualized as a social process occurring between individuals, rather than as the behavior or attribute of a single individual. Transformational leadership processes were found less often in male- dominated industries. Furthermore, gender congruity effects were found, showing that gender balance between work teams and industries affects leadership processes between individuals. Leadership processes were reported most often in female-dominated work teams within female-dominated industries, but least often in female-dominated work teams within male-dominated industries. The implications for both leadership and gender research are discussed. Key words: gender balance, gender congruity, leadership Women in industrialized societies participate in leadership roles to an increasing

degree. It has been shown that women will exhibit different leadership styles from

men. For example, a recent meta-analysis has shown that women are more likely

to display transformational and reward-contingent transactional leadership styles

than men (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Koenig & Eagly, 2014). Also, on average, women

are as effective as men and are more effective in leadership roles that are

defined in less masculine terms (Eagly & Carli, 2003); in experimental studies,

women exhibit more interpersonal-oriented and democratic leadership styles

(Eagly & Johnson, 1990); men are more directive and women are more

* To cite this article: Parry, K. W., Fischer, R., & Hanson, D. (2015). Gender congruity and social

processes of leadership: Is gender balance important? International Leadership Journal, 7(2), 3– 45.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

4

supportive (Voelck, 2003); and women managers are also found to adopt

somewhat more democratic and participative leadership styles than men (Eagly,

2011; Eagly & Carli, 2003). With the changing structure of organizations, the

need for cooperative and transformational leadership styles is increasing, and

female leaders might be particularly well suited for these challenges (Koenig,

Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011). However, simultaneously, female leaders face

stereotyping and prejudice if they behave in gender-incongruent ways and show

effective leadership behaviors since leadership is traditionally associated with

being male (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Previous research showing these effects has

focused primarily on leadership as a particular style or behavior exhibited by

individuals.

However, there is an emerging consensus among many leadership theorists

that leadership is a social process of influence (Bass, 1998; Conger, 1998; Parry,

1998; Rost, 1993; Uhl-Bien, 2006, 2011; Yukl, 2012). “Influence” has long been

seen as an axiomatic characteristic of “leadership.” In particular, Conger (2011)

and Conger and Toegel (2002) have asserted that influence as persuasion,

rather than coercion, is the one ubiquitous and axiomatic characteristic of almost

any conceptualization of leadership. Also, because leadership is about

relationships and interactions between people rather than solely emanating from

individuals, it is a social construct (Rost, 1993). Leadership is about “doing,” as

much as it is about a personality, a position, or a set of competencies. Finally,

leadership involves changes to the beliefs, actions, and motivations of followers

over time. Hence, it is also a processual construct (Hernez-Broome & Hughes,

2004; Parry, Mumford, Bower, & Watts, 2014).

Using an Appropriate Research Methodology

Reflecting the growing consensus about the social and processual nature of

leadership, new and innovative forms of leadership research have recently been

called for (Conger, 1998; Horner, 1997; Koenig et al., 2011; Parry, 1998; Parry et

al., 2014). In particular, a growing number of qualitative research programs have

begun to contribute rich and in-depth analyses of the processual and contextual

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

5

characteristics of the phenomenon of leadership. For example, researchers like

Kempster and Parry (2011) have used Glaser and Strauss’s (1967) grounded

theory associated with a critical realist method to derive more profound and

adequate comprehension processes of leadership. However, as Bryman (2004)

observes, in only very few cases has the grounded theory method been central

to the research methodology. Those cases include the work of Irurita (1994,

1996) and Parry (1999).

The grounded theory method uses qualitative data to produce detailed, in-

depth, and contextually relevant theory. The analysis follows an iterative format

focused on theory-emergence rather than theory-testing. The emergent theory is

based on the determination of a “basic social process” that explains the

phenomenon under investigation—in this case, leadership. Due to these

qualities, the grounded theory method offers a useful form of analysis for the

investigation of leadership processes that extends beyond traditional static

methods.

A number of theorists (Clegg & Hardy, 1996; Flyvbjerg, 2001; Weick, 1999)

have called for an end to the “paradigm wars” between qualitative and

quantitative approaches and suggest that it is time for researchers to bridge the

gap between the two. This article is presented in the spirit of this calling.

Unfortunately, as Parry et al. (2014) conclude, relationships between

qualitatively derived social process theories—in particular, grounded theories—

and the mainstream psychometrically derived theories of leadership have not

been associated other than conceptually. Such comparison and cross-validation

of social process and traditional mainstream leadership theory is needed to

confirm the relevance and validity of work on social processes of leadership and

inform future work in this area. There is a need to empirically test the

relationships between both bodies of knowledge. One way this can be achieved

is by qualitatively testing extant theory. Another way is by quantitatively testing

qualitatively derived theoretical constructs. We have chosen the latter course.

In particular, the study described in this article reports the effects of gender

balance at a team and industry level on the prevalence of these “social

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

6

processes of leadership” within teams. We conceptualize social processes of

leadership as conceptually similar to transformational leadership, but as social

processes occurring between individuals rather than emanating from individuals

in a top-down process. Using a new instrument based upon and derived from

extant grounded-theory-based qualitative research, we then investigate the

extent to which the gender makeup of teams within particular industries

influences which teams demonstrate these social processes of leadership.

The Social Processes of Leadership

Mainstream theories of leadership generally assess the relationship between

leaders and followers or, more specifically, between managers and subordinates,

but often do not consider the leadership interactions between and among

employees within a workplace and throughout an organization. The extant

leadership research has mainly been concerned with leadership as a behavior or

style of a specific individual, usually the manager of a team or organization. The

extant research also mainly assumes that leadership is individualized and

predominantly top-down (Yukl, 2012) and examines the role of the “leader” rather

than the process of “leadership.” In contrast, we adopted the latter position.

The meaning, function, and outcomes of leadership are embedded within

broader factors such as organizational practice, organizational structure, and

external employment markets. As such, the rapidly changing nature of such

factors has led to a strengthening awareness of the importance of social

processes in the theory of leadership. For example, as teamwork is becoming

predominant in flatter organizational structures, the leadership behavior of an

individual (traditionally held as central in hierarchical organizations) has had to

share the limelight with leadership processes occurring between people and

within groups (Horner, 1997). Horner states:

there is a need for research that builds on the history and prior work done about leadership but also adapts this body of knowledge to fit today’s environments. Consequently, a shift is needed in the way team leadership is studied, as well as the behaviors required for effectiveness. (281)

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

7

Conger (1998); Lovelace, Manz, and Alves (2007); and Yukl (2012) view

leadership as a “shared influence process,” a dynamic process involving multiple

levels of phenomena, possessing a dynamic character and a symbolic

component. Horner (1997) believes that it is a highly complex phenomenon

involving multiple actors and their actions, behaviors, and relationships. It is a

dynamic process that involves transformation of beliefs, actions, and motivations

within the context of multiple concurrent relationships between different

individuals at many different levels over time (Parry, 2002; Uhl-Bien, 2006; Uhl-

Bien, Marion, & McKelvey, 2007; Yukl, 2012). Yukl suggests that there is a

strong view among leadership theorists that leadership is a social influence

process that occurs naturally within a social system and is shared among various

members of that social system. Chen and Meindl (1991), Conger (2011), and

Derue and Ashford (2010) argue that leadership is not a simple reflection of

objective reality, but a socially constructed process wherein the desired influence

on interactions can be produced and reproduced over time. This implies that

leadership needs to be researched as a process, rather than through the study of

leaders alone (Yukl, 2012).

In recognition of its changing nature, the concept of leadership as a social

process has gradually been acknowledged (Derue & Ashford, 2010; Drath &

Palus, 1994; Hunt, 1991; Rost, 1993; Yukl, 2012; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1982), and

alternative forms of analysis have begun. In particular, three theories of the social

processes of leadership are used in this article: (a) optimizing (Irurita, 1994,

1996), (b) resolving uncertainty, and (c) enhancing adaptability (Parry, 1999).

These theories are important and useful because they have begun to look at

leadership as a dynamic social process that involves both the transformation of

beliefs, actions, and motivations over time and the interactional links between a

range of variables and individuals at many different levels (Parry, 1998).

These theories of the social processes of leadership that have emerged from

qualitative research are likely to show some overlap with existing theories.

Nevertheless, conceptually similar theories of social process are based upon the

dyadic relationship of leader-follower, and therefore overlook some critical

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

8

dimensions of the social processes of leadership involving the larger context and

interactions between people across organizational positions and levels.

Qualitatively derived theories provide a strong basis for the extension of existing

theory because they concentrate on the dynamic and process-based nature of

leadership, rather than on specific qualities possessed by the leader. We will

present these theories derived from grounded theory methodology, as it has

been detailed over the years by Glaser & Strauss (1967), Glaser (1978), Strauss

(1987), Strauss & Corbin (1990), and ultimately, by Glaser (1992). The grounded

theory method enables theory generation from data rather than the use of data to

support already formed theories (Glaser, 1992). Because the social processes of

leadership are as yet minimally understood and theorized, it is a very exciting

and promising approach for investigation in this area.

We have delimited our interest to those findings from leadership research using

the full grounded theory method and from which a basic social process is the

theoretical outcome. As stated earlier, the grounded theories that are the subject

of the current research are (a) optimizing, (b) resolving uncertainty, and

(c) enhancing adaptability.

Optimizing. Irurita (1996) conducted a qualitative analysis of nursing

leadership from data collected over four years. The emerging theory of optimizing

(Irurita, 1994) reflects the effective leadership process of “making the best of the

situation, making the most effective or optimal use of all available and potential

resources to compensate for the state of retardation and to move beyond

mediocrity toward excellence” (Irurita, 1996, 129). It considers the three aspects

of a social process of leadership identified above, that is: change and

transformation over time, the linking of interactional sequences, and the

relationships and interactions between people (Parry, 1998).

Optimizing involves three progressive phases of process, depending on

whether an organization is in a period of surviving, investing, or transforming

(Irurita, 1996). Survival occurs when the organization moves from retardation and

mediocrity, through turbulence in which investing is key, on toward excellence, a

period of continuous development and transformation (Irurita, 1996). The

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

9

transforming phase is conceptually similar to Burns’s (1978) social process

theory of the same name. Contextual variables impact the leadership process of

optimizing. These variables include environmental and organizational aspects

such as culture; the characteristics of subordinates; and the leader’s values,

attitudes, knowledge, skills, and traits (Irurita, 1996). The leader attributes that

are clearly important for the optimizing process include optimism, caring,

commitment, determination, courage, articulate communication, and self-esteem.

It is important to note that in the context of this study, Irurita (1996) found that

such attributes of successful leaders are guided by values and strong morals.

Just as Irurita (1996) highlights leader attributes and actions in the process of

optimizing, we suggest that all work unit members contribute to this social

process of leadership. Consistent with Irurita’s (1994, 1996) and Parry’s (1999)

work, a leader is someone who demonstrates leadership, and not the manager in

charge of a work unit. Therefore, this social process of leadership is something

demonstrated within a work unit by all its members. Irurita found that behaviors

exhibited by members of a work unit and the interactional processes between

them are likely to promote or limit the effects of optimizing. Therefore, the

analysis of this process at a group level is an important addition to the theory.

Resolving Uncertainty and Enhancing Adaptability

Parry (1999) also used qualitative data and the grounded theory method to

explore the leadership processes occurring amidst turbulent change in Australian

local government settings. Through this work, two social processes were found to

occur in relation to leadership, change, and following. These social processes

involve resolving uncertainty and enhancing adaptability of followers and the

leaders in organizations. Again, in parallel to Irurita’s (1996) optimizing model,

Parry’s theory is important because, as a result of using the full grounded theory

method, it explicitly focuses on aspects of a social process of leadership—

changes occurring over time and the interaction sequences arising between

human individuals in the organization.

The social processes of resolving uncertainty and enhancing adaptability are

two critical steps toward effective management of change within organizations. In

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

10

particular, enhancing one’s own and others’ personal adaptability to change

becomes important because low adaptability accentuates a person’s experience

of the complexity and turbulence of change. In turn, this exacerbates the stress

felt by followers and leaders. The inertia generated by change may also be

accentuated. On the other hand, high adaptability reduces stress experienced

due to change, increases teamwork and harmony, and may even aid in the

manifestation of leadership. The adaptability of followers is influenced by several

factors, including experience, personality, knowledge of change outcomes, and

leader interventions (Parry, 1999). Thus, a leader’s ability to resolve uncertainty

and enhance adaptability has great value. Once again, a leader is anyone who

demonstrates leadership within the interactions of the work unit.

Resolving Uncertainty. Parry (1999) found that where an effective leadership

process was present, the uncertainty of change of both the followers and leaders

could be resolved through strategies, behaviors, and activities demonstrated by

the leaders. Moreover, in the absence of effective leadership, both leaders and

followers became consumed with uncertainty, and their knowledge, performance,

and morale were reduced, while inaccurate perceptions were maintained. Thus,

the resolution of uncertainty due to change and turbulence may directly reduce

the degree to which the change becomes threatening to individuals in the

organization.

Within the process of resolving uncertainty, it is important for the leader to have

a clear understanding of their leadership role. Leaders’ self-awareness of

personal adaptability helps them increase the adaptability of their followers

through strategies such as identifying positive outcomes of the change and

providing followers with the experience of success through the change. The

description of this process is in parallel with much of the past literature, which

makes an implicit assumption about the leader’s centrality in the effectiveness of

the leadership process. Contrary to this assumption, we suggest that

effectiveness within organizations is a function of leadership demonstrated

throughout the organization by all employees rather than only at higher

organizational levels. Thus, the theory of resolving uncertainty may be applied to

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

11

individual employees, regardless of rank or leader status. In the case of resolving

uncertainty, awareness of one’s own leadership roles and personal adaptability

are important components of the process. Therefore, the two characteristics of

resolving uncertainty, at a lower level of abstraction, are (a) improving knowledge

and perceptions and (b) role clarity and personal adaptability.

However, despite the importance of the process of resolving uncertainty, this

strategy is ineffectual in isolation in an organization that deals with continuous

change. Because resolving uncertainty is a reactive process that responds to

uncertainty created by episodes of change, it is a short-term strategy that is more

curative than preventative. Rather, it is more effective to help others prepare for

the future by developing personal capabilities, such as adaptability, that can

preempt negative effects of change (Cabana, 1996; Parry, 1998).

Enhancing Adaptability. Parry (1999) recognized that the process of resolving

uncertainty lacked important strategies required by leaders to help enhance their

own and followers’ adaptability to turbulence and change. As a result of further

iterations of data analysis, Parry identified some key strategies of enhancing

adaptability that the process of resolving uncertainty lacked. When enhancing

their ability and that of others for turbulence and change, people cooperate to get

things done, share critical information, provide rational explanations for

phenomena, demonstrate persistence, and display values that complement those

of the organization.

As with the two previous social processes, enhancing adaptability is couched in

terms of leader and follower behavior, but can be extended to the group level of

analysis while maintaining the leadership focus. Although some of the enhancing

adaptability process appears to be driven by positional power, such as the

provision of resources, organizational authority levels do not bind many key

aspects of this process. For example, people at all levels can demonstrate

complementarity of values, communication of desirable messages about change,

and facilitation of information flow. Moreover, the cumulative effect of multiple

members within a work unit participating in this type of process will increase the

frequency and improve the potential benefits of enhancing adaptability.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

12

Organizational or Workgroup Processes and SPL

Those basic social processes have been operationalized psychometrically by

Parry (2002) into the Social Processes of Leadership (SPL) scale. This scale

does not purport to measure the entirety of the social processes that constitute

leadership within work units. Rather, it merely operationalizes the social

processes that had been identified to date by leadership research using the fully

qualitative grounded theory method. However, given the strong conceptual,

theoretical, and empirical similarities between the SPL scale and other

measurable leadership constructs (Parry, 2002), we assert that the SPL scale

provides a more than adequate indication that these leadership processes are

present within a given workplace setting. The SPL scale measures leadership at

the group or workplace level of analysis, rather than at the individual level as

most leadership instruments do.

The SPL scale originally validated grounded theory leadership research,

focusing on the leadership social processes of optimizing, enhancing

adaptability, and resolving uncertainty. Parry (2002) explains that these

processes have been found empirically and theoretically to be conceptually

similar to transformational and constructive transactional leadership, which, in

turn, have been found to predict individual and organizational performance

(Bass, 1998).

Although the social processes of leadership have been under-researched over

the years, organizational processes have been extensively researched. Social

processes, including citizenship, work-unit cohesion, innovation promotion, and

trustworthiness, have all been considered as part of wider organizational factors.

However, with changing organizational structures and the dominant trend of

movement toward team management and collaboration at various organizational

levels, these processes in particular have also become more explicitly related to

the leadership process. As such, we will briefly consider these relationships here

followed by consideration in our empirical analysis.

The first organizational process aligned to leadership processes is

organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), which has been described by Organ,

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

13

Podsakoff, and Podsakoff (2011) as incidents of discretionary behavior by

individuals that, in aggregate, improve the functioning of organizations.

Citizenship constructs include conscientiousness, sportsmanship, civic virtue,

courtesy, and altruism (Organ, 1988). Factors related to OCB include job

satisfaction (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983; Swaminathan

& Jawahar, 2013), attitudes, and individual differences (Organ & Ryan, 1995).

Traditionally, OCB has been investigated on an individual level of analysis

(Organ & Ryan, 1995), which is represented in Organ’s (1988) definition.

However, more recently, the benefit of considering OCB as a group-level

phenomenon has been identified (Bommer, Dierdorff, & Rubin, 2007; George,

1990; George & Brief, 1992; Nielsen, Hrivnak, & Shaw, 2009; Organ & Ryan,

1995). For example, team cohesiveness has been related to prosocial or

organizational citizenship behavior (Lin & Peng, 2010; O’Bannon & Pearce,

1999), which in turn has been related to motivating increased participation in

team activities (Cartwright & Zander, 1968). Citizenship can also be related to

leadership processes. For example, citizenship describes behavior that goes

above and beyond the call of duty to ensure organizational success (Organ,

1988). Similarly, transformational leadership is said to encourage followers to do

more than they expected to do (Bass, 1998). Therefore, we propose that

citizenship behavior is related to, but empirically distinct from, social processes of

leadership. In a study of 474 New Zealand managers, Fischer and Parry (2004)

showed that levels of altruism (helping coworkers) and civic virtue (being up-to-

date with changes in the organization) at a team level were empirically distinct

but positively correlated with social processes of leadership.

Group cohesiveness is another established component of effective process

within team or workgroup contexts (see Evans & Dion 2012; Mullen & Copper,

1994; Webber & Donahue, 2001 for meta-analyses). Cohesiveness improves

productivity via the creation of productivity norms (Munroe, Estabrooks, Dennis,

& Carron, 1999), task norms, improved organizational context (Langfred &

Shanley, 1997), and surface- and deep-level diversity within groups (Harrison,

Price, & Bell, 1998; Woehr, Arciniega, & Poling, 2013). Group cohesion itself has

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

14

been found to moderate the relationship between leadership and team

performance (Carless, Mann, & Wearing, 1998; Daspit, Tillman, Boyd, & McKee,

2013) and between motivation and performance (Chia, 1998). Therefore, it

appears that workgroup cohesion is firmly embedded within the social processes

occurring within collective environments. In their study, Fischer and Parry (2004)

also include measures of team cohesion, finding it to be positively related to

social processes of leadership. However, their confirmatory factor analysis also

shows that social processes of leadership are empirically distinct from cohesion

as a group process.

Finally, trust is an important social process dimension within the organizational

context. Schoorman, Mayer, and Davis (2007) define trust as a willingness to be

vulnerable to the actions of another party based on expectations that the other

will perform an action important to the trustor, but without the ability of the trustor

to monitor or control the other party. This definition is focused on dyadic

relationships. Webber (2002) applies this definition to a team level. She defines

trust at a team level as the perception shared by the majority of individuals within

a team that individuals perform particular actions that are important to team

members and that individuals recognize and protect the rights and interests of all

members of the team in the pursuit of their joint goal. Trust within a relationship

has been shown to affect many desirable variables in an organizational context,

such as levels of commitment, job satisfaction, and levels of citizenship behavior,

as well as to reduce undesirable behaviors and attitudes, such as intention to

leave (Aryee, Budhwar, & Chen, 2002; Goris, Vaught, & Pettit, 2003; McAllister,

1995; Pillai, Schriesheim, & Williams, 1999; Tan & Tan, 2000). Jarvenpaa, Knoll,

and Leidner (1998) highlight the importance of trust in new organizational

arrangements in which previous hierarchical and highly structured forms are

replaced by flexible, flatter, and more collaborative systems, such as project

teams and work units. In a finding especially relevant to the current research,

Jarvenpaa et al. found that teams demonstrating high trust levels have rotating

leadership. In their study, the leader was not consistent or chosen throughout the

project, and each individual member demonstrated certain leadership strengths

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

15

during the course of the project. Thus, trust and the social process of leadership

appear to be closely connected. This is supported Fischer and Parry (2004),

whose study shows that trust is related to both optimizing and enhancing

adaptability. Again, their confirmatory factor analysis also provides support for

the empirical distinctiveness of social processes of leadership and

trustworthiness as team processes.

Gender and Social Processes of Leadership

People have stereotypical beliefs about “natural” gender leadership styles (Cann

& Siegfried, 1990), and these beliefs might influence actual behaviors within the

workplace. Eagly’s (1987) social role theory and its extension, role congruity

theory (Koenig & Eagly, 2014), suggest that to avoid criticism and to achieve

praise, people behave consistent with society’s expectations of their gender.

Women have been associated with so-called communal characteristics, which

entail a primary concern with the welfare of others and include characteristics

such as being affectionate, helpful, kind, and sympathetic (Eagly & Carli, 2007).

In contrast, men are associated with more agentic characteristics such as being

assertive, aggressive, ambitious, and forceful. Therefore, as leaders, women

strive to be nurturing and caring, while men are more task-focused, ambitious,

and competitive. For example, Astin and Leland (1992, cited in Tucker,

McCarthy, & Jones, 1999) find that women believe, more so than men, that

listening to and empowering followers is important, and they are more likely to

use conferences and networks to achieve results. Vinkenburg, van Engen, Eagly,

and Johannesen-Schmidt (2011) suggest that such differences occur because

men and women view the world differently and, consequently, male leaders seek

autonomy and control over their followers, while women favor connection and

relatedness. In a large-scale meta-analysis of organizational, laboratory, and

assessment studies, Koenig et al. (2011) report small, but reliable, gender

differences in leadership style. Female leaders, especially at the higher levels of

the hierarchy, were found to emphasize both interpersonal relations and task

accomplishment more than men. These findings suggest that women might

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

16

engage in more social processes by establishing more interpersonal relations, as

well as by clarifying task objectives and resolving uncertainties.

We proposed earlier that social processes of leadership at a team level are

very similar conceptually to the transformational leadership of individual leaders.

Moreover, a meta-analysis of transformational leadership research shows a

significantly more frequent display of transformational leadership by women over

men (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & van Engen, 2003). Therefore, it is possible

that women, in general, might be more transformational than men. Generalizing

to processes at a team level, it is plausible that female-dominated industries are

more likely to show social processes of leadership since these processes involve

a strong transformational component.

In line with these industry-wide effects, Koenig et al. (2011) suggest that even

though an organization’s recruitment, selection, and socialization criteria might

be identical for men and women, the sector in which the organization operates

might contribute to the presence of gender differences in leadership processes.

For example, they suggested that male-dominated sectors such as the military

encourage masculine styles of leadership, while public sector organizations

encourage more feminine styles.

In summary, gender differences in leadership styles of individuals have been

observed. Therefore, we extend the research to the group level by focusing on

social processes of leadership. We argue that the gender ratio of the industry will

influence the social processes of leadership within the workplace in a similar

way. Therefore, we expect that social processes of leadership are more likely to

be observed in settings that are not male-dominated.

Hypothesis 1: People in male-dominated industries will report fewer social

processes of leadership than in female-dominated industries.

The Effect of Gender Balance in the Workplace upon Leadership Processes

We argued earlier that gender dominance within an industry influences the

manifestation of leadership processes. However, Eagly and Johnson’s (1990)

meta-analysis suggests that “the sex of the subordinates might affect the

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

17

behavior of leaders of both sexes more than it affects sex differences” (248). In

other words, “stereotypical” leadership of men and women will be adjusted to suit

the gender of their followers. Therefore leadership processes might vary

according to the gender composition of the workplace as much as the gender

dominance of the industry. Both social identity theory and self-categorization

theory (Hogg & Terry, 2000), as well as role congruity theory (Eagly & Karau,

2002), could be used to derive some particular hypotheses about gender

differences on social processes of leadership depending on the particular

context. We still know relatively little about how leadership processes change

when the gender ratio of the work unit is not congruent with the gender ratio of

the overall industry. Williams and O’Reilly (1998) had called for more research

that investigates the proportion of men and women in the workplace to generate

a better understanding of gender balance on workgroup functioning. Until now,

no one seems to have heeded that call.

Focusing on individual leaders, a meta-analysis by Eagly, Karau, and Makhijani

(1995) found that (a) women were less effective compared to men when the

proportion of male subordinates increased, and (b) in strongly male-dominated

industries such as the military, women were less effective than men, but were

somewhat more effective in traditionally female-dominated industries such as

education and social service. This indicates that the role congruity between the

expectations within the industry and the gender of the leader is important.

Extending this line of reasoning, we would argue that the gender balance of the

work unit in relationship to the gender dominance of the industry is also

important. Social categorization and social identity theory (see Hogg & Terry,

2000; Turner & Haslam, 2001, for reviews in an organizational context; see

Williams & O’Reilly, 1998, for a review from a diversity perspective) would predict

that gender would become important in contexts where there is a gender

imbalance. These effects are context dependent. In male-dominated industries, a

work unit consisting of mainly men is less distinct, and the gender ratio of the

work team seems not to be so important. However, as the number of women

increases within a work unit that operates in a male-dominated industry, gender

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

18

becomes more salient. As reviewed above, the expectations of leaders are

incongruent with the gender role of women (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Furthermore,

there is consistent evidence showing that distinctiveness leads to less social

cohesion (Turner & Haslam, 2001) and fewer social processes (Williams &

O’Reilly, 1998). Furthermore, discrimination against female-dominated teams in

male-dominated industries might be particularly high and therefore, it might be

expected, based on both role congruity theory as well as social identity and self-

categorization theories, that increasing numbers of women in work teams in

male-dominated industries will exhibit fewer social processes of leadership.

Furthermore, social identity and self-categorization theories would predict that

increased similarity leads to more social cohesion. Cohesion has been shown to

be linked to higher task performance (Greene, 1989; Gully, Devine, & Whitney;

1995; Mullen & Copper, 1994). It could be expected that gender-congruent teams

(male-dominated teams in male-dominated industries, female-dominated teams

in female-dominated industries) are more likely to show increased cohesion,

which, in turn, might lead to more social processes being manifested.

Furthermore, as we have argued above, female-dominated industries are more

likely to show more social processes of leadership. Consequently, we predict that

female-dominated teams in female-dominated industries would show the highest

level of social leadership processes. Within the female-dominated industries, if

the proportional number of men in teams increases, we would expect the

manifestation of social processes of leadership to fall. By contrast, in male-

dominated industries, an increased level of women in teams is likely to lead to

lowest levels of social processes of leadership at a team level. On the other

hand, if the number of women decreases and the gender congruence increases

within these male-dominated industries, social processes should increase.

However, in line with the previously predicted main effect, we would still expect

that the mean levels of social processes are not as high as in female-dominated

industries, even in those cases where there is gender balance between teams

and within the larger industry. These considerations led us to propose the

following hypothesis and corollaries:

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

19

Hypothesis 2: There will be an interaction between gender ratios at the team

level and the gender domination of the industry, for social processes of

leadership.

• 2.1: In female-dominated industries, a proportional increase in men at the

team level will lead to fewer social processes of leadership.

• 2.2: In male-dominated industries, a proportional increase in men at the

team level will lead to more social processes of leadership.

• 2.3: The highest levels of social processes of leadership are expected in

female-dominated teams in female-dominated industries.

• 2.4: The lowest levels of social processes of leadership are expected in

female-dominated teams in male-dominated industries.

Gender of Respondent and Team and Industry Gender Balances

In the previous section about gender balance at the team level and the effect on

leadership processes within the context of the larger industry, we used both

social identity and self-categorization theories and role congruity theory to make

some specific predictions about the extent to which leadership processes will be

present. However, one last issue needs to be addressed: the gender of the

respondent. In the current study, we asked managers to report on the leadership

processes within their work unit. Consequently, it might be that the gender of the

manager will influence the reporting, depending on the gender balance in the

work unit and/or industry.

Chatman and O’Reilly (2004) found that women expressed greater

commitment, positive affect, and perceptions of cooperation when they worked in

all-female groups. Some studies have found that men tend to become more

personal and less competitive and disagreeable when removed from male-

dominated groups and placed within a group comprised of mostly women (e.g.,

Aries, 1976; Piliavin & Martin, 1978). However, many studies (e.g., Spangler,

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

20

Gordon, & Pipkin, 1978; Tsui, Egan, & O’Reilly, 1992) have found that being in

groups with few members of their gender led to decreased satisfaction in men

more so than in women. Men in predominantly female work units experience little

discrimination from their female coworkers, but women in predominantly male

groups are more likely to face ostracism and rejection of their methods (O’Farrell

& Harlan, 1982). Women in male-dominated groups and careers are less

confident and less likely to participate (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Therefore, the

gender of the responding manager might influence how leadership and group

processes are experienced, depending on the gender balance of both the work

unit and industry.

The previous studies suggest that the experience of men and women in work

teams that are dominated by the opposite gender might be qualitatively different.

Therefore, it would be important to study whether male and female respondents

differ in their reports on leadership processes within the work unit and the larger

industry. We are interested in the social reality as perceived by those people.

These reports might be a reflection of actual levels of social processes or an

indication of different perceptions depending on the gender of the respondent.

We also believe it is important to account for these effects before testing our

second hypothesis, because not accounting for those gender differences in

experienced reality as reported by those managers might obscure the

relationship between gender balance at a team and industry level.

To date, there is no clear evidence as to whether men and women would

experience the leadership processes differently. Men have been found to

experience less discrimination in female-dominated groups, compared with

women in male-dominated groups (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Koenig et al., 2011). Men

have also been found to be more socially oriented and less aggressive in female-

dominated work settings, therefore, male managers might report more social

processes of leadership when in female-dominated work settings (both work unit

and industry) compared with women in male-dominated work settings (both work

unit and industry). It should be noted that these hypotheses are exploratory.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

21

Hypothesis 3: Male managers will report more social processes of leadership in

female-dominated industries compared with reported levels of social processes

of leadership by women in male-dominated industries.

Hypothesis 4. Male managers will report more social processes of leadership in

female-dominated work units compared with reported levels of social processes

of leadership by women in male-dominated work units.

Method

Sample

Data were collected from surveys completed by middle and senior managers

drawn from a membership list of the New Zealand Institute of Management.

Questionnaires were mailed to members with a letter of support from the CEO of

the institute. Completed surveys were returned in postage-paid envelopes. A

total of 4,470 questionnaires were mailed out, and 934 responses were received,

a response rate of 21%. Although low, this is not an unusual response rate based

on historical trends for this particular data set. Nonrespondents include managers

who could not respond for a variety of reasons. These reasons might include

wrong mailing address, company policy, retirements, clashes with vacation,

working in organizations that were too small to provide an adequately sized work

unit, and so forth. The latter is likely to be an issue unique to New Zealand, being

an economy with a preponderance of small-sized organizations and owner-

manager operations. Overall, as Waldman, Ramirez, House, and Puranam

(2001) found, the response rate should be considered reasonable, given the high

level of many managers, and the potential sensitivity of the questionnaire.

In order to ascertain whether the low response rate was likely to produce

biased results, a nonresponse analysis proposed by Moser and Kalton (1971)

(also called wave analysis; Rainey, Sanjay, & Bozeman, 1995) was conducted.

Cross-tabulation analyses of early (within the first two weeks), medium (two to

three weeks) and late (after three weeks) responses were performed against all

demographic characteristics and measurement scales. A significant chi-squared

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

22

result would indicate a nonresponse bias. This type of analysis is based on the

premise that later respondents in the research sample are the most akin to those

who do not respond at all (Fowler, 1988; Moser & Kalton, 1971). No significant

demographic differences were found between early and late respondents. Nor

were there any significant differences in any of the leadership measures. The

only aberration was a systematic trend for nonrespondents to more likely be

middle or senior managers rather than CEOs. However, in the absence of any

other significant difference across all other measures, these results suggest a

low probability of response bias (Moser & Kalton, 1971).

Because the research was aimed at workplaces or “work units,” responses that

indicated a work unit size greater than 200 people were withdrawn from analysis.

Accordingly, 14 responses were removed, leaving 920 usable responses.

A majority of managers in the final sample were from the private sector (58%),

with the remainder from the public sector. The average size of work units was

20 members, with 11 men and 9 women. The gender of the respondents was not

evenly distributed (71% men, 29% women). The age of respondents ranged from

21 to 79 years with a mean of 47, and 66% of the sample’s respondents were

self-selected as senior management level or higher. These statistics suggest that

a large proportion of the work unit sample probably operated at management or

senior management level, although many would have been from quite small

organizations. Apart from the obvious potential limitation of low response rate,

another potential source of bias is that respondents were predominantly senior

managers. All respondents are members of the New Zealand Institute of

Management, therefore would most likely self-classify as “managers.” It is quite

possible that many respondents are the manager in charge of their work unit. We

cannot confirm or refute that. All we know is that they are all members of the

work unit upon which they are reporting.

Measurement

Social Processes of Leadership. The social processes of leadership were

measured by the 20-item Social Processes of Leadership (SPL) scale (Parry,

2002). This scale measures the frequency with which leadership is displayed

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

23

within work units (see Appendix A). The work unit was defined as “the immediate

group of people with whom you work on a regular basis. For example, you may

work within a project team, a business unit, or some other kind of workgroup.” On

a scale from 0 (“not at all”) to 4 (“frequently, if not always”) (Bass, Cascio, &

O’Connor, 1974), respondents were asked to indicate how frequently people in

their work unit do certain things. For the social process of optimizing, those

things include active management processes such as “display sound

management practice,” “facilitate the flow of information,” and “effectively plan

ahead for variation in workloads.” The social process of enhancing adaptability

includes communication and support for each other (e.g., “cooperate to get

things done”) and the display of personal efficacy (e.g., “persist in efforts to

achieve unit goals”). For the social process of resolving uncertainty, those things

include resolution of uncertainty (in self and in others), engaging in reciprocity

and interdependence (e.g., “rely on each other for information” and rely on each

other for support”), and having personal discussions about change.

To assess the dimensionality of the instrument, a confirmatory factor analysis

was conducted using maximum likelihood estimations in LISREL (Version 8.50,

2001), a statistical software used in structural equation modeling (SEM) for

manifest and latent variables. To assess the adequacy of the proposed structure,

a number of fit indices were compared. According to Hu and Bentler (1995),

values of the comparative fit index (CFI; Bentler, 1990) and Tucker-Lewis index

(TLI) or non-normed fit index (NNFI; Bentler & Bonett, 1980) should reach levels

of .95 or higher. A second set of fit indices focuses on lack of fit. The root mean

square error of approximation (RMSEA; Browne & Cudeck, 1993) should ideally

be below 0.05, while values ranging between 0.06 and 0.08 are deemed

acceptable. Values of the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR)

should ideally be below .05 (Hu & Bentler, 1995). A three-factor solution showed

good fit: ²(167) = 1,018.17, TLI = .97, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .07, SRMR = .04.

Furthermore, a single-factor solution did not provide better fit:

²(170) = 1,267.48, TLI = .96, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .09, SRMR = .05. In fact, the

fit was significantly worse: Δχ 2

(3) = 249.31, p < .001, indicating that the three-

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

24

factor solution provided a significantly better fit. The internal consistencies were

.87 (optimizing) and .78 (for both enhancing adaptability and resolving

uncertainty).

Gender-Related Variables. A selection of demographic items regarding the

respondent’s work unit was included in the questionnaire. We asked participants

to state their gender, report the number of male and female members in their

work unit (to generate a gender ratio), and report the industry in which their

organization is operating. In the interests of consistency, we used the standard

industry classifications provided by Statistics New Zealand. In the year 2000,

about 45% of women were in paid employment (World Bank Group, 2002).

Traditionally male-dominated industries are agriculture, including forestry and

fishing, and industry, including mining, manufacturing, construction, defense,

electricity, gas, and water. These industries employ more than twice as many

men as women. Traditionally female-dominated industries are service industries,

including wholesale/retail trade; restaurants and hotels; transport, storage, and

communications; financing, insurance, real estate, and business services; and

community, social, and personal services. As of 2000, these industries employed

81% of the entire female workforce. Industries dominated by neither gender are

the remaining industries, including public administration, entertainment,

education, health, and computing. These classifications are based on New

Zealand statistics provided by the World Bank Group (2002). We used the

classification of proportion of the female workforce in these industries as an

indicator of gender dominance. Other demographic items included the function,

size, main sector type (public or private), and personal attributes of the

respondent, including organizational level and age. Table 1 (on the following

page) displays the descriptive statistics and intercorrelations of the variables

used in this study.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

25

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations Among Study Variables

Mean (SD)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Enhancing adaptability

3.05 (0.52)

—

2. Resolving uncertainty

2.74 (0.60)

.66** —

3. Optimizing 2.84 (0.61)

.72** .72** —

4. Female respondent

28.1% .06 .10** .08* —

5. Gender ratio of the work unit (men)

0.55 (0.28)

-.06 -.12** -.08* -.41** —

6. Male- dominated industries

41.1% -.07 -.06 -.09* -.13** .34** —

7. Senior management level or CEO

66.6% .14* .11** .12** -.10** .00 .01 —

8. Participant’s age

47.28 (9.37)

.13* .07* .17** -.27** .09* -.10* .15** —

9. Public sector

42.0% -.05 .02 .02 .15** -.17** -.10* -.23** -.04 —

10. Size of work unit

20.23 (27.91)

-.11* -.05 -.09** -.03 -.02 -.00 -.01 -.02 .13** —

11. Workgroup tenure (in years)

4.08 (1.25)

.03 .05 .07* -.08* .03 .05 .05 .20** .05 .14**

*p < .05; ** p < .01

Analysis

To test our hypotheses, we used moderated multiple regression analysis. In a

first step, we entered all the main effects of interest. These are the gender of the

respondent work-unit member (dummy coded, 1 for “female”); the gender ratio of

the work unit (higher number indicating a larger proportion of men), and

traditionally male-dominated industries (dummy coded, 1 for “male-dominated

industries”). Participants from industries dominated by neither gender were

removed from this analysis. This allowed us to test Hypothesis 1. Then we

introduced the two two-way interaction effects with which to test Hypotheses 3

and 4. A significant “male-dominated industries by gender of respondent”

interaction effect would support our third hypothesis. A significant interaction

effect of “gender ratio of the work unit by gender of respondent” would support

our fourth hypothesis. We tested these two hypotheses first, because these

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

26

hypotheses are concerned with experiences of social reality by male versus

female managers. Then, we introduced the interaction of “gender ratio of the

work unit by male-dominated industries.” If this interaction was significant, it

would provide an answer to our second hypothesis. In particular, we

hypothesized particular patterns; for example, that the highest level of social

processes should be found in female-dominated teams in female-dominated

industries (Hypothesis 2.3), whereas the lowest level should be found in female-

dominated teams within male-dominated industries (Hypothesis 2.4). A

proportional increase in men in teams in male-dominated industries is expected

to lead to an increase of social processes (Hypothesis 2.2), whereas an increase

of men at a team level in female-dominated industries is expected to lead to

lower social processes (Hypothesis 2.1). Finally, we also tested the three-way

interaction in the final step of the regression. Table 2 displays the results of the

analyses separately for the three social processes.

Table 2: Effect of Gender of Respondent, Gender Ratio in the Work Unit, and Male-Dominated Industries on Social Processes of Leadership

Variable Optimizing Enhancing Adaptability

Resolving Uncertainty

Step 1 F(3,519) = 2.01 ΔR

2 = .011

F(3,519) = 1.25 ΔR

2 = .007

F(3,519) = 2.06 ΔR

2 = .012

Female respondent manager .06 .03 .02

Gender ratio in work unit .00 .00 -.05

Male-dominated industries -.11 -.08 -.05

Step 2 F(2,517) = 1.49 ΔR

2 = .006

F(2,517) = .74 ΔR

2 = .003

F(2,517) = 1.66 ΔR

2 = .006

Gender ratio x male respondent manager

.07 .05 .09

Gender of respondent manager x male-dominated industries

.14 .06 .08

Step 3 F(1,516) = 6.59* ΔR

2 = .012

F(1,516) = 3.97* ΔR

2 = .008

F(1,516) = 4.85* ΔR

2 = .009

Gender ratio x male- dominated industries

.16* .10* .14*

Step 4 F(1,515) = .01 ΔR

2 = .000

F(1,515) = .08 ΔR

2 = .000

F(1,515) = .03 ΔR

2 = .000

Gender ratio x gender of respondent manager x male- dominated industries

.01 .03 .02

*p < .05; ** p < .001

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

27

Results

Supporting our first hypothesis, people from traditionally male-dominated

industries reported lower levels of social processes of leadership. Our third

hypothesis was not supported. The “gender of respondent manager by male-

dominated industries” interaction effect was not significant. Therefore, male and

female managers do not report different levels of social processes of leadership.

Our fourth hypothesis was not supported. The interaction between gender of

respondent and gender ratio in the work unit was not significant. Therefore, the

gender balance of the work unit did not affect the way male versus female

managers reported on levels of social leadership processes. However,

concerning our second hypothesis, the interaction effect between gender ratio

and traditionally male-dominated industries was significant for all three leadership

processes. Figures 1 to 3 show the plotted regression line for male-dominated

and female-dominated industries. In line with Hypothesis 2.1, an increase of men

at a team level in female-dominated industries is associated with fewer social

processes of leadership for all three leadership processes. Second, in line with

Hypothesis 2.2, a proportional increase of men in teams within male-dominated

industries is associated with more optimizing and enhancing adaptability

processes. However, no increase was observed for resolving uncertainty. Third,

in line with Hypothesis 2.3, the highest levels of social processes of leadership

were observed in female-dominated work teams in female-dominated industries.

This effect was found for all three social processes. Finally, the lowest levels of

social processes were found in female-dominated teams in male-dominated

industries. This is line with Hypothesis 2.4, and this trend has been found for all

three processes, although the trend was weaker for resolving uncertainty.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

28

Figure 1. Interaction effect between male-dominated industry and gender ratio of the work unit on optimizing

Figure 2. Interaction effect between male-dominated industry and gender ratio of the work unit on resolving uncertainty

2.50

2.55

2.60

2.65

2.70

2.75

2.80

2.85

2.90

2.95

3.00

Low Medium High

O p

ti m

iz in

g

Percentage men in work unit

Male dominated industry

Female dominated industry

2.50

2.55

2.60

2.65

2.70

2.75

2.80

2.85

2.90

Low Medium High

R e

s o

lv in

g U

n c

e rt

a in

ty

Percentage men in work unit

Male dominated industry

Female dominated industry

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

29

Figure 3. Interaction effect between male-dominated industry and gender ratio of the work unit on enhancing adaptability

To explore the robustness of this interaction effect, we ran further regression

analyses in which we controlled for the effects of the size of the work unit, the

length of time a team has been together, the sector (dummy coded, 1 for “public

sector”), the organizational level of the respondent (dummy coded, 1 for “senior

manager or higher”), and the age of the respondent. The interaction effects were

still significant for optimizing (β = .16, p =< .05) and resolving uncertainty

(β = .15, p < .05). The effect for enhancing adaptability was only marginally

significant after controlling for these other variables (β = .12, p = .06). Controlling

for the effect of these variables allows us greater confidence in interpreting the

effects of variables entered subsequently. Additionally, some of these

demographic variables were significant. Older managers reported more

leadership processes in their work unit (all β > .10; all p < .05). Higher-level

managers (CEOs and senior management) reported more social processes of

leadership compared with middle and lower-level managers (all β > .10, all

p < .05). Finally, public sector organizations showed higher levels of optimizing

(β = .10, p < .05). These emergent findings are also discussed below.

2.80

2.85

2.90

2.95

3.00

3.05

3.10

3.15

Low Medium High

E n

h a

n c

in g

A d

a p

ta b

il it

y

Percentage men in work unit

Male dominated industry

Female dominated industry

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

30

Discussion and Conclusion

We have presented an empirical test of social processes of leadership at a team

level and the effect of gender balance at a team and industry level on these

processes. Two firm conclusions can be drawn from this study. First, traditionally

male-dominated industries tend to manifest fewer social processes of leadership

overall. More accurately, managers in male-dominated industries, irrespective of

their gender, perceive fewer social processes of leadership. These industries

seem to rely on more traditional, economic exchange, and transactional

relationships than female-dominated industries. Previous research has

demonstrated that male managers exhibit a more transactional leadership style

(active and passive management by exception), whereas female managers

demonstrate more transformational leadership styles and more contingent

reward behaviors (e.g., Eagly et al., 2003). The current study has extended this

research by showing that similar trends can be found at a team level within male-

versus female-dominated industries. This is an important extension of previous

research at an individual level.

Second, congruity effects are important. Within traditionally male-dominated

industries, male dominance at the workplace is generally associated with greater

manifestation of social processes of leadership, whereas increasing numbers of

men in female-dominated industries results in fewer social processes of

leadership. Congruity between the gender dominance of the industry and the

gender balance of the workplace is associated with a greater display of social

processes of leadership. This congruity effect has important implications for

organizations. First, it seems that men in male-dominated industries may have a

comfort zone when working together with other men wherein they can open up

and more transformational and relationship-oriented interactions take place.

Ibarra (1992) argues that people tend to associate with people who are similar.

Williams and O’Reilly (1998), in their review of diversity in the workplace, showed

that gender diversity is negatively associated with group outcomes, especially for

men. However, it appears from our research that the gender of the responding

manager has no impact on the manifestation of social processes of leadership

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

31

per se. Nor does the gender balance of the workplace have an impact on the

manifestation of social processes of leadership per se. Instead, it appears that

gender is only important when examined within the context of particular

industries with certain demographic characteristics. When trying to understand

leadership processes, managers and scholars may need to pay attention to

industry-specific characteristics and their relationship to the gender makeup of

individual workplaces, rather than the gender of individual managers or leaders.

The findings are encouraging in that they show that female-dominated industries

might be excellent environments for enhancing the adaptability of team members

to change and uncertainty, resolving emerging uncertainties, and optimizing

existing work procedures and processes. However, an increasing number of men

in those industries might lead to a steady decline in these processes. Similarly,

having a proportionally larger number of women in male-dominated industries

might lead to lower levels of these social processes of leadership, particularly

enhancing adaptability and optimizing. Therefore, one controversial conclusion

could be that senior management should avoid staff teams exclusively or

predominantly composed of women in those industries. However, we cannot say

anything about the experiences of those individual women in those male-

dominated industries. Realistically, at an aggregated team level, it seems that

having fewer women results in more social processes of leadership; however,

these women might be subject to increased prejudice and stress and reduced

well-being (e.g., Eagly & Karau, 2002; Gardiner & Tiggemann, 1999). We can

only comment on the manifestation of social processes of leadership in the

context of this study. This is an important area for further research, however.

We did not find the expected pattern for resolving uncertainty. An increase in

the number of men within workgroups in male-dominated industries was not

associated with increased efforts to resolve uncertainty. Resolving uncertainty

involves high levels of interpersonal communication about change, interpersonal

and intrapersonal resolution of uncertainties about the future, and people relying

on each other for support and information. This dimension is quite close to

communal characteristics that are traditionally been associated with women

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

32

(Eagly & Karau, 2002). Eagly and Karau might suggest that men are not

expected to show these behaviors to a great extent and, consequently, these

behaviors are not part of their typical work behavior repertoire. Therefore, being

in a homogeneous team within a male-dominated industry is not likely to be

associated with more of these social processes with a more communal aspect.

Consequently, it is not unduly surprising that having more men in teams within

male-dominated industries will have little effect upon the resolving of uncertainty.

Concerning the emergent findings, older managers and more senior managers

reported more leadership processes in their work units. In view of the positive

correlation between these two variables, it would make sense that older

managers are generally also more senior than other respondents. Because of

their relative seniority, it could be that these people are more likely to be the

manager responsible for the work unit, and therefore more likely to see

leadership being manifested. Such a phenomenon has been observed by Cook

and Emler (1999), among others. Finally, managers in public sector

organizations reported more optimizing than those in private sector

organizations. The tone of optimizing is much more in line with traditional

management functions, whereas the other two leadership processes are much

more in line with interpersonal interactions. Considering the managerialist nature

of public sector work, it makes sense that traditional management functions

might be more manifest in the processes that occur. Furthermore, the public

sector operates within a reasonably stable environment in New Zealand.

Workloads, responsibilities, and leadership roles are clearly defined;

informational channels and information flow are explicitly specified; and there is a

strong determination within the public sector to show exceptional standards of

social responsibility, accountability, and serving as a role model as best practice

for society. Therefore, the higher scores might reflect this implicit aspiration

toward optimizing within the public sector.

Limitations and Future Directions

Two limitations should be noted. First, our study included very uneven numbers

of women and men in the different industries and work units. This is partly due to

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

33

the effects in our area of interest (for example, the influence of the workplace

gender ratio in male-dominated industries). However, these uneven numbers

might reduce our statistical power. Other interaction effects might be found with

more powerful designs. On the other hand, we found an interesting and

meaningful result that was reliable even when controlling for other variables.

Future research should try to include other sources for the reported leadership

processes. Same-source bias is not a problem because we ran regression

reports of social processes of leadership on demographic variables. Even so,

research using 360-degree feedback on formal and informal leaders and

concurrent examination of the whole work unit (measuring climate or culture, for

example) might also prove to be informative.

Second, more representation of the entire workforce is required in any

replication of this research. Because most respondents were middle and senior

managers, many may have been the manager in charge of the workplace they

were describing. Because we found a small effect of the hierarchical level of the

respondent on perceptions about leadership processes, it could be that not all

group members would perceive the same manifestation of leadership. For

example, a formal group leader might perceive the manifestation of processes

differently than a group member who is a process or clerical worker. Also, a

formal group leader responsible for the work of many subordinates might

perceive certain processes differently than another coworker at the same

hierarchical level but without such a wide span of control. These issues would

need to be probed in subsequent research, probably at the level of a case study.

There are many other interactions from a range of possible variables that need to

be researched, such as the perceptions of process and clerical workers. Such

case study work could also determine the extent to which the nature of the work

in certain industries is more or less predictive of interpersonal interactions than is

the gender composition of the industry. For example, business services might

require coworkers to engage in more interpersonal interaction than fishing or

mining.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

34

However, there is considerable evidence from this study to suggest that gender

balance does have a great impact in certain specific industry environments. We

used a large sample of New Zealand managers and focused on leadership

processes within work units, rather than the leadership styles of formal leaders.

We found that the gender of the respondent and the gender ratio of the work unit

per se do not have a significant impact on the manifestation of social processes

of leadership. Rather, we found that industry characteristics interact with work

unit characteristics and affect the reported level of social processes of leadership

within workplaces. These are very important characteristics of the operating

environment of organizations, but they should not be examined in isolation. We

would not advocate that selection decisions are made according to gender

criteria for certain industries. Rather, we would advocate recognition that altering

the gender balance may not always be the best strategy when attempting to

maximize the leadership that is displayed in the workplace. We would conclude

that the major contribution of this research is that although the gender balance of

the workplace does not affect the manifestation of leadership processes overall,

there appear to be important industry-specific interactions that warrant further

research. This finding also has important implications for both academics and

practitioners interested in a better understanding of gender effects on social

processes of leadership.

References

Aries, E. (1976). Interaction patterns and themes of male, female, and mixed groups. Small Group Behavior, 7(1), 7–18.

Aryee, S., Budhwar, P. S., & Chen, Z. X. (2002). Trust as mediator of the relationship between organizational justice and work outcomes: Test of a social exchange model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(3), 267–285.

Astin, H. S., & Leland, C. (1992). Women of influence, women of vision: A cross- generational study of leaders and social change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

35

Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industry, military, and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Bass, B. M., Cascio, W. F., & O’Connor, E. J. (1974). Magnitude estimations of expressions of frequency and amount. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59(3), 313–320.

Bateman, T. S., & Organ, D. W. (1983). Job satisfaction and the good soldier: The relationship between affect and employee “citizenship.” Academy of Management Journal, 26(4), 587–595.

Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238–246.

Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and the goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588– 606.

Bommer, W. H., Dierdorff, E. C., & Rubin, R. S. (2007). Does prevalence mitigate relevance? The moderating effect of group-level OCB on employee performance. Academy of Management Journal, 50(6), 1481–1494.

Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136– 162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Bryman, A. (2004). Qualitative research on leadership: A critical but appreciative review. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(6), 729–769.

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper Torchbooks.

Cabana, S. (1996). Leadership for turbulent times. Journal for Quality & Participation, 19(2), 76–79.

Cann, A., & Siegfried, W. D. (1990). Gender stereotypes and dimensions of effective leader behavior. Sex Roles, 23, 413–419.

Carless, S. A., Mann, L., & Wearing, A. J. (1998). Leadership, managerial performance and 360-degree feedback. Journal of Applied Psychology: An International Review, 47(4), 481–496.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

36

Cartwright, J. A., & Zander, A. (1968). Group dynamics: Research and theory (3 rd

ed.). New York, NY: Harper Row.

Chatman, J. A., & O’Reilly, C. A. (2004). Asymmetric reactions to work group sex diversity among men and women. Academy of Management Journal, 47(2), 193–208.

Chen, C. C., & Meindl, J. R. (1991). The construction of leadership images in the popular press: The case of Burr, Donald, and People Express. Administrative Sciences Quarterly, 36(4), 521–551.

Chia, Y. M. (1998). Motivation and junior supervisors’ performance: The moderating role of work-group cohesion. International Journal of Management, 15, 441–453.

Clegg, S. R., & Hardy, C. (1996). Some dare call it power. In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, & W. R. Nord (Eds.), Handbook of organization studies (pp. 622–641). London, United Kingdom: Sage.

Conger, J. A. (1998). Qualitative research as the cornerstone methodology for understanding leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 9, 107–121.

Conger, J. A. (2011). Charismatic leadership. In A. Bryman, D. Collinson, K. Grint, B. Jackson, & M. Uhl-Bein (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of leadership, (pp. 86–102). London, United Kingdom: Sage.

Conger, J. A., & Toegel, G. (2002). A story of missed opportunities: Qualitative methods for leadership research and practice. In K. W. Parry & J. R. Meindl (Eds.), Grounding leadership theory and research: Issues, perspectives, and methods (pp.175–197). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

Cook, T., & Emler, N. (1999). Bottom-up versus top-down evaluations of candidates’ managerial potential: An experimental study. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology, 72, 423–439.

Daspit, J., Tillman, C. J., Boyd, N. G., & McKee, V. (2013). Cross-functional team effectiveness: An examination of internal team environment, shared leadership, and cohesion influences. Team Performance Management,19(1/2), 34–56.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

37

Derue, D. S., & Ashford, S. J. (2010). Who will lead and who will follow? A social process of leadership identity construction in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 35(4), 627–647.

Drath, W. H., & Palus, C. J. (1994). Making common sense: Leadership as meaning-making in a community of practice. Greensboro, NC: Centre for Creative Leadership.

Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2003). The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the evidence. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), 807–834.

Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., & van Engen, M. (2003). Transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta- analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 569– 591.

Eagly, A. H. (2011). Women as leaders: Progress through the labyrinth. In S. Wiley, G. Philogène, & T. A. Revenson (Eds.), Social categories in everyday experience (pp. 63–82). Washington, DC: APA Books.

Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. (1990). Gender and leadership: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 233–256.

Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573–598.

Eagly, A. H., Karau, S. J., & Makhijani, M. G. (1995). Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 125–145.

Evans, C. R., & Dion, K. L. (2012). Group cohesion and performance: A meta- analysis. Small Group Research, 43(6), 690–701.

Fischer, R., & Parry, K. W. (2004). Social processes of leadership: A new perspective on leadership and its effect on work behavior. Unpublished manuscript, Victoria University Wellington, New Zealand.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

38

Flyvbjerg, B. (2001). Making social science matter: Why social inquiry fails and how it can succeed again (S. Sampson, Trans.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Fowler, F. J. (1988). Survey research methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Gardiner, M., & Tiggemann, M. (1999). Gender differences in leadership style, job stress and mental health in male and female-dominated industries. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72(3), 301–315.

George, J. M. (1990). Personality, affect, and behavior in groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(2), 107–116.

George J. M., & Brief, A. P. (1992). Feeling good-doing good: A conceptual analysis of the mood at work-organizational spontaneity relationship. Psychological Bulletin, 112(2), 310–329.

Glaser, B. G. (1978). Theoretical sensitivity: Advances in the methodology of grounded theory. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.

Glaser, B. G. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis: Emergence vs. forcing. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.

Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago, IL: Aldine Press.

Goris, J. R., Vaught, B. C., & Pettit, J. D., Jr. (2003). Effects of trust in superiors and influence of superiors on the association between individual-job congruence and job performance/satisfaction. Journal of Business and Psychology, 17(3), 327–343.

Greene, C. N. (1989). Cohesion and productivity in work groups. Small Group Behavior, 20, 70–86.

Gully, S. M., Devine, D. J., & Whitney, D. J. (1995). A meta-analysis of cohesion and performance: Effects of level of analysis and task interdependence. Small Group Research, 26(4), 497–520.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

39

Harrison, D. A., Price, K. H., & Bell, M. P. (1998). Beyond relational demography: Time and the effects of surface- and deep-level diversity on work group cohesion. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 96–107.

Hernez-Broome, G., & Hughes, R. L. (2004). Leadership development: Past, present, and future. Human Resource Planning, 27(1), 24–32.

Hogg, M. A., & Terry, D. J. (2000). Social identity and self-categorization processes in organizational contexts. Academy of Management Journal, 25(1), 121–140.

Horner, M. (1997). Leadership theory: Past, present and future. Team Performance Management, 3(4), 270–287.

Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Evaluating model fit. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modelling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 76– 99). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hunt, J. G. (1991). Leadership: A new synthesis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Ibarra, H. (1992). Homophilly and differential returns: Sex differences in network structure and access in an advertising firm. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 422–447.

Irurita, V. F. (1994). Optimism, values, and commitment as forces in leadership. Journal of Nursing Administration, 24(9), 61–71.

Irurita, V. F. (1996). Optimising: A leadership process for transforming mediocrity to excellence. In K. W. Parry (Ed.), Leadership research and practice: Emerging themes and new challenges (pp. 125–138). Melbourne, Australia: Pitman.

Jarvenpaa, S. L., Knoll, K., & Leidner, D. E. (1998). Is anybody out there? Antecedents of trust in global virtual teams. Journal of Management Information Systems, 14(4), 29–64.

Kempster, S., & Parry, K. W. (2011). Grounded theory and leadership research: A critical realist perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(1), 106–120.

Koenig, A. M., & Eagly, A. H. (2014). Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype content: Observations of groups’ roles shape stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(3), 371–392.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

40

Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 616–642.

Langfred, C., & Shanley, M. (1997). The importance of organizational context: A conceptual model of cohesiveness and effectiveness in work groups. Public Administration Quarterly, 21(3), 349–369.

Lin, C-C., & Peng, T. K. (2010). From organizational citizenship behavior to team performance: The mediation of group cohesion and collective efficacy. Management and Organization Review, 6(1), 55–75.

LISREL (Version 8.50) [Computer software] (2001). Skokie: IL: Scientific Software International.

Lovelace, K. J., Manz, C. C., & Alves, J. C. (2007). Work stress and leadership development: The role of self-leadership, shared leadership, physical fitness and flow in managing demands and increasing job control. Human Resource Management Review, 17(4), 374–387.

McAllister, D. J. (1995). Affect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 38(1), 24–59.

Moser, K., & Kalton, G. (1971). Survey methods in social investigation. London, United Kingdom: Heinemann Educational Books.

Mullen, B., & Copper, C. (1994). The relation between group cohesiveness and performance: An integration. Psychological Bulletin, 115(2), 210–227.

Munroe, K., Estabrooks, P., Dennis, P., & Carron, A. (1999). A phenomenological analysis of group norms in sports teams. The Sports Psychologist, 13, 171– 182.

Nielsen, T. M., Hrivnak, G. A., & Shaw, M. (2009). Organizational citizenship behavior and performance: A meta-analysis of group-level research. Small Group Research, 40(5), 555–577.

O’Bannon, D. P., & Pearce, C. L. (1999). An exploratory examination of gainsharing in service organizations: Implications for organizational

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

41

citizenship behavior and pay satisfaction. Journal of Managerial Issues, 11(3), 363–378.

O’Farrell, B., & Harlan, S. (1982). Craftworkers and clerks: The effect of male co- worker hostility on women’s satisfaction with non-traditional jobs. Social Problems, 29(3), 252–264.

Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Organ, D. W., Podsakoff, P. M., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2011). Expanding the criterion domain to include organizational citizenship behavior (OCB): Implications for employee selection. In S. Zedeck (Ed.), APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 281–323). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Organ, D. W., & Ryan, K. (1995). A meta-analytic review of attitudinal and dispositional predictors of organizational citizenship behavior. Personnel Psychology, 48(4), 775–802.

Parry, K. W. (1998). Grounded theory and social process: A new direction for leadership research. The Leadership Quarterly, 9(1), 85–105.

Parry, K. W. (1999). Enhancing adaptability: Leadership strategies to accommodate change in local government settings. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12(2), 134–156.

Parry, K. W. (2002). Hierarchy of Abstraction Modeling (H.A.M.) and the psychometric validation of grounded theory research. International Journal of Organizational Behavior, 5(5), 180–194.

Parry, K., Mumford, M. D., Bower, I., & Watts, L. L. (2014). Qualitative and historiometric methods in leadership research: A review of the first 25 years of The Leadership Quarterly. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(1), 132–151.

Piliavin, J. A., & Martin, R. R. (1978). The effects of the sex composition of groups on style of social interaction. Sex Roles, 4(2), 125–132.

Pillai, R., Schriesheim, C., & Williams, E. (1999). Fairness perceptions and trust as mediators for transformational and transactional leadership: A two-sample study. Journal of Management, 25(6), 897–933.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

42

Rainey, H., Sanjay, P., & Bozeman, B. (1995). Research note: Public and private managers’ perceptions of red tape. Public Administration Review, 55(6), 565– 573.

Rost, J. C. (1993). Leadership for the twenty-first century. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Schoorman, F. D., Mayer, R. C., & Davis, J. H. (2007). An integrative model of organizational trust: Past, present, and future.. Academy of Management review, 32(2), 344–354.

Smith, C. A., Organ, D. W., & Near, J. P. (1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68(4), 653–663.

Spangler, E., Gordon, M. A., & Pipkin, R. M. (1978). Token women: An empirical test of Kanter’s hypothesis. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 160–170.

Strauss, A. L. (1987). Qualitative data analysis for social scientists. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Swaminathan, S., & Jawahar, P. D. (2013). Job satisfaction as a predictor of organizational citizenship behavior: An empirical study. Global Journal of Business Research, 7(1), 71–80.

Tan, H. H, & Tan, C. S. (2000). Toward the differentiation of trust in supervisor and trust in organization. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 126(2), 241–260.

Tsui, A., Egan, T., & O’Reilly, C. (1992). Being different: Relational demography and organizational attachment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37(4), 549– 579.

Tucker, M. L., McCarthy, A. M., & Jones, M. C. (1999). Women and men politicians: Are some of the best leaders dissatisfied? Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, 20(6), 285–290.

Turner, J. C., & Haslam, S. A. (2001). Social identity, organizations and leadership. In M. E. Turner (Ed.), Groups at work: Theory and research (pp. 25–66). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

43

Uhl-Bien, M. (2006). Relational leadership theory: Exploring the social processes of leadership and organizing. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 654–676.

Uhl-Bien, M. (2011). Relational leadership and gender: From hierarchy to relationality. In P. Werhane & M. Painter-Morland (Eds.), Leadership, gender, and organization (Vol. 27, pp. 65–74). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.

Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., & McKelvey, B. (2007). Complexity leadership theory: Shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(4), 298–318.

Vinkenburg, C. J., van Engen, M. L., Eagly, A. H., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C. (2011). An exploration of stereotypical beliefs about leadership styles: Is transformational leadership a route to women’s promotion? The Leadership Quarterly, 22(1), 10–21.

Voelck, J. (2003). Directive and connective: Gender-based differences in the management styles of academic library managers. Portal, Libraries and the Academy, 3(3), 393–418.

Waldman, D. A., Ramirez, G. G., House, R. J., & Puranam, P. (2001). Does leadership matter? CEO leadership attributes and profitability under conditions of perceived environmental uncertainty. Academy of Management Journal, 44(1), 134–143.

Webber, S. S. (2002). Leadership and trust facilitating cross-functional team success. Journal of Management Development, 21(3), 201–214.

Webber, S. S., & Donahue, L. M. (2001). Impact of highly and less job-related diversity on work group cohesion and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of management, 27(2), 141–162.

Weick, K. E. (1999). Theory construction as disciplined reflexivity: Tradeoffs in the 90s. Academy of Management Review, 24(4), 797–806.

Williams, K. Y., & O’Reilly, C. A. (1998). Demography and diversity in organizations: A review of 40 years of research. In B. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 20, pp. 77–140). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

44

Woehr, D. J., Arciniega, L. M., & Poling, T. L. (2013). Exploring the effects of value diversity on team effectiveness. Journal of Business and Psychology, 28(1), 107–121.

World Bank Group. (2002). Gender equality data and statistics: New Zealand. Retrieved January 27, 2004, from http://datatopics.worldbank.org/gender/country/new-zealand

Yukl, G. (2012). Leadership in organizations (8 th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Prentice Hall.

Yukl, G. A., & Van Fleet, D. D. (1982). Cross-situational, multimethod research on military leader effectiveness. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 30(1), 87–108.

Ken W. Parry, PhD, is a professor of leadership studies at Deakin University, prior to which he was a professor of leadership and director of the Centre for Leadership Studies at Bond University. He was the founding director of the Centre for the Study of Leadership in Wellington, New Zealand, and has conducted two national surveys and trained more than 900 managers in executive development programs. He has researched, studied, and consulted in Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia. He has written seven books, mainly on the topic of leadership. Dr. Parry is the founding editor of the Journal of Management and Organization, the research journal of the Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management. He can be reached at [email protected]. Ronald Fischer, PhD, is an associate professor of psychology at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, and Marie Curie Cofund Senior Fellow at the Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies, Denmark. He has conducted research and provided consultancy to companies in more than 25 countries. Currently, he serves as an associate editor of the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, co-editor of the International Journal of Cross- Cultural Management, and on the editorial boards of a number of psychology and business journals. He has published more than 100 articles and book chapters in psychology and related disciplines. His research has been honored by a number of international awards and prizes, and he is among the top 10 most-cited researchers in culture and psychology. He can be reached at [email protected]. Darren Hanson, PhD, is a professor of leadership, head of global partnerships, and a director of the Centre de Leadership et Efficacité Organisationelle (CLEO) at NEOMA Business School in Paris. Prior to his role at NEOMA, he was a professor of leadership and executive director of the Centre for Strategic Leadership at the National University. Dr. Hanson led Heidrick and Struggles’ leadership consulting practice in Asia prior to joining academia where he advised multinational company leaders and delivered executive development programs at the C-suite level. Dr. Hanson is a thought leader in the area of leadership, particularly in the areas of culture, diversity, and vulnerability, and leads a team investigating sustainability leadership. He has taught at many of the world’s leading business schools, while also serving as a founding senior advisory board member of the Journal of Organizational Effectiveness. He can be reached at [email protected].

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

45

Appendix A

Social Processes of Leadership (SPL) Scale

Your work unit can be defined as the immediate group of people with whom you work on a regular basis. For example, you may work within a project team, a business unit or some other kind of workgroup. 0 = Not at all 1 = Once in a while 2 = Sometimes 3 = Fairly Often 4 = Frequently, if not always Using the scale above, please indicate how frequently people in your work unit do the following. The following six items represent the process “enhancing adaptability.”

• Cooperate to get things done. • Share information needed to help make decisions. • Try to provide rational explanations for why things happen. • Take advantage of opportunities when they arise. • Persist in efforts to achieve work unit goals. • Display personal values that complement those of the organization.

The following six items represent the process “resolving uncertainty.”

• Have face-to-face or phone discussions about change. • Discuss where the organization is heading. • Resolve the uncertainty that other members feel about the future. • Seek to resolve any personal uncertainty about the future. • Rely on each other for information about work. • Rely on each other for support.

The following eight items represent the process “optimizing.”

• Effectively plan ahead for variation in workloads. • Take personal responsibility to educate themselves where needed. • Display a clear perception of their own leadership role within the work unit. • Attempt to move the work unit forward. • Display sound management practice within the work unit. • Prioritize their own work tasks. • Facilitate the flow of information within the work unit. • Distribute tasks and responsibilities where appropriate.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

46

Leading by Example: Images of Diversity and

Collaboration on University Web Pages *

Kristine F. Hoover

Gonzaga University

Deborah A. O’Neil Bowling Green State University

Acknowledging Eagly and Chin’s (2010) concerns for the paucity of research in leadership and diversity, this study explores one form of communication at 24 leading universities through analysis of their website home pages to identify implicit messages about gender, race, and working collectively. These universities were identified from the Academic Ranking of World Universities (2010). The visual representations on the home pages in this study ranged from buildings and DNA to individuals and small groups to large gatherings of people. Building on leadership as a relational construct (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995), we speculate that these images might be a resource to constructively communicate the leadership potential of men, women, Whites, and non-Whites to lead and collaborate with diverse others. Our findings identify specific opportunities for increased communication for collaboration with people of heterogeneous gender and race. Key words: diversity, gender, race, web-page images

Our need for leadership and the ability to influence and work together with others

to achieve a vision has only grown as the challenges facing our current global

community mount. At the 2005 United Nations World Summit, then-Secretary-

General Kofi Annan noted that “whether our task is fighting poverty, stemming

the spread of disease, or saving innocent lives from mass murder, we have seen

that we cannot succeed without the leadership of the strong and the engagement

of all” (BBC, 2005). Chin (2010) claims that “theories of leadership need to be

expanded to incorporate diversity if they are to be relevant for the 21 st century

amidst new social contexts, emerging global concerns, and changing population

demographics” (150). The world teems with significant issues that require

leaders’ attention, and although there are many paths to developing future

leaders, institutions of higher education play a significant role in the supply of this

* To cite this article: Hoover, K. F., & O’Neil, D. A. (2015). Leading by example: Images of diversity

and collaboration on university web pages. International Leadership Journal, 7(2), 46–66.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

47

critical human resource by teaching individuals how to collaborate in pursuance

of shared goals to address the demands and challenges of the 21 st century.

Deng and Gibson (2008) found that cultural intelligence is needed to succeed

in a globalized world. Cultivating leadership with cultural intelligence can occur in

institutions of higher education. Discussing the aspirations and purpose of higher

education, Shapiro (2005) notes that universities can and must help create a

better world through the generation of new ideas that help invent the future and

move society forward. As a former president of both Princeton University and the

University of Michigan and chairman of the National Bioethics Advisory

Commission under U.S. President Bill Clinton, Shapiro emphasizes the

responsibility of universities as societal stewards. Of note, he points to questions

asked at Princeton regarding higher education’s accessibility to talented

individuals from all socioeconomic classes. Although this line of questioning

focused on financial aid policies, it aligns with a concern to ensure that higher

education’s doors are open to all those with merit to enter and, thus, an

expansion of the leadership pipeline.

If indeed “leadership of the strong and the engagement of all” (BBC, 2005) is

an antecedent to addressing global challenges such as hunger, abuse, and

environmental sustainability, institutions of higher education may be responsible

for communicating leader role models who represent individuals from all

backgrounds and who are capable of working collectively. University website

home pages are the portals through which interested parties can view images

that convey the culture and values of the institution (Hoover, O’Neil, & Poutiatine,

2014) and the messages they convey about future leaders. Given the need for

leadership in a complex and global society, this study examines diversity (images

of gender and race) and collaboration (images with more than 12 collective

individuals) on university home pages to determine the implicit messages about

who are portrayed as leaders and how leadership is enacted.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

48

Theoretical Framework

This study examines how images on leading university home pages

communicate leadership in two fundamental ways: first, as a role that diverse

individuals are capable of fulfilling (i.e., the extent to which men and women and

Whites and non-Whites are portrayed on the web pages), and second, as a

collaborative activity expressed by the extent to which collectives are

represented on the web pages. Both leader prototypes (Eagly & Karau, 2002)

and group prototypicality (Gartzia, 2010) may encourage males to be leaders

more than females. Van Knippenberg (2011) speculates whether prototypical

representations of organizations are more associated with characteristics of the

cultural majority rather than those of the cultural minority. We examine literature

specific to leadership and diversity (Eagly & Chin, 2010) as well as leader-

member exchange and multi-level leadership (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) to better

understand to what extent leading university home page images articulate this

diversity and collaboration.

We speculate that institutions of higher learning reveal their impressions of

leadership through the images they choose to display on their university web

pages. In turn, these web pages model the universities’ ideal students to

individuals who visit those sites. These images of individuals serve as role

models and provide information about leadership through the depiction of

appropriate attitudes and behaviors. Learning from role models can occur

through observations from synchronous face-to-face interactions, as well as by

seeing others in various mediums of communication, including television

(Bandura, 1977; Gerbner, 1958) and static advertising images (Goffman, 1974,

1979). Bandura (1986, 2001) believed that the modeling process extended

beyond imitation and involved changes in attitudes, values, aspirations, and other

characteristics to match the model. Given the need for collaboration with diverse

persons within the 21 st century’s globalized context, images that model diversity

and collaboration become significant in learning to lead.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

49

Leadership and Diversity

Eagly and Chin (2010) note that the paucity of literature addressing leadership

and diversity relative to culture, gender, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation

results in a prejudice against people with attributes that are stereotypically not

aligned with the socially learned requirements of leadership (Eagly & Diekman,

2005; Heilman, 2001). These cultivated stereotypes can operate at the implicit or

subconscious level (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2004) to the extent that individuals may

be unintentionally discouraged or denied access to leadership roles (Heilman &

Eagly, 2008; Leslie, King, Bradley, & Hebl, 2008). Messages about who can lead,

such as those portrayed on television, advertisements, or web pages, become

important mechanisms for opening doors and encouraging power to be shared

beyond those who have historically led.

Not surprisingly given our global society, multicultural leadership competencies

have emerged as some of the greatest leadership challenges (Hunt et al., 2009).

While some leadership attributes are culturally specific, other leadership

characteristics have been found relatively consistent across cultures. These

characteristics include team building, communication, and coordination (House,

Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004), each requiring collective work.

Leadership and Collaboration

Depictions of collaboration with diverse others can influence who is endorsed as

a more effective leader. Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) call for a multi-level

approach to leadership studies. Multi-level analysis expands the understanding

of leadership to include the leader-follower dyad, the group or collective, and the

systems level. Graen and Uhl-Bien’s (1991) leader-member exchange (LMX)

model recognizes that the tendency to associate with others similar to oneself

has implications for relational constructs of leadership. Specifically, antecedents

to the exchange include cross-cultural variables (Uhl-Bien, Tierney, Graen, &

Wakabayashi, 1990; Wakabayashi, Graen, & Uhl-Bien, 1990). Similarities,

however, become entrenched as “more prototypical members are perceived to

be and are endorsed as more effective leaders” (Hogg, Epitropaki, Mankad,

Svensson, & Weeden, 2005, 1002).

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

50

Vroom (2000) proposed a normative leadership model that identified multiple

levels of collaboration. Vroom’s model focuses on various leadership styles in

decision making, ranging from autocratic to delegating decisions to the group.

Although none of the variables in this model explicitly address diversity, the

model posits that the most effective leadership is concerned with group

commitment, group support, common goals, and potential group conflict.

Significant here is the recognition of leadership interactions beyond the leader-

follower dyad and, specific, to the focus of this study, the depiction of

collaboration needed to address systemic societal issues.

Method

This study examined images on the home pages of the top 24 universities listed

on the Academic Ranking of World Universities (2010; see Table 1 on the next

page). A screenshot of the initial home page for each university was captured

and archived as either a Microsoft Word or Adobe PDF file, which is similar to the

process followed by Singh and Point (2006) in their study of diversity on

European company websites.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

51

Table 1: Number and Percentage of Images on Each Home Page

Rank University Number

of

Images

With

People

Number

of

Images

Without

People

Percentage

of Images

With

People

1 Harvard University 3 0 100%

2 University of California–Berkeley 3 1 75%

3 Stanford University 3 4 43%

5 University of Cambridge 2 1 67%

6 California Institute of Technology 1 0 100%

7 Princeton University 3 3 50%

8 Columbia University 1 0 100%

9 University of Chicago 7 2 78%

11 Yale University 2 1 67%

12 Cornell University 4 2 67%

13 University of California–Los Angeles

5 1 83%

14 University of California–San Diego 3 2 60%

15 University of Pennsylvania 2 4 33%

16 University of Washington 3 3 50%

17 University of Wisconsin–Madison 3 4 43%

18 Johns Hopkins University 3 1 75%

19 University of California–San Francisco

5 0 100%

20 University of Tokyo 2 0 100%

21 University College London 2 3 40%

22 University of Michigan 2 3 40%

23 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich

1 2 33%

24 Kyoto University 5 1 83% Note: Two of the home pages did not contain any images of people: 4: Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, and 10: Oxford University.

Coding Procedures

The unit of coding was individual people on each university’s home page

represented as a tableau. At this level, the first question addressed was whether

there were people depicted or not. If a home page did not portray people, then

the coding was concluded for that university. If a home page did portray people,

then frequency counts were conducted on the following categories: the number

of people who were identifiable as men, women, and those whose gender could

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

52

not be determined; and the number of people who were identifiable as White,

non-White, and those whose race could not be determined.

In addition to the head counts on each tableau, the researchers also coded

images. Images were defined as the actual frames or pictures on a given

tableau. Images were coded to indicate collaboration (defined as more than

12 collective individuals) as well as if the collective images were homogenous or

heterogeneous (with regard to gender and race). The delineation for

collaboration was based on the effective group size for decision making (Benne

& Levit, 1953; Blenko, Mankins, & Rogers, 2010; Hare, 1952). After independent

coding, we calculated percentage agreement scores during an iterative coding

process, resulting in inter-rater reliability consistent with acceptable levels

(Boyatzis, 1998). Table 2 indicates the percentage of coder agreement by

category.

Table 2: Percentage of Coding Agreement by Category

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Initial

Coding

100 75 75 100 58 75 75 54 75 71

Final

Coding

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

1 Display of people in images

2 Number of images with people

3 Number of images without people

4 Number of collectives (>12 people)

5 Number of men on the home page

6 Number of women on the home page

7 Number of people of indeterminate gender

8 Number of Whites

9 Number of non-Whites

10 Number of people of indeterminate color

Results

Two of the 24 leading university home pages in this study did not contain any

images of people (Oxford University and the Massachusetts Institute of

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

53

Technology [MIT]), which resulted in 22 university home pages in the final

sample. As tableaux, there were 214 people shown on the 22 home pages.

There were 103 images or pictures displayed (65 with people and 38 without

people). Table 1 reports the number and percentage of images with people on

each home page.

In the coding for gender and race, a coding of man, woman, White, or non-

White required a clear and strong indication of the characteristic. People with

uncertain or ambiguous characteristics were coded as indeterminate. Reasons

for not being able to tell the gender or race of a person included the image being

too small (even when enlarged) and the person positioned or dressed in such a

way that features were obscured. For example, Cornell University had a picture

of two people in hazmat suits, obscuring all body features. Data for the home

page analysis can be found in Table 3.

Table 3: Number of Collectives and Individuals on Each Home Page

Range on Each

Home Page

Mean on Each

Home Page

Collectives 0–2 .23

Men (n = 99, 46%) 1–16 4.50

Women (n = 66, 31%) 0–9 3.00

Indeterminate Gender (n = 49, 23%) 0–30 2.23

White (n = 89, 42%) 0–14 4.05

Non-White (n = 48, 22%) 0–10 2.18

Indeterminate Race (n = 77, 36%) 0–42 3.50

Gender Diversity

On the 22 home pages, 99 people (46%) were identified as men, while 66 people

(31%) could be identified as women, and 49 people (23%) were of an

indeterminate gender. Each home page tableau had averages of 4.50 men

(range 1–16), 3.00 women (range 0–9), and 2.23 people of indeterminate gender

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

54

(range 0–30). Every home page with people, however, pictured at least one man.

Two home pages (9%) did not picture any identifiable women, and 14 home

pages (64%) that did not contain pictures of people of indeterminate gender.

Princeton’s image of their football team pictured the most men (16), and Kyoto’s

home page pictured the most women (9) and people of indeterminate gender

(30). Table 4 lists the number of people by gender on each home page.

Table 4: Number of Men, Women, and People of Indeterminate Gender

Rank University Men

n =99

Women

n = 66

Indeter.

n = 49

1 Harvard University 5 7 3

2 University of California–Berkeley 1 3 0

3 Stanford University 13 1 7

5 University of Cambridge 4 3 0

6 California Institute of Technology 1 0 0

7 Princeton University 16 1 0

8 Columbia University 6 2 0

9 University of Chicago 4 7 4

11 Yale University 1 2 0

12 Cornell University 2 7 3

13 University of California–Los Angeles 3 3 0

14 University of California–San Diego 5 7 0

15 University of Pennsylvania 4 4 0

16 University of Washington 3 2 1

17 University of Wisconsin–Madison 1 1 1

18 Johns Hopkins University 3 2 0

19 University of California–San Francisco 3 2 0

20 University of Tokyo 7 1 0

21 University College London 2 1 0

22 University of Michigan 2 1 0

23 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich 1

0 0

24 Kyoto University 12 9 30

Of the 20 home page tableaus with both men and women, 13 (65%) depicted at

least one man and one woman together in the same image. Of the 103 total

images in the study, only 17 of the images (17%) showed at least one man and

one woman together in the same image. Table 5 indicates the heterogeneous

gender composition of the images in the study.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

55

Table 5: Number of Heterogeneous Gender and Collective Images

Rank University Number of

Images With Men

and Women

Number of

Collective

Images

1 Harvard University 1

2 University of California–Berkeley

3 Stanford University 1

5 University of Cambridge 1

6 California Institute of Technology

7 Princeton University 1

8 Columbia University 1

9 University of Chicago 2

11 Yale University

12 Cornell University 1 1

13 University of California–Los Angeles

14 University of California–San Diego 1

15 University of Pennsylvania 1

16 University of Washington 1

17 University of Wisconsin–Madison

18 Johns Hopkins University 1

19 University of California–San Francisco 1

20 University of Tokyo 1

21 University College London

22 University of Michigan 1

23 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich

24 Kyoto University 4 2

Racial Diversity

In terms of race, the composition of people depicted on the home pages was

42% White, 22% non-White, and 36% of indeterminate race. There were

averages of 4.05 Whites (range 0–14), 2.18 non-Whites (range 0–10), and

3.50 people of indeterminate race (range 0–42). There were 2 home pages

without Whites, 6 home pages without non-Whites, and 12 home pages without

people of indeterminate race. Harvard pictured the most Whites (14), while the

University of California–San Diego pictured the most non-Whites (10). Kyoto

University pictured the most people of indeterminate race (42). Of note, 14 of the

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

56

22 home pages (64%) as tableau had both Whites and non-Whites depicted. Of

those, seven home pages (50%) depicted images of Whites and non-Whites

together in the same image. Table 6 indicates the heterogeneous racial

composition of the images in the study.

Table 6: Number of Whites, Non-Whites, and People of Indeterminate Race

Rank University White

n = 89

Non-

White

n = 48

Indeter.

n = 77

1 Harvard University 14 1 0

2 University of California–Berkeley 3 1 0

3 Stanford University 6 0 15

5 University of Cambridge 6 0 1

6 California Institute of Technology 0 1 0

7 Princeton University 6 1 10

8 Columbia University 0 8 0

9 University of Chicago 11 1 3

11 Yale University 2 1 0

12 Cornell University 8 2 2

13 University of California–Los Angeles 3 3 0

14 University of California–San Diego 2 10 0

15 University of Pennsylvania 6 2 0

16 University of Washington 4 1 1

17 University of Wisconsin-Madison 2 0 1

18 Johns Hopkins University 3 2 0

19 University of California–San Francisco 4 1 0

20 University of Tokyo 1 5 2

21 University College London 3 0 0

22 University of Michigan 3 0 0

23 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich 1

0 0

24 Kyoto University 1 8 42

Collaboration

Four home pages (18%) depicted collaboration (images with more than 12

collective individuals), and the range of number of images with collectives per

home page was 0 to 2. There were five collective images (5%) displayed on

these four home pages (of 103 images). Three universities located in the United

States (Stanford, Princeton, and Cornell) had one collective image each;

Stanford and Princeton both depicted their respective schools’ football teams,

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

57

while Cornell showed children on a field trip. Only the home page of Kyoto

University had more than one collective image. The collective images on the

Kyoto home page were of a large meeting and a large lecture hall setting.

Overall, two of the home pages (9%—Cornell and Kyoto) portrayed one

collective image each with men and women together, and the same home page

image of a collective at Cornell is the only one to portray a collective image of

Whites and non-Whites together.

Discussion

Top universities represent, consciously or unconsciously, the culture and values

these institutions wish to promulgate through their web page images. Story

(2011) claims that adaptation, the ability to “experience another culture and from

this experience” (382) be able to behave in culturally appropriate ways, is central

to succeeding in cross-cultural encounters that are becoming more common in

our globalized world. Through images on their home pages, leading world

universities reveal a disposition toward diverse others, which may help or hinder

effective global leadership. Our findings provide insights regarding opportunities

for universities to depict even greater leadership diversity and collaboration in

terms of gender, race, and working collectively.

Gender Diversity

Of the people depicted, 46% were men, 31% were women, and 23% were of

indeterminate gender. While women comprise 40% of workers in the global

economy (Carter & Silva, 2010; World Bank, 2012), men still primarily dominate

organizations and political institutions in senior level positions. According to

Catalyst (2013), only 14.6% of Fortune 500 executive officer positions were held

by women in 2013, up slightly from 13.9% in 2009. As of 2015, 6 women were

serving as U.S. governors (10%), and 20 of 100 senators (20%) and 84 of

435 U.S. representatives (19%) were women (Center for American Women in

Politics, 2015a, 2015b). To the credit of these top universities in our study,

66 women of the 214 people (31%) depicted in the home page images is a far

greater ratio than the number of women currently found in the top leadership

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

58

roles in the Fortune 500, the United States Congress, and state governments.

This suggests an opportunity for universities to continue to model women

succeeding in higher education—an important prerequisite for senior positions in

the public and private sectors.

Racial Diversity

In 2009–2010, associate, bachelor’s, and master’s degrees were conferred to

non-Whites in the following proportions: 34%, 28%, and 21% respectively

(NCES, 2012). In the current study, non-Whites were depicted in 16 of the

22 home pages (73%). The percentage of non-Whites depicted overall (48 of

214, or 22%) is at or below national degree statistics and provides an opportunity

to have greater parity with graduation rates as well as with the greater

population. The Congress of Racial Equality (n.d.) states that “the final frontier for

civil rights is equality of economic opportunity” (About CORE). Economic

opportunity and leadership are often most difficult to achieve without higher

education.

Collaboration

An unexpected finding of our coding was the lack of images depicting

collaboration (more than 12 collective individuals). There were only four sites

(18%) that displayed collectives. Combined, there were only 5 collective images

(5%) of the 103 images on the 22 home pages. Although there were two

institutions (16%) that showed collective images of mixed gender and or mixed

races engaged in activities together, the American university (Cornell) did so with

images of children, while the Asian university (Kyoto) showed adults. The

majority of home pages (18 of 22, 82%) examined in the current study showed

images of individuals, rather than collectives, at a time when calls abound for

increased collaboration to tackle pressing global issues such as climate change

and world economics.

The focus on portraying individuals rather than collectives may represent a lost

opportunity for prototypically depicting leadership (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Gartzia,

2010) at the collective level through these images. Maintaining an individualistic

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

59

perspective may have implications for both learning and leadership as viewers of

these web page images may be left with the impression that leadership is an

individual endeavor. Kyoto University, one of the two institutions in the sample

located in Asia, depicted the largest number of people engaged together,

although many were of indeterminate gender and color. Significantly, of the three

universities in the United States (Stanford, Princeton, and Cornell) with collective

images, two depicted all-male football teams and a third depicted children. One

possibility may be that the football teams are reflective of the “cult of the athlete”

pervasive in American society. Another possibility may be that these results are a

reflection of more Western individualistic versus more Eastern collectivist

cultures.

Homogeneity

While the vast majority of the home page tableaus showed both men and women

(20 of 22, 91%), an unexpected finding was that very few of the images depicted

women and men together (17 of 103, 16.5%). Similarly, the majority of tableaus

showed both Whites and non-Whites (14 of 22, 64%), whereas only half of those

home pages (7 of 14) depicted them together in the same image.

These are confusing messages to send about homogeneity versus diversity at

institutions of higher learning. While most universities promote the enrollment of

both men and women and both Whites and non-Whites, the institutions of higher

education in our sample seem to be modeling segregated prototypical group

behavior through the display of images on their websites featuring segregated

genders and races. This seems counterintuitive to a university’s function in role

modeling images of leadership and preparing future leaders. One of the ways

that individuals learn about people who are different from them is to engage with

those of different backgrounds, gender, and race. Twenty-first-century

universities perpetuating images of homogeneity in an increasingly diverse

society would seem to be working against their missions of educating the next

generation of world citizens. These home page images seem to be modeling less

learning or working across differences because people of different gender and

race are infrequently depicted as engaged together.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

60

No People and People with Indeterminate Characteristics

If a purpose of using images on web pages is to communicate and cultivate

values, these universities have chosen a “both/and” approach. All of the home

pages in this study contained at least one image; 22 (92%) included images with

people; 17 (70%) combined these with images without people (e.g., an image of

a gene or a building); and 2 (8%) displayed only images without people. The use

of images without people provides for greater variation of the content of the

images, while the images with people provide a greater opportunity for both the

modeling of and the cultivation of relational values.

Seven of the 22 home pages (32%) included 49 people of indeterminate

gender (23%), while 9 of the home pages (41%) included 77 people of

indeterminate race (36%). No web pages displayed only images of people with

indeterminate characteristics. Given the limited quantity of images that are

possible to post on a web page at any one time, displaying both people with

determinate and indeterminate characteristics on the same tableau may allow

more observers to imagine themselves as like those modeled, thus creating

greater opportunities for enculturation. In contrast, if cultivated stereotypes do

operate at the implicit or subconscious level as Dovidio and Gaertner (2004)

suggest, resulting in individuals being discouraged or denied access to

leadership roles (Heilman & Eagly, 2008; Leslie et al., 2008)—however

unintentional—the dearth of clear images of women, men, Whites, and non-

Whites portrayed together may have a negative impact on aspiring future leaders

who cannot “see” themselves reflected in the present student bodies.

Limitations and Future Research

While this study examined images in terms of gender, race, and collectives, we

recognize that diversity extends far beyond these visual characteristics. We also

acknowledge that determining gender, race, and numbers of individuals from

web images is an inexact and imperfect way to measure diversity.

It is also important to note that the home pages in this study are snapshots of a

moment in time. Many home pages utilize rotating images, provide new images

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

61

each time a home page is opened, and or embed video—none of which were

captured in this sample. Our sample of the 24 leading institutions in higher

education was composed of 18 institutions located in the United States (75%),

four in Western Europe (17%), and two in Asia (8%). Future studies should

consider the cultural implications of these images from larger samples

representing the global community.

This study does not make claims about the composition of student enrollments

or the leadership at these institutions. Although certainly parity in these areas is

critical, this study explored the clarity with which universities represent the ideals

of working with and leading diverse others. Although research has been done

regarding how views of reality are cultivated by mass media (specifically

television and magazine advertisements), there is far less work done on

exploring how these concepts apply to images displayed on websites. More

research in this medium is warranted, given the prevalence of the Internet as an

expanding medium for learning and social interaction. Future research should

also explore the use of images without people and with people of indeterminate

characteristics and examine the portrayal of leadership diversity and

collaboration relative to the impact on the observer.

Conclusion

The myriad challenges currently facing the world call for collective action on the

part of the global citizenry. Leading universities’ home pages portray messages

about prototypicality that reveal latent understandings of leadership as either an

individual or a collaborative activity, as the purview of men or women and of

Whites or non-Whites. By modeling prototypical behavior, university home pages

provide an important space for demonstrating the leadership and group practices

that future leaders need to learn to address the challenges facing our world. In

any large organization, people “often come from varied backgrounds differing in

the way they prefer to speak their minds” (Kumar, Jain, & Tiwary, 2013, 23).

Thus, leader and group prototypes portrayed on university websites may model

forms of leadership and interaction that expand opportunities for diverse others.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

62

While we are encouraged by the results of our study, we hope universities will

continue to depict diverse others engaged together in the pursuit of solving

challenges as they educate the future leaders the world so desperately needs.

References

Academic Ranking of World Universities. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.arwu.org/Login.jsp

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychology, 3(3), 265–299.

BBC. (2005). UN world summit. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4247296.stm

Benne, K. D., & Levit, G. (1953). The nature of groups and helping groups improve their operation. Review of Educational Research, 23(4), 289–308.

Blenko, M. W., Mankins, M. C., & Rogers, P. (2010). Decide and deliver: Five steps to breakthrough performance in your organization. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing.

Boyatzis, R. E. (1998). Transforming qualitative information. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Carter, N. M., & Silva, C. (2010). Women in management: Delusions of progress. Harvard Business Review, 88(3), 19–21.

Catalyst. (2013). 2013 Catalyst census: Fortune 500 women executive officers and top earners. Retrieved from http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/2013- catalyst-census-fortune-500-women-executive-officers-and-top-earners

Center for Women in Politics, Rutgers University. (2015a). Women serving in the 114th Congress 2015–17. Retrieved from http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/fast_facts/levels_of_office/Congress- Current.php

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

63

Center for Women in Politics, Rutgers University. (2015b). Women in statewide elective executive office 2015. Retrieved from http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/fast_facts/levels_of_office/Statewide- Current.php

Chin, J. L. (2010). Introduction to the special issue on diversity and leadership. American Psychologist, 65(3), 150–156.

Congress of Racial Equality (n.d.). About the Congress of Racial Equality. Retrieved from http://www.congressofracialequality.org/about-core.html

Deng, L., & Gibson, P. (2008). A qualitative evaluation on the role of cultural intelligence in cross-cultural leadership effectiveness. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 3(2), 181–197.

Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004). Aversive racism. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1–52). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Eagly, A. H., & Chin, J. L. (2010). Diversity and leadership in a changing world. American Psychologist, 65(3), 216–224.

Eagly, A. H., & Diekman, A. B. (2005). What is the problem? Prejudice as an attitude-in-context. In J. F. Dovidio, P. Glick, & L. Rudman (Eds.), On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport (pp. 19–35). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573–598.

Gartzia, L. (2010). From “think male” to “think androgynous”. Implications for gender equality and organizational functioning in XXI century organizations (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Basque Country, Spain.

Gerbner, G. (1958). On content analysis and critical research in mass communication. AV Communication Review 6(3), 85–108.

Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

64

Goffman, E. (1979). Gender advertisements. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1991). The transformation of professionals into self-managing and partially self-designing contributors: Toward a theory of leadership-making. Journal of Management Systems, 3(3), 33–48.

Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 219–247.

Hare, A. P. (1952). A study of interaction and consensus in different sized groups. American Sociological Review, 17, 261–267.

Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657–674.

Heilman, M. E., & Eagly, A. H. (2008). Gender stereotypes are alive, well, and busy producing workplace discrimination. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 1, 393–398.

Hogg, M., Epitropaki, O., Mankad, A., Svensson, A., & Weeden, K. (2005). Effective leadership in salient groups: Revisiting leader-member exchange theory from the perspective of the social identity theory of leadership. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(7), 991–1004.

Hoover, K.F., O’Neil, D.A., & Poutiatine, M. (2014). Gender and leadership: A frame analysis of university home web page images. Journal of Academic Ethics, 12(1), 15–27.

House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.). (2004). Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hunt, L., LaRoche, G., Blake-Beard, S., Chin, E., Arroyave, M., & Scully, M. (2009). Cross-cultural connections: Leveraging social networks for women’s advancement. In M. Barreto, M. K. Ryan, & M. T. Schmitt (Eds.), The glass ceiling in the 21

st century: Understanding barriers to gender equality (pp.227–

255). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

65

Kumar, K. K., Jain, K. K., & Tiwary, R. R. (2013). Leadership activities and their impacts on creating knowledge. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 8(1), 19–31.

Leslie, L. M., King, E. B., Bradley, J. C., & Hebl, M. R. (2008). Triangulation across methodologies: All signs point to persistent stereotyping and discrimination in organizations. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 1, 399–404.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2012). Fast facts: Degrees conferred by sex and race. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=72

Shapiro, H. T. (2005). A larger sense of purpose: Higher education and society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Singh, V., & Point, S. (2006). (Re)Presentation of gender and ethnicity in diversity statement on European company websites. Journal of Business Ethics, 68(4), 363–379.

Story, J. S. P. (2011). A developmental approach to global leadership. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 6(3), 375–389.

Uhl-Bien, M., Tierney, P. S., Graen, G. B., & Wakabayashi, M. (1990). Company paternalism and the hidden-investment process: Identification of the “right type” for line managers in leading Japanese organizations. Group and Organization Studies, 15(4), 414–430.

Van Knippenberg, D. (2011). Embodying who we are: Leader group protypicality and leadership effectiveness. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(6), 1078–1091.

Vroom, V. H. (2000). Leadership and the decision-making process. Organizational Dynamics, 28(4), 82–94.

Wakabayashi, M., Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1990). Generalizability of the hidden-investment hypothesis among line managers in five leading Japanese corporations. Human Relations, 43(11), 1099–1116.

World Bank. (2012). World development report: Gender equality and development. Retrieved from http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we- do/economic-empowerment/facts-and-figures#notes

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

66

Kristine F. Hoover, EdD, is an assistant professor of organizational leadership in the School of Professional Studies at Gonzaga University. Her research on applied ethics, diversity, and service learning has been published in journals including the Journal of Business Ethics, the Organization Development Journal, and Personnel Review. Dr. Hoover also serves as the chair of the Washington State Legislative Ethics Board and the chair of the Gonzaga Institute for Hate Studies. She can be reached at [email protected]. Deborah A. O’Neil, PhD, is an associate professor of organizational behavior and the director of the Master of Organization Development program in the Department of Management, College of Business Administration at Bowling Green State University. Her research on career, leadership, and organization development has appeared in such publications as Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Change Management, and Consulting Psychology Journal. Dr. O’Neil also serves as a consultant for private, public, and nonprofit organizations. She can be reached at [email protected].

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

67

A New Kind of Palestinian Business Leadership

*

Saliba Sarsar

Monmouth University Few leaders are exemplary enough to stand out during challenging times or crises. Even fewer are able to articulate a vision, act strategically, motivate and respect followers, and put community interests first. This article discusses a new kind of Palestinian business leadership that is performing exceedingly well while overcoming major obstacles. The general context under which Palestinians live and work is described, and the work and accomplishments of four Palestinian business leaders are presented. The article concludes by highlighting similarities among those business leaders, which reveals the potential for enhanced business practices and a healthier economy and society. Key words: business leadership, corporate social responsibility, Palestine A new generation of business leaders is emerging in Palestine, even under the

tough conditions of the Israeli occupation, internal Palestinian dynamics, and the

uncertainty of the future. These leaders are intimately connected to their people

and cultural heritage as well as to their people’s current circumstances and

aspirations. These leaders tend to be efficient and effective and are able to

balance principles with pragmatism. In addition to planning for a better tomorrow,

they understand that to improve their community, Palestinians need to adopt and

adapt new skills, methods, and programs that fit the local, regional, and

international conditions.

This article explains the general environment under which Palestinians live and

business is conducted, focusing specifically on the Israeli occupation and the

main internal divisions in Palestine, the obstacles for Palestinian business and

economy, and the patriarchal nature of Palestinian culture. The work and

accomplishments of four business leaders and how they are transforming their

environment amid extremely tough conditions are then presented. The article

concludes by highlighting the similarities among them, which point the way

toward a healthier Palestinian business environment and society.

* To cite this article: Sarsar, S. (2015). A new kind of Palestinian business leadership. International

Leadership Journal, 7(2), 67–80.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

68

Palestine: Between a Rock and a Hard Place

Israeli Military Occupation and Internal Palestinian Divisions

During the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel took possession of the West Bank,

East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip, among other territories, from its neighboring

Arab countries. The West Bank and Gaza Strip were placed under military

occupation until 1994–1996, when security and civilian responsibility for various

Palestinian-populated areas were passed on to the Palestinian Authority (PA),

specifically the Palestinian Liberation Organization with its ruling Fatah Party,

under a series of agreements, while maintaining control over land, air, and sea

access. In late 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew its military forces and settlers

from the Gaza Strip but consolidated its hold on the West Bank with more

settlements for Israelis and restricted access for Palestinians.

The relationships between Israelis and Palestinians on the one hand, and

between Palestinian factions on the other hand, are untenable or unsustainable,

which adversely impact daily life and business interactions. For example, Israeli

practices—as reflected in military checkpoints, the serpentine wall cutting

through Palestinian neighborhoods and property in the West Bank and the

environs of Jerusalem, and Israeli settlers living in East Jerusalem and in the

West Bank—have disempowered and dispossessed Palestinians. Two resultant

Palestinian intifadas, or uprisings, against the Israeli occupation (from 1987 to

1993 and from 2000 to 2005) brought fear and distrust to Israeli-Palestinian

relations (Sorenson, 2014, 360–362). The worsening conditions in Palestine—

weak institutions, a depressed economy, high unemployment, and social conflicts

of all kinds—as well as the Palestinian divisions and clashes between the Fatah

Party and Hamas (the Islamic Resistance Movement) that have left the PA

governing most of the West Bank and Hamas governing the Gaza Strip—have

disheartened many Palestinians (Sorenson, 2014). Negotiations over the years

between the PA and Israel have not yet produced peace (Sarsar, 2009). Conflict

between Hamas and Israel generated bloody cross-border attacks, rocket firings,

and wars, including those in 2008 to 2009, 2012, and 2014.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

69

Obstacles to a Healthy Palestinian Business Environment and Economy

The Israeli occupation and the economic institutions and policies in Palestine

have prevented the development of a healthy business environment. Awartani

(2005), director of the Center for Private Sector Development, notes:

In addition to inherent constraints relating to the scarcity of natural resources and deformations in the educational and training systems, the Palestinian economy and private sector have been severely influenced by a wide range of policies and measures taken by the Israeli authorities. (para. 1)

Moreover, the arrival of the PA in 1994 has not helped the governance dynamics

of public sector institutions. As Awartani argues:

Despite repeated proclamations concerning privatization, transparency, the rule of law, the adoption of prudent hiring policies, and the institutions of overall reforms, the private sector representatives seem to be still unsatisfied with the pace and direction of the reform process. (para. 32)

In 2009, Salam Fayyad, former prime minister of the Palestinian National

Authority (2007–2013) and briefly the first prime minister of the State of Palestine

(January to June 2013), introduced a working plan anchored in law and order

with strong security, good governance, and economic opportunity. The ultimate

goal of this plan was to create self-reliance and self-empowerment so as to

achieve statehood (Danin, 2011). Although Fayyad has his detractors, his

strategy attracted international attention. Friedman (2010) comments:

Fayyad calls . . . for a nonviolent struggle, for building non-corrupt transparent institutions and effective police and paramilitary units, which even the Israeli Army says are doing a good job; and then, once they are all up and running, [for the declaration of] a Palestinian state in the West Bank by 2011. (A27).

Corruption remains endemic in Palestinian society, as indicated in a special

report (Ramahi, 2013). This is also confirmed by Transparency International (TI,

n.d.), the global coalition against corruption, which publishes the annual

Corruption Perceptions Index. Favoritism and nepotism are common forms of

corruption (Chêne, 2012).

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

70

Palestinian Culture: Women Between a Conservative Society and

Modernity

Historically, Palestinian society gave more voice and touch to men than women.

Men were provided with more opportunities to actualize themselves by engaging

in politics, starting business ventures, and traveling abroad. They were and still

are expected to defend their families, honor, and property. Palestinian women

normally acted in secondary or supportive roles to men; patriarchy, religious

dogmas, and outdated customs served as impediments to their self-actualization

and socioeconomic and political participation. Most women opted to play it safe

by continuing their traditional roles in the family—taking care of their siblings, or

being good daughters, wives, and mothers. As for their societal roles, they

usually pursued traditional careers, such as teaching and nursing, and carried

out welfare activities and relief efforts. However, that was unacceptable to some,

who resorted to working in the nationalist movement so as to resist injustices

wherever they existed in their lives and their community’s life, including foreign

rule and occupation (Sorenson, 2014).

During the past five decades, Palestinian women have increasingly listened to

their own voices and searched for their own identities within the context of the

national journey for self-determination and statehood. Sarsar (2002) says that

“from teaching to writing, from demonstrating to organizing, women are

challenging opposing forces in their lives and the life of their community, thereby

claiming their rightful place in society” (146). Much progress has been achieved,

but Palestinian females have to work harder and smarter than their male

counterparts in order to reach or surpass similar goals.

It is important to note that:

despite a high female enrollment in secondary education and a literacy rate among female youth of 99 percent, Palestinian women’s labor force participation rate is among the lowest in the world. Only 17 percent of women aged 15 and above are actively engaging in the labor market either by working or looking for work, compared to 68 percent for men. Globally, the labor force participation rate of women is 52 percent. (UNICEF, 2011, 4)

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

71

It is no wonder that only 2% of Palestinian companies are run by women (Neslen,

2011, 144).

Business Leaders: Nature of Work and Accomplishments

Many Palestinian business leaders are transforming the way they conduct

business as well as the way they relate to their surroundings. Among them are

Hashem Hani Shawa, a banker; Manal Yaish Zraiq, a business executive;

Ammar Aker, a telecommunication expert; and Amal Daraghmeh Masri, a

marketing and public relations specialist. 1

Hashim Hani Shawa

Shawa has been the chairman and general manager of the Bank of Palestine

since 2007. He is building on the legacy of his grandfather, the late Haj Hashem

Shawa, who established the Bank of Palestine in Gaza City in 1960. After

receiving a bachelor of science degree from the University College of London,

Shawa began his banking career at Citigroup in 1997. He held various

management positions in corporate and private banking, working in the United

Kingdom, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland. In 2005, he joined HSBC in Switzerland

as a director of the bank’s Middle East and North Africa business.

On his return to Palestine to lead the Bank of Palestine, Shawa was

determined to be part of the solution, not the problem. He embarked on an

ambitious journey to modernize the bank and forge local, regional, and

international relations. He held firm to his belief that, “no opportunity should be

missed in the building of the economy and of the morale and capabilities of our

society, regardless of the setbacks or interruptions we might face” (Bank of

Palestine Staff & Shawa, 2009, 20). Under Shawa’s leadership, the Bank of

Palestine carefully considers the socioeconomic, security, and national concerns

of the people in its strategy and daily activities. Success has come in a variety of

fields, including microfinance, investments, and corporate social responsibility.

1 Biographies of the highlighted business leaders are taken from a variety of sources, including

the websites of their respective companies and their LinkedIn profiles.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

72

To overcome the people’s financial hardships because of Israeli restrictions

placed on movement and freedom of access, the Bank of Palestine expanded its

branch network. This was especially important in the small towns and villages,

where they were able to facilitate banking and financial services and provide

customers with credit and loans. There is a serious focus on assisting the small

business community, mainly the agriculture sector. Enlivening small businesses

creates job opportunities, and these provide for a healthy economy.

The Bank of Palestine also established a brokerage subsidiary, Al Wasata

Securities, which gives customers trading access to stocks listed on the

Palestinian Stock Exchange and regional markets. This subsidiary has now

become a major brokerage company in terms of trading volume and new

customer accounts.

Shawa and the Bank of Palestine have intensified their worldwide banking

connections with Citigroup, JP Morgan, HSBC, Deutsche Bank, and

Commerzbank. They have entered into important agreements, including

corporate governance and risk management with the International Finance

Corporation. Shawa has also been central to establishing strong financial ties

with Chile, which is home to half a million people of Palestinian origin.

As Shawa notes, “true progress begins with social and economic development

on a community level” (The New Economy, question 4, para. 1). The Bank of

Palestine contributes around 5% of its net profit to corporate social responsibility

(CSR), a percentage that is more than double the worldwide average of 2%.

Monies have supported activities and programs in education, development,

childhood, health, culture, and sport.

Manal Yaish Zraiq

Zraiq is a partner and the general director of Massar International, a consultancy

firm providing investment promotion, management solutions, and development

services to the Palestinian private and public sectors (Massar International, n.d.).

She is a pioneering woman working to enhance the development and

advancement of businesswomen in Palestine. An experienced business

executive and a skilled communicator, Zraiq’s wide range of specialized skills

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

73

include administrative operations, financial management, and project

implementation.

At Massar, Zraiq is involved in investment projects and has oversight over new

business initiatives in journalism, information technology, financial services, real

estate, media, and fund management. Among the key ventures she helped

launch is Rawabi, the first planned Palestinian city and the largest private sector

project in Palestine. Once completed, the city will be home to some

40,000 people in 23 neighborhoods and will generate a few thousand jobs in the

service, technology, and related industries. She serves on Rawabi’s Municipal

Council and is the deputy of the Rawabi Foundation.

Zraiq contributes to CSR, as Massar is engaged in the sustainable economic

development in Palestine while being socially and environmentally responsible.

Massar’s programs include fighting poverty, protecting the environment, assisting

education, advancing gender equity, boosting innovation, and sponsoring cultural

and sports activities (Massar International, n.d.).

Zraiq also serves as a board member of several privately held Palestinian

companies, in addition to serving on boards of publicly traded companies such as

the Palestinian Company for Rental and Leasing and the Palestinian Mortgage

and Housing Corporation and the Palestinian Investment Development

Company.

As one of the accomplished female executives in the Middle East, Zraiq was a

founder and the first chairperson of the Business Women Forum–Palestine, an

organization that supports aspiring female entrepreneurs and businesswomen.

She is also a founding member of the Palestine Governance Institute and a

member of the Young Presidents’ Organization.

In 2013, Zraiq earned the Vital Voices Global Leadership Economic

Empowerment Award. Her “achievements are about tenacity, imagination, and

taking risks, qualities she is now helping to pass on to businesswomen around

the region as it goes through enormous changes” (Vital Voices Global

Partnership, 2013). She is also a fellow of the Middle East Leadership Initiative of

the Aspen Global Leadership Network.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

74

Ammar Aker

Aker is Palestine Telecom Group’s CEO and a member of the board of directors

for Paltel Group, the second largest employer in Palestine after the PA, that

provides “state of the art services to the Palestinian end user . . . [including] local

and international fixed telephony services, internet, data communications, mobile

services and next generation services” (Paltel Group, n.d., para. 1). Prior to

assuming the position at Telecom, he was the CEO of Jawwal, the Palestine

Cellular Communications Co., Ltd., which is the first private leading cellular

operator in Palestine. As Jawwal’s CEO, he led efforts to keep the largest market

share, surpassing the 2,000,000-subscriber threshold, as well as to create a

unique experience for millions of customers despite the variety of operational

challenges by illegal Israeli operators in the Palestinian market.

Aker is also the chairperson of the board of directors of VTEL Middle East and

Africa, which was founded to give Paltel wider access to regional telecom

markets. He is a member of the Board of Palestine Development and Investment

Company (PADICO Holding), the largest investment holding company in the

country, and is a member of its Executive Management Committee. He is also

the vice chairman of the board of directors for the Jericho Gate Investment, a

project of PADICO Holding.

Aker, who earned a BS in Accounting from Edinboro University in Pennsylvania

and an MS in Accounting from Kent State University in Ohio, has advanced best

practices in management and corporate governance and has encouraged his

colleagues to excel. During his tenure, four female Paltel Group employees were

ranked among the top 50 women executives in telecom, and the group was

ranked among the top 20 telecom operators in the Middle East and North Africa.

Aker is active in a number of international, regional, and local initiatives such as

Palestine for a New Beginning, an international network aiming to empower the

lives of Palestinians; the Palestine International Award for Excellence and

Creativity, which allows Palestinian society to honor role models of excellence

and exceptional talents in Palestine; and AMIDEAST’s Palestine Advisory Board.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

75

He is also an active member of the Young Presidents’ Organization, Palestine

Branch, and of the Palestinian Businessmen Association.

Aker promotes CSR by building community through the Paltel Group

Foundation. His focus is on education, youth, and women empowerment, as well

as technology inclusion.

Amal Daraghmeh Masri

Daraghmeh Masri is editor in chief, CEO, and founder of Middle East Business

News and editor in chief and founder of EcoMag Palestine Magazine (in French).

She is also the CEO of Ougarit Group, a marketing and public relations firm in

Palestine with national and international clients.

Ougarit believes in transparency and fairness in business and that businesses

have a right to succeed. So does Daraghmeh Masri, who is passionate about

building long-term relationships with her clients and enabling them to succeed.

She is equally committed to CSR. It is no surprise that Ougarit’s (n.d.) CSR

policy declares:

• We will not work with cigarette producers or organizations creating

products that are harmful to humans, animals, or the environment.

• We train new graduates in graphic design and marketing, allowing them to

gain as much experience as possible and become professionals in their

field.

• We support various local and national charities that focus on health issues

(e.g., Dunya Center for Female Cancers and Breast Cancer Awareness

Events) and business education for young people.

Educated in France, Daraghmeh Masri returned to her homeland in Palestine

not only to advance professionally, but also to build her national community. She

is a strong advocate for women’s empowerment and a believer that a good

education and business opportunities are essential for empowering women and

advancing society. It takes confidence, education, an entrepreneurial spirit, and

respect to the surrounding cultural codes to be accomplished. Her achievements

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

76

start by setting goals for herself to be fulfilled within a time frame (This Week in

Palestine, 2009).

Daraghmeh Masri organizes and heads economic events that address key

issues such as unemployment. In 2010, she developed and ran the first PR

Conference in Palestine, which was celebrated as being the third of its kind in the

region. She was voted one of the top 10 influential Arab women working in public

relations in the Arab world. She regularly appears on TV and radio in Palestine

and overseas.

Daraghmeh Masri is deeply engaged in her work and is well networked. She is

a member of several organizations and advisory boards in Palestine and abroad,

including the Palestinian Working Women's Society for Development, and is a

founding member and former president of the Business Women Forum–

Palestine. She is a founder and former board member of the Middle East

Business Women’s Network and a member of the Arab International Women’s

Forum–London. She sits on the steering committee of the Fostering Women

Entrepreneurs in the Middle East Initiative. In 2013, Daraghmeh Masri received

the Best Woman Entrepreneur Award from the MENA Council of Regional

American Chambers of Commerce.

Palestinian Business Leaders in Comparison

Shawa, Zraiq, Aker, and Daraghmeh Masri truly represent a new kind of

outstanding leadership with a focused vision on commitment, strategic thinking,

and care for coworkers, customers, and community. They provide great

contributions to economic progress, the welfare of society, and peace building. In

a comparison, what stands out is a variety of strengths they all enjoy.

• Palestinian pride. All four leaders are proud of their background and

culture. They act as cultural bridges, representing their nation as they

conduct their business at home and abroad.

• Higher education and access. All four leaders are well educated, well

trained, and well traveled. While they live and work in Palestine, they are

fully aware of Middle East affairs and international relations.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

77

• Proactive leadership. All four leaders are ambitious, disciplined, and hard-

working, giving them advantages in Palestinian society and beyond. Their

expertise and business ventures provide them with access to a large,

worldwide network of funders, politicians, and nongovernmental

organizations, which they use to full advantage.

• Corporate social responsibility. All four leaders are forward-thinking. Their

commitment to CSR speaks volumes of their attention to others as they

pursue their professional and company goals.

• Stress management. All four leaders work under stress, which is generated

not only by the pressures of their work and the business environment they

address daily, but also by the Israeli occupation, the internal Palestinian

divisions, and the corruption from which the governmental structure and

society suffers. All seem to be doing well, as they are managing to

transform crises into opportunities.

Moreover, the two female leaders among them, Zraiq and Daraghmeh Masri,

like other women in Palestinian society, have to work harder than men in order to

break through not only glass ceilings, but cement walls as well (Sarsar &

Stephan, in press). Palestinian women are expected to be good daughters,

wives, and mothers, as well as to perform well in their chosen professions if they

happen to work. Striking a balance between family and work is never easy for

anyone, but it is always harder for women. Daraghmeh Masri explains to Neslen

(2011) that “when I had my last child, for the eight months I went to work with my

baby in one hand and my briefcase in the other” (144).

Based on the profiles of these Palestinian business leaders, suggestions for

continuous improvement for business leaders in general include the following:

• Mentor youth and inspire them with good business habits so as to excel in

preparation for good careers and leadership roles, which are necessary for

nation- and state-building.

• Strengthen business cooperation and joint ventures in order to enable the

sharing of talent, resources, and profits, and lay the groundwork for a

healthier business environment.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

78

• Enhance good business ethics and transparency to prevent conflicts of

interest and nepotism, which often create morale problems and derail

economic justice.

• Continue to advocate for gender equity in educational opportunities, hiring

practices, and promotions. Any society that disempowers half of its

population will not achieve progress.

• Advance corporate social responsibility, as it creates potential and

represents important dimensions of stewardship and community building.

Palestinian business leaders, as illustrated above, have largely done well and

are bringing new energy and vision into their community. Their prospects and the

prospects of other business leaders in particular and citizens in general will

increase exponentially as the socioeconomic, political, and cultural conditions

improve.

References

Awartani, H. (2005). Economic policies and institutions in Palestine: A view by the business community. Palestine-Israel Journal, 12(2 & 3). Retrieved from http://www.pij.org/details.php?id=362

Bank of Palestine Staff & Shawa, H. H. (2009, December). 50 years of building, and going strong. This Week in Palestine, 140, 20. Retrieved from http://archive.thisweekinpalestine.com/i140/pdfs/December%20140-2009.pdf

Chêne, M. (2012). Overview of corruption and anti-corruption in Palestine. U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre, Transparency International. Retrieved from http://www.transparency.org/files/content/corruptionqas/314- Overview_of_corruption_in_Palestine.pdf

Danin, R. M. (2011, January/February). A third way to Palestine: Fayyadism and its discontents. Foreign Affairs, 90(1), 94-109. Retrieved from http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67025/robert-m-danin/a-third-way-to- palestine

Friedman, T. L. (2010, March 16). Let’s fight over a big plan. The New York Times, p. A27. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/17/opinion/17friedman.html?_r=0

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

79

Massar International. (n.d.). About Massar International. Retrieved from http://www.massar.com/?TemplateId=info&PageId=1&MenuId=9&Lang=1

Neslen, A. (2011). In your eyes a sandstorm: Ways of being Palestinian. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

Ougarit Group. (n.d.). Our philosophy. Retrieved from http://www.ougarit.net/ougarit-english.html#gpm1_2

Paltel Group. (n.d.). Who we are. Retrieved from http://www.paltelgroup.ps/index.php?TemplateId=1&PageId=1&ParentId=7& MenuId=93&Lang=en

Ramahi, S. (2013, December). Corruption in the Palestinian authority [Special report]. Middle East Monitor. Retrieved from https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/downloads/reports/20131214_Corruptioni nthePalestinianAuthority.pdf

Sarsar, S. (2002). The empowerment of Palestinian women in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In R. Datta & J. Kornberg (Eds.), Women in developing countries: Assessing strategies for empowerment (pp. 145–162). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.

Sarsar, S. (2009). Introduction. In S. Sarsar (Ed.), Palestine and the quest for peace (pp. 1–7). Washington, DC: The American Task Force on Palestine.

Sarsar, S., & Stephan, M. (in press). Overcoming the divide: Arab women between traditional life and a globalizing culture. In V. Mele & M. Vujnovic (Eds.), Globalizing cultures: Theories and paradigms revisited. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Academic.

Sorenson, D. S. (2014). An introduction to the modern Middle East (2 nd

ed.) Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

The New Economy. (2012, April 2). Funding Palestine with Hashim Shawa. Retrieved from https://www.theneweconomy.com/strategy/funding- palestinian-growth-an-interview-with-hashim-shawa

This Week in Palestine. (2009, March). Amal Masri: Earning a place in society. This Week in Palestine, 131, 40. Retrieved from http://archive.thisweekinpalestine.com/i131/pdfs/March%20131%20- %202009.pdf

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

80

Transparency International. (n.d.). Promoting transparency and enhancing integrity in the Arab region: Focus on Palestine. Retrieved from http://archive.transparency.org/regional_pages/africa_middle_east/current_pr ojects/mabda/focus_countries/palestine

UNICEF. (2011). Regional overview for the Middle East and North Africa: MENA gender equality profile: Status of girls and women in the Middle East and North Africa. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/oPT-Gender- Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf

Vital Voices Global Partnership. (2013). Featured voices, Manal Yaish Zraiq. http://www.vitalvoices.org/vital-voices-women/featured-voices/manal-yaish- zraiq-0

Saliba Sarsar, PhD, Rutgers) is a professor of political science and the associate vice president for global initiatives at Monmouth University. He is a scholar and frequent commentator on Middle East affairs. His research, teaching, and writing interests focus on the Middle East, Palestinian-Israeli affairs, and peace building. He is the co-author of Ideology, Values, and Technology in Political Life and World Politics: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Dr. Sarsar is the editor of both Palestine and the Quest for Peace, and co- editor of Patriarch Michel Sabbah—Faithful Witness: On Reconciliation and Peace in the Holy Land and Principles and Pragmatism—Key Documents from the American Task Force on Palestine. He can be reached at [email protected].

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

81

The Relationship Between Authentic Leadership and

Employee Job Satisfaction: A Cross-Industry-Sector Empirical Study

*

Michael Onorato and Jishan Zhu SUNY College at Old Westbury

In this empirical study, we investigate the influence of authentic leadership on employee job satisfaction through a nationwide, cross-industry-sector survey. The data covers many industry sectors, including food and beverage, information technology, manufacturing, accounting, financial and investment services, and retail. We examine the authentic leadership influence at both the aggregate level (combining all industry sectors together) and within each industry sector. Our data concludes that authentic leadership is a reliable predictor of employee job satisfaction. Our study supports the authentic leadership construct as a reliable predictor of employee job satisfaction in every industry sector. Our data also reveals that authentic leadership practices differ among these industry sectors. The study’s findings provide further evidence that leaders who practice the authentic leadership style can, in practical terms, positively affect employee job satisfaction. Key words: authentic leadership, employee job satisfaction, employee motivation

As we entered the new millennium, many people were shocked and dismayed by

the unethical practices of major U.S. corporations like Enron, WorldCom, Tyco,

and Arthur Andersen. Corporate America was thirsting for a new brand of leaders

who represented a sense of purpose and were true to their set of core values. Bill

George (2003), author and former chairman and CEO of Medtronic, notes that

“we need leaders who lead with purpose, values and integrity, and who are good

stewards of the legacy they inherited from their predecessors” (10).

As a result, recent research has included many studies of the aspect and

constructs of authentic leadership. According to Northouse (2013), authentic

leadership style represents one of the most recent areas of research that is still in

the formative stages of development. Studies on authentic leadership over the

past 15 years have mainly focused on presenting the authentic leadership

construct in theoretical frameworks that have studied characteristic traits of the

conceptual authentic leadership style. In earlier studies, Luthans and Avolio

* To cite this article: Onorato, M., & Zhu, J. (2015). The relationship between authentic leadership and employee job satisfaction: A cross-industry-sector empirical study. International Leadership Journal, 7(2), 81–103.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

82

(2003) built upon the research development of transformational leadership, which

led to additional research by Walumbwa. Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and

Peterson (2008); Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, and Avery (2009); and Gardner,

Avolio, Luthans, May, and Walumbwa (2005). These researchers studied the

significance of the authentic leadership construct and the effects of a leader’s

positive behavior, which influences their followers’ behavioral outcomes.

Additional research involving various tenets of the authentic leadership

construct has also been notable. Jensen and Luthans (2006) examined the

authentic leaders’ impact on employee attitudes. Their study suggests that a

business founder’s ability to present a clear concise and truthful direction of the

business is critical for achieving success. Additionally, Peterson, Walumbwa,

Avolio, and Hannah (2012) posited the construct of follower job performance and

organizational behavior. The purpose of their study was to explore whether

authentic leadership predicts follower performance through the leader’s influence

on the positivity (positive emotions) experienced by followers, which affects

organizational performance. They also found that authentic leadership fully

predicted follower job performance through leaders’ influence on followers’

psychological capital (PsyCap).

The PsyCap attribute is a development composite of attitudinal and cognitive

resources that have a positive impact on individual performance (Luthans &

Avolio, 2009). Luthans and Avolio’s (2009) research studied the effects of

authentic leadership by assessing the positive psychological capital that affected

organizational behavior. Their study focused on the effects of the PsyCap

attributes of the leader and the overall positive effects on the organization’s

performance. A more recent study performed by Woolley, Caza, and Levy (2011)

enhanced the PsyCap construct by building upon that formative research.

Wooley et al. conducted a study of 3,000 working adults in New Zealand and

concluded that the PsyCap attribute is a key element in enhancing the authentic

leader’s effect on organizational work climate. The research also concluded that

followers must be considered as an important attribute in the leadership process.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

83

More recent studies continue to focus on the follower’s effect construct,

including the research performed by Ilies, Curseu, Dimotakis, and Spitzmuller

(2013). They studied the overall effects of the emotional expressiveness of the

leader and how this attribute influences the follower. As such, the follower’s effect

has attracted supplemental interest in the study of authentic leadership.

Researchers have begun to address the followership development influenced by

the authentic leadership style by assessing favorable outcomes such as trust,

workplace well-being, motivation, and employee job satisfaction.

Authentic Leadership

Luthans and Avolio (2003) initially define authentic leadership “as a process that

draws from both positive psychological capacities and a highly developed

organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and self-

regulated positive behaviors on the part of leaders and associates, fostering

positive self-development” (243). The framework of their research suggests that

authentic leaders are able to enhance the engagement and satisfaction of

followers by strengthening their identification with the leader (Avolio, May & Zhu,

2004). Clapp-Smith et al. (2009) also support the notion that authentic leadership

is positively related to employee performance Additionally, Shamir and Eilam

(2005) describe authentic leaders as people who exhibit genuine leadership from

conviction and are originals, not copies. Their theoretical framework is focused

on an interpersonal approach of the leader having the following attributes: (a)

“the role of the leader is a central component of their self-concept,” (b) they have

achieved a high level of self-resolution (Turner, 1976) or self-concept clarity,” (c)

“their goals are self-concordant,” and (d) “their behavior is self-expressive” (398).

Davis and Rothstein (2006) focused on the behavioral integrity construct,

considered to be a moderator to the authentic leadership construct. Their meta-

analysis integrates the empirical research on the relationship between the

perceived integrity of managers and the employee attitudes of job satisfaction.

Building upon this framework, Leroy and Palanski (2012) assessed authentic

leadership behavior as an antecedent to follower perceptions of leader

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

84

behavioral integrity. Based on their study of 25 organizations in Belgium,

consisting of 345 followers and 49 team leaders, they concluded that leadership

integrity through an authentic leadership style is related to follower work role

performance. In essence, authentic leadership drives follower identification with

the organization because these leaders stay true to themselves, which facilitates

the perception of leadership integrity.

Authentic leadership works when leaders and followers come together to define

their concerns and determine what is the right thing to do about them (Northouse,

2013). Ultimately, authentic leaders try to determine what is truly good for the

leader, followers, and organization. Walumbwa et al. (2008) found authentic

leadership to be a significant predictor of follower trust and satisfaction. They

theorize that authentic leadership is a positive outcome predictor for follower

outcomes such as job satisfaction.

Job Satisfaction

Employee job satisfaction tends to have a large effect on organizations. When an

employee has a higher job satisfaction level, the employee may contribute more

positively to the overall success of the organization. Stamps (1997) offers a

fundamental definition of job satisfaction as “conceptually defined as the extent to

which employees like their job” (13). When low job satisfaction is proven to result

in absenteeism, turnover, stress, and less commitment to an organization, the

overall productivity of the organization is in jeopardy. Companies stand to lose a

great deal of money and productivity if employees are not satisfied.

The costs of turnover and absenteeism alone can be very large for a company

with job satisfaction issues amongst the employees. The relationship between

leadership and job satisfaction is one of critical importance due to the ongoing

efforts of management to drive worker performance based on the employees’

positive state of mind. This premise is also supported by Walumbwa et al. (2008),

who more thoroughly examined the leader-follower exchange model and found

authentic leadership to be a significant predictor of follower trust and employee

satisfaction. Giallonardo, Wong, and Iwasiw (2010) found in a study of the

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

85

nursing industry that the exposure of newly graduated nurses to a nursing

preceptor (lead nurse) who demonstrated an authentic leadership style positively

predicts the newly graduated nurses’ job satisfaction.

According to Chiaburu, Diaz, and Pitts (2011), authentic leadership produces

satisfied direct reports by establishing trust, which leads to social exchanges that

benefit the entire organization. Shirey (2006) posits that the positive attributes of

authentic leaders’ actions can be used to influence organizational outcomes by

example. Shirey’s theory supports the notion that good leadership adds to a

healthy environment in which direct reports are encouraged to feel emotionally

safe. Laschinger, Wong, and Grau (2013) link the limitation of employee burnout

to a positive authentic leadership style. They assessed the Canadian nursing

industry, which experienced an absenteeism rate 58% higher than the overall

labor force and concluded that a supervisor’s authentic leadership behaviors are

related to higher levels of structural empowerment, which, in turn, are related to

lower emotional exhaustion.

Numerous researchers have studied job satisfaction in a plethora of industries

to determine what employees need in order to be satisfied in their jobs. Studies

involving the job satisfaction construct have been widely conducted in industries

such as nursing and healthcare, oil and energy utility, services, construction, and

banking (Giallonardo et al., 2010; Malhotra & Mukherjee, 2004; Morris & Bloom,

2002; Okpara, 2006; Snowden, 2011; Testa, 2001; Toor & Ofori, 2009). For

example, Testa (2001) describes job satisfaction as a significant concept to

organizational leadership as well as workplace turnover. In his study, Testa

sampled 425 service employees from 24 departments of a cruise line and a food

service organization. The behaviors of the leaders studied strongly predicted

direct reports’ satisfaction and related job attitudes.

Research in many industries has shown that the leadership style of the

supervisor is one of many variables related to the outcome of employee job

satisfaction of subordinates. Medley and Larochelle (1995) found in a hospital

study that when head nurses served as supervisors, the type of leadership they

provide can influence staff nurses’ job satisfaction. In a study of 2,000 nurses

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

86

from various teaching hospitals, Doran (2003) concluded nurses’ managers’

leadership had significant positive influence on nurses’ perception of job

satisfaction.

Job satisfaction was also studied from a cultural aspect. Lok and Crawford

(2004) evaluated the effect of organizational culture and leadership style on job

satisfaction and commitment. They studied a random sample of participants

completing MBA studies who held middle or senior management positions. The

study involved the analysis of two cultures of managers, those from Australia and

Hong Kong. They concluded that the leadership styles practiced by the

Australian managers were more related to an open type of leadership style, thus

resulting in a higher degree of employee job satisfaction.

Building upon the studies that have focused on the followership constructs of

authentic leadership, the intent of this study is to determine the effects of

authentic leadership on the follower and corresponding outcomes such as

employee job satisfaction in the organization. Using a nationwide survey, we

examined the relationship between authentic leadership behavior and

employees’ job satisfaction across industry sectors.

Significance of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate employee outcome of job

satisfaction within the organization while assessing the antecedent of authentic

leadership. The research investigated various industry sectors and the

association between managerial authentic leadership styles of perceived

managerial leadership and its perceived effect on job satisfaction in the

organization. Accordingly, this study will focus on the employee/follower outcome

of the organizational employee job satisfaction referent. The research study will

enhance the knowledge in the leadership construct, providing additional

information to practitioners to help them gain a better understanding of the

relationship of authentic leadership and employee job satisfaction in different

industry sectors. This study focused on followership development as influenced

by the authentic leadership style.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

87

The significance of this study is as follows. First, our study contributes to the

literature discussion on authentic leadership development and employee

outcomes posited as having a positive effect on employee satisfaction. The

authentic leadership construct has been a significant topic recently and an

interesting research topic in the study of the leadership exchange construct. For

instance, the GLI group (Gallup Leadership Institute), comprised of researchers

such as Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, and May, have studied the authentic

leadership construct (Avolio et al., 2004). Also, research initiatives prior to 2000

focused on the theoretical development of the authentic leadership construct

founded upon the roots of the transformational leadership construct.

Subsequently, a meta-analysis performed by Gardner, Cogliser, Davis, and

Dickens (2011) of the literature on authentic leadership has demonstrated a

research concentration on the many antecedents of the authentic leadership

construct. However, as Avolio, Walumbwa, and Weber (2009) note, “work on

defining and measuring authentic leadership is in the very early stages of

development. Future research will need to offer additional evidence for the

construct” (424).

Second, we focused our study on the relationship between authentic leadership

and employee job satisfaction. A key component of positive organizational

behavior is employee job satisfaction in the organization. The relationship

between leadership and job satisfaction is one of critical importance due to the

ongoing effort of management to drive worker performance based on employees’

positive states of mind. Job satisfaction is correlated to employee motivation,

which is a variable within the organizational behavior context. Many researchers

and practitioners, including psychologists and organizational behavior and

management scholars, have conducted research on employee outcomes. (e.g.,

Spector, 1997). However, recently there has been a focus on employee

outcomes relative to the authentic leadership construct. An additional employee

outcome derived from the effectiveness of good leadership clearly impacts the

employee work environment, resulting in increased employee productivity.

Researchers such as Avolio, Gardner, and Luthans support the notion that when

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

88

authentic leaders are open, transparent, and collegial, a positive environment is

created that produces favorable employee productive outcomes. This article will

contribute to the authentic leadership construct by supporting prior studies’

frameworks that assess authentic leadership as a predictor in influencing job

satisfaction.

Lastly, we used a nationwide survey involving participants from several industry

sectors for this study. To our knowledge, there are very few empirical studies on

authentic leadership behavior involving multiple industry sectors simultaneously.

This approach makes our finding more robust.

Methods and Measures

This study intends to provide additional empirical evidence that authentic

leadership has a positive influence on follower outcomes. In particular, we intend

to confirm the positive influence of authentic leadership on follower job

satisfaction. In practice, management can practice authentic leadership to

increase employee job satisfaction. Our hypothesis is as follows:

Hypothesis: Authentic leadership is a significant predictor of employee job

satisfaction in organizations.

To test the hypothesis and study the positive influence of authentic leadership on

employee job satisfaction within an organization, we use the following two

variables: (a) the perceived authentic leadership style of the leader by the

participant; and (b) the participant’s job satisfaction in the workplace.

Survey Design

In a single survey form, we asked survey participants to provide us with their

perceptions about the authentic leadership behaviors of the leader(s) in the

organization and their job satisfaction at the organization. The survey included

the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ), which measures perceived

authentic leadership behaviors of the leaders by the survey participants, and the

Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), which measures the participants’ employee job

satisfaction. The employee job satisfaction was the dependent variable in our

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

89

study. Both the ALQ and the JSS are well-known, published surveys. We

obtained permission to use them and combine them into one survey.

The ALQ, designed by Walumbwa et al. (2008), is a highly reliable survey

instrument that is widely used to measure the authentic leadership construct.

Although empirical research on authentic leadership has been limited,

Walumbwa et al. state that the ALQ has initial evidence to support its reliability

and validity. According to Northouse (2013), the instrument was used in

numerous studies in China, Kenya, and the United States to support the

validated dimensions of the instrument. The ALQ survey consists of 16 questions

utilizing a five-point Likert scale. The JSS is a 36-question survey instrument,

consisting of a six-point Likert-scale measurement of nine subscales based on

research on the conceptual framework of job satisfaction (Spector, 1985).

Data Collection

Our survey was administered via the Internet by a marketing research company,

Qualtrics Inc., using the company’s web-based survey software. Qualtrics

maintains a database of people who work in different industry sectors from all

regions and counties throughout the United States. The participants were

randomly selected from this database, and the participation requests were then

sent out via e-mail. This random selection offered equal selection from all regions

and counties within the defined population domain. A sample of 6,717 workers

from various industry sectors were invited to participate in the study by e-mail.

Approximately 3.8% (257) responded to the e-mail. All participants were also

informed of the voluntary and confidential nature of the study. Before the

completion of the surveys, the participants were also provided an option to opt

out of any participation. At the conclusion of the data collection, we collected

257 valid and usable responses for the analysis. The Qualtrics database

randomly included people of people of different management levels, years of

experience, age, gender, and level of education who worked in mainly six

industry sectors: food and beverage, information technology (IT), manufacturing,

accounting, financial and investment services, and retail (see Table 1 on the next

page).

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

90

Table 1: Description of Sample Population

Frequency Percent Cumulative

Percent

Industry Sector

Food and Beverage 58 22.6 22.6

Information Technology (IT) 36 14.0 36.6

Manufacturing 39 15.2 51.8

Accounting 32 12.5 64.2

Financial/Investment Services 25 9.7 73.9

Retail 29 11.3 85.2

Other 38 14.8 100.0

Management Level

First-Line Supervisor 88 34.2 34.2

Manager 64 25.0 59.1

Director/GM 20 7.8 67.0

VP or greater 15 5.8 72.8

Other (including non- management level) 70 27.2 100.0

Years of Experience

0–5 128 49.8 49.8

6–10 63 24.5 74.3

11–20 44 17.1 91.4

21–30 16 6.2 97.7

30+ 6 2.3 100.0

Age in Years

30 or under 156 60.7 60.7

31–45 60 23.3 84.0

46–50 21 8.2 92.2

51–55 7 2.7 95.0

55+ 13 5.1 100.0

Gender Male 163 63.4 63.4

Female 94 36.6 100.0

Highest Level of Education

High School Diploma 84 32.7 32.7

Bachelor’s Degree 131 51.0 83.7

Master’s Degree 35 13.6 97.3

Doctoral Degree 7 2.7 100.0

Total Population Sample

257

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

91

Data Quality

To check the reliability and internal consistency of our collected data, we

calculated the following Cronbach’s alpha values. Cronbach’s alpha for the 16

ALQ questions (items) is 0.94, and Cronbach’s alpha for the 36 JSS questions

(items) is 0.90.

Measures

To measure the perceived authentic leadership style of the leader by the

participant, we added the scores of 16 questions in ALQ questionnaires together

and labeled it as TOTALQ. To measure participant’s job satisfaction in the

workplace, we added the scores of 36 questions in JSS questionnaires together

and labeled it as TOTJSS.

We are among the very few studies that identify survey participants by industry

sectors. The data enabled us to investigate the authentic leadership behaviors

among various industry sectors. Table 2 shows the some of the basic statistics

for the ALQ total scale (TOTALQ) and the JSS total scale (TOTJSS) by industry

sector.

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics of ALQ and JSS Scores by Industry Sector

Industry Sector N Min. Max. Sum Mean Std.

Deviation

Food and Beverage

TOTALQ 58 16.00 80.00 2,964.00 51.1034 14.21722

TOTJSS 58 49.00 205.00 7,531.00 129.8448 28.86314

Information Technology (IT)

TOTALQ 36 42.00 76.00 2,172.00 60.3333 9.27670

TOTJSS 36 110.00 180.00 4,994.00 138.7222 20.10346

Manufacturing TOTALQ 39 37.00 80.00 2,298.00 58.9231 10.41352

TOTJSS 39 88.00 214.00 5,407.00 138.6410 26.94877

Accounting TOTALQ 32 25.00 76.00 1,829.00 57.1562 12.37612

TOTJSS 32 71.00 195.00 4,115.00 128.5937 26.99923

Financial/ Investment Services

TOTALQ 25 26.00 80.00 1,486.00 59.4400 13.80543

TOTJSS 25 95.00 199.00 3,413.00 136.5200 27.00327

Retail TOTALQ 29 33.00 74.00 1,639.00 56.5172 11.69744

TOTJSS 29 71.00 177.00 3,915.00 135.0000 25.11118

Other TOTALQ 38 38.00 80.00 2,102.00 55.3158 10.07299

TOTJSS 38 84.00 178.00 5,172.00 136.1053 21.15552

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

92

Results and Findings

To study the followership development (i.e., employee job satisfaction) as

influenced by the authentic leaders and test our hypothesis, we performed a

regression analysis to test if the ALQ score (TOTALQ) is a reliable predictor for

the JSS score (TOTJSS). The regression model is:

(TOTJSS) = a + b*(TOTALQ)

We first performed the test using the combined industry sector data (i.e., all

industry sectors were assessed in aggregate). The model significance and model

coefficients are listed in Table 3 and Table 4, respectively.

Table 3: Regression Analysis—ANOVA

Model Sum of Squares

df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 41,859.843 1 41,859.843 85.006 .000 a

Residual 125,570.928 255 492.435

Total 167,430.770 256 a Predictors: (Constant), TOTALQ.

b Dependent variable: TOTJSS

Table 4 Regression Analysis—Coefficients

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients t Sig.

b* Std. Error β

1 (Constant) 75.472 6.542 11.536 .000

TOTALQ 1.046 0.113 .500 9.220 .000

Table 3 and Table 4 support our hypothesis. The model is significant with a p-

value of 0, and the coefficient (slope) of TOTALQ is positive. We conclude that

the ALQ score is a reliable predictor of the JSS score and authentic leadership

behavior has a positive influence on employee job satisfaction. Our finding

suggests that organizational leaders who practice the authentic leadership style

can, in practical terms, affect employee job satisfaction.

Cross-Industry-Sector Analysis

We further examined the ALQ scores (TOTAQL) and found that they are

significantly different between some of the industry sectors. We performed a one-

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

93

way ANOVA analysis on the TOTALQ against industry sector type. The results

are listed in Table 5, where TOTALQ is the total ALQ score of each participant.

The analysis indicates that the authentic leadership behaviors are significantly

different among industry sectors, with a p-value of 0.005.

Table 5 ANOVA—Industry Sector with Dependent Variable: TOTALQ

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 2,726.651 6 454.442 3.195 .005

Within Groups 35,561.979 250 142.248

Total 38,288.630 256

The differences are mainly concentrated between three industry sectors. Table 6

on the next pages contains the results of multiple comparisons, which shows

that, with a significance level of 0.05, significant differences exist between the

food and beverage and IT industry sectors, and between the food and beverage

and manufacturing industry sectors. The p-values are 0.006 and 0.028,

respectively.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

94

Table 6: Multiple Comparisons of TOTALQ Mean

(I) Industry Sector

(J) Industry Sector

Mean Difference

(I-J) Std. Error Sig.

95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Food and Beverage

Information Technology (IT)

-9.22989 * 2.53059 .006 -16.7521 -1.7077

Manufacturing -7.81963 * 2.46980 .028 -15.1612 -.4781

Accounting -6.05280 2.62637 .246 -13.8597 1.7541

Financial/ Investment Services

-8.33655 2.85350 .058 -16.8186 .1455

Retail -5.41379 2.71250 .420 -13.4767 2.6492

Other -4.21234 2.48916 .622 -11.6114 3.1867

Information Technology (IT)

Food and Beverage

9.22989 * 2.53059 .006 1.7077 16.7521

Manufacturing 1.41026 2.75658 .999 -6.7837 9.6042

Accounting 3.17708 2.89769 .929 -5.4363 11.7905

Financial/ Investment Services

.89333 3.10504 1.000 -8.3364 10.1231

Retail 3.81609 2.97598 .860 -5.0300 12.6622

Other 5.01754 2.77393 .543 -3.2280 13.2631

Manufacturing Food and Beverage

7.81963 * 2.46980 .028 .4781 15.1612

Information Technology (IT)

-1.41026 2.75658 .999 -9.6042 6.7837

Accounting 1.76683 2.84475 .996 -6.6892 10.2229

Financial/ Investment Services

-.51692 3.05570 1.000 -9.6000 8.5662

Retail 2.40584 2.92446 .982 -6.2872 11.0988

Other 3.60729 2.71859 .839 -4.4738 11.6883

Accounting Food and Beverage

6.05280 2.62637 .246 -1.7541 13.8597

Information Technology (IT)

-3.17708 2.89769 .929 -11.7905 5.4363

Manufacturing -1.76683 2.84475 .996 -10.2229 6.6892

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

95

Financial/ Investment Services

-2.28375 3.18358 .991 -11.7470 7.1795

Retail .63901 3.05783 1.000 -8.4504 9.7285

Other 1.84046 2.86158 .995 -6.6656 10.3465

Financial/ Investment Services

Food and Beverage

8.33655 2.85350 .058 -.1455 16.8186

Information Technology (IT)

-.89333 3.10504 1.000 -10.1231 8.3364

Manufacturing .51692 3.05570 1.000 -8.5662 9.6000

Accounting 2.28375 3.18358 .991 -7.1795 11.7470

Retail 2.92276 3.25500 .973 -6.7528 12.5983

Other 4.12421 3.07136 .831 -5.0055 13.2539

Retail Food and Beverage

5.41379 2.71250 .420 -2.6492 13.4767

Information Technology (IT)

-3.81609 2.97598 .860 -12.6622 5.0300

Manufacturing -2.40584 2.92446 .982 -11.0988 6.2872

Accounting -.63901 3.05783 1.000 -9.7285 8.4504

Financial/ Investment Services

-2.92276 3.25500 .973 -12.5983 6.7528

Other 1.20145 2.94083 1.000 -7.5402 9.9431

Other Food and Beverage

4.21234 2.48916 .622 -3.1867 11.6114

Information Technology (IT)

-5.01754 2.77393 .543 -13.2631 3.2280

Manufacturing -3.60729 2.71859 .839 -11.6883 4.4738

Accounting -1.84046 2.86158 .995 -10.3465 6.6656

Financial/ Investment Services

-4.12421 3.07136 .831 -13.2539 5.0055

Retail -1.20145 2.94083 1.000 -9.9431 7.5402 *The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Investigating the causes of the existence of such difference is beyond the scope

of this study. One possible cause might be that a leader sometimes has to

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

96

consider trade-offs between being totally authentic or accomplishing his/her

goals efficiently and effectively (Ibarra, 2015). Ibarra (2015) discusses this

paradox that leaders might face when practicing authentic leadership. It seems

that a successful leader often modifies his or her authenticity to the situation. We

argue that such situations may include organizational culture. Ibarra presents the

case of a Malaysian executive in an auto parts company where people valued a

clear chain of command and made decisions by consensus. When a Dutch

multinational with a matrix structure acquired the company, this executive found

himself working with peers who saw decision making as a freewheeling contest

for the best-debated ideas. To be more effective and accomplish more, this

executive had to change his leadership style and choose between being a failure

or being a fake. One certainly can imagine the company culture differences

between a typical food-and-beverage company and a typical IT company.

While we recognize the existence of authentic leadership differences between

various industry sectors, our interest focuses on whether such differences will

affect the support of our hypothesis. We would like to confirm that authentic

leadership having positive influence on employee job satisfaction remains true in

every industry sector despite the cultural company differences of the sectors. In

other words, are our results and findings robust across all industry sectors? To

test the robustness of our results, we performed regression analysis on each

industry sector to see if the ALQ score (TOTALQ) remains a reliable predictor to

predict JSS score (TOTJSS) in each industry sector. The results of these single-

industry-sector regression models (Table 7) show that, at a significance level of

0.05, all models are significant. The p-values range from 0 to 0.033 among the

industry sectors.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

97

Table 7: Regression Analysis (by Industry Sector)—ANOVA Industry Sector

Model Sum of Squares

df Mean

Square F Sig.

Food and Beverage

1 Regression 12,697.035 1 12,697.035 20.439 .000 a

Residual 34,788.568 56 621.224

Total 47,485.603 57

Information Technology (IT)

1 Regression 1,798.300 1 1,798.300 4.952 .033 a

Residual 12,346.922 34 363.145

Total 14,145.222 35

Manufacturing 1 Regression 6,463.630 1 6,463.630 11.316 .002 a

Residual 21,133.345 37 571.171

Total 27,596.974 38

Accounting 1 Regression 6,727.882 1 6,727.882 12.718 .001 a

Residual 15,869.836 30 528.995

Total 22,597.719 31

Financial/ Investment Services

1 Regression 4,618.507 1 4,618.507 8.246 .009 a

Residual 12,881.733 23 560.075

Total 17,500.240 24

Retail 1 Regression 5,368.032 1 5,368.032 11.795 .002 a

Residual 12,287.968 27 455.110

Total 17,656.000 28

Other 1 Regression 2,877.473 1 2,877.473 7.571 .009 a

Residual 13,682.106 36 380.059

Total 16,559.579 37 a Predictors: (Constant), TOTALQ.

b Dependent variable: TOTJSS.

Also, the coefficients (slopes) of TOTALQ in all models are positive (see Table 8

on the next page), which indicates that authentic leadership has a positive

influence on employee job satisfaction in every industry sector studied.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

98

Table 8: Regression Analysis (by Industry Sector)—Coefficients

Industry Sector

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

t Sig.

B Std. Error

Beta

Food and Beverage

1 (Constant) 76.197 12.310 6.190 .000

TOTALQ 1.050 .232 .517 4.521 .000

Information Technology (IT)

1 (Constant) 92.103 21.189 4.347 .000

TOTALQ .773 .347 .357 2.225 .033

Manufacturing 1 (Constant) 64.845 22.268 2.912 .006

TOTALQ 1.252 .372 .484 3.364 .002

Accounting 1 (Constant) 60.558 19.506 3.105 .004

TOTALQ 1.190 .334 .546 3.566 .001

Financial/ Investment Services

1 (Constant) 76.793 21.331 3.600 .002

TOTALQ 1.005 .350 .514 2.872 .009

Retail 1 (Constant) 68.101 19.878 3.426 .002

TOTALQ 1.184 .345 .551 3.434 .002

Other 1 (Constant) 87.677 17.882 4.903 .000

TOTALQ .875 .318 .417 2.752 .009 a Dependent variable: TOTJSS.

Discussion and Conclusion

Authentic leadership research has been focused on the definition and theoretical

framework. Only recently has it has begun to address the followership

development influenced by authentic leaders. In this article, we used a

nationwide cross-industry-sector survey to assess the effect of authentic

leadership on employee job satisfaction. The survey used two questionnaires

(ALQ and JSS), and each participant answered them at the same time. The ALQ

score reflects a participant’s perception of his or her leader’s authenticity, and the

JSS score reflects a participant’s job satisfaction. Our empirical data show a high

positive correlation between the ALQ score and the JSS score. Workers who

view their leader(s) as having stronger authentic leadership experience more job

satisfaction. The regression analysis indicates that ALQ score is a reliable

predictor of JSS score and, therefore, authentic leader has a positive influence

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

99

on employee job satisfaction. This study provides additional empirical evidence

to support the literature that authentic leadership has an influence on positive

follower outcomes.

Our data also reveal some differences in authentic leadership behavior

between various industry sectors. However, the positive influence of authentic

leaders on employee job satisfaction remains significant in each industry sector.

To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first empirical study on authentic

leadership involving the collection of data from multiple industry sectors in a

single survey. The cross-industry-sector data allowed us to check the robustness

of our results. The managerial implication of this study is that managers who

practice authentic leadership can increase employee job satisfaction.

There some several limitations of our study. First, the participants of the study

were randomly selected throughout the United States using the database that

Qualtrics Inc. maintained and invited by e-mail. Due to the nature of e-mail

surveys, including low response rate, we have no control over who returns the

survey. This may compromise the sample randomness. Second, our data are

relatively small, which limits our ability to conduct more in-depth investigation

while controlling for other factors (such as participant age, education level, and

management level) that might affect our results. Third, our data only cover a few

industry sectors, when ideally, we would cover more.

There are a few suggestions for the future studies. Large-scale studies are

needed that include more industry sectors. Greater sample data will control for

factors such as age, management level, and education level while studying the

positive influence of authentic leadership on employee job satisfaction. Also, this

study does not investigate the causes of authentic leadership differences

between industry sectors. We suggest more studies on the causes of authentic

leadership behavior differences by industry sector. Learning the causes of such

differences will have important managerial implications.

References

Avolio, B. J., May, D. R., & Zhu, W. (2004). The impact of ethical leadership behavior on employee outcomes: The roles of psychological empowerment

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

100

and authenticity, Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 11(1), 16–26.

Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O., & Weber, T. J. (2009). Leadership: Current

theories, research and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 421–449.

Chiaburu, D. S., Diaz, I., & Pitts, V. E. (2011). Social and economic exchanges

with the organization: Do leader behaviors matter? Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 32(5), 442–461.

Clapp-Smith, R., Vogelgesang, G. R., & Avery, J. B. (2009). Authentic leadership

and positive psychological capital: The mediating role of trust at the group level of analysis. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 15(3), 277–240.

Davis, A. L., & Rothstein, H. R. (2006). The effects of the perceived behavioral

integrity of managers on employee attitudes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Business Ethics, 67(4), 407–419.

Doran, D. M. (Ed.). (2003). Nursing-sensitive outcomes: State of the science.

Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett. George, W. (2003). Authentic leadership: Rediscovering the secrets to creating

lasting value. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., May, D. R., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2005).

Can you see the real me? A self-based model of authentic leader and follower development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 343–372.

Gardner, W. L., Cogliser, C. C., Davis, K. M., & Dickens, M. P. (2011). Authentic

leadership: A review of the literature and research agenda. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(6), 1120–1145.

Giallonardo, L. M., Wong, C. A., & Iwasiw, C. L. (2010). Authentic leadership of

preceptors: predictors of new graduate nurses’ work engagement and job satisfaction. Journal of Nursing Management, 18(8), 993–1003.

Ibarra, H. (2015, January–February). The authenticity paradox. Harvard Business

Review, 53–59. Ilies, R., Curseu, P., Dimotakis, N., & Spitzmuller, M. (2013). Leaders’ emotional

expressiveness and their behavioral and relational authenticity: Effects on followers. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22(1), 4–14.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

101

Jensen, S., & Luthans, F. (2006). Entrepreneurs as authentic leaders: Impact on employees’ attitudes. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 27(8), 646–666.

Laschinger, H. K., Wong, C. A., & Grau, A. L. (2013). Authentic leadership,

empowerment and burnout: A comparison in new graduates and experienced nurses. Journal of Nursing Management, 21(3), 541–552.

Leroy, H., & Palanski, M. E. (2012). Authentic leadership and behavioral integrity

as drivers of follower commitment and performance. Journal of Business Ethics, 107(3), 255–264.

Lok, P., & Crawford, J. (2004). The effect of organizational culture and leadership

style on job satisfaction and organizational commitment: A cross-national comparison. Journal of Management Development, 23(4), 321–338.

Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Authentic leadership development. In K. S.

Cameron, J. E.Dutton, & R. E Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline (pp. 241–261). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.

Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. (2009). The “point” of positive organizational

behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(2), 291–307. Malhotra, N., & Mukherjee, A. (2004). The relative influence of organisational

commitment and job satisfaction on service quality of customer-contact employees in banking call centres. The Journal of Services Marketing, 18(3), 162–174.

Medley, F., & Larochelle, D. R. (1995). Transformational leadership and job

satisfaction. Nursing Management, 26(9), 64JJ–64LL, 64NN. Morris, A., & Bloom, J.R. (2002). Contextual factors affecting job satisfaction and,

organizational commitment in community mental health centers undergoing system changes in the financing of care. Mental Health Services Research, 4(2), 71–83.

Northouse, P. G. (2013). Leadership: Theory and practice (6

th ed.). Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage. Okpara, J. O. (2006). The relationship of personal characteristics and job

satisfaction: A study of Nigerian managers in the oil industry. Journal of American Academy of Business, 10(1), 49–58.

Peterson, S. J., Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., & Hannah, S. T. (2012). The

relationship between authentic leadership and follower job performance: The

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

102

mediating role of follower positivity in extreme contexts. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 502–516.

Shamir, B., & Eilam, G. (2005). “What’s your story?”: A life-stories approach to

authentic leadership development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 395–417. Shirey, M. (2006). Authentic leaders creating healthy work environments for

nursing practice. American Journal of Critical Care, 15(3), 256–268. Snowden, D. C. (2011). The relationships between leadership and job

satisfaction in call centers in the electric utility industry (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses database. (UMI No. 3468107)

Spector, P. E. (1985). Measurement of human service staff satisfaction:

Development of the job satisfaction survey. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13(6), 693–713.

Spector, P. E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, cause, and

consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stamps, P. L. (1997). Nurses and work satisfaction: An index for measurement

(2 nd

ed.). Chicago, IL: Health Administration Press. Testa, M. (2001). Organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and effort in the

service environment. The Journal of Psychology, 135(2), 226–236. Toor, S., & Ofori, G. (2009). Authenticity and its influence on psychological well-

being and contingent self-esteem of leaders in Singapore construction sector. Construction Management and Economics, 27(3), 299–313.

Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L.,Wernsing, T. S., & Peterson,S. J.

(2008). Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Journal of Management, 34(1), 89–126.

Woolley, L., Caza, A., & Levy, L. (2011). Authentic leadership and follower

development: Psychological capital, positive work climate, and gender. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 18(4), 438–448.

Michael Onorato, EdD, is a visiting assistant professor of management at the State University of New York (SUNY) College at Old Westbury. He is also the director of internships for the School of Business. Dr. Onorato has also completed a successful managerial career in the energy industry, where he has also participated in significant managerial consultant engagements. He holds an EdD in Leadership and an MBA from St. Johns University. His published research articles have focused on managerial leadership and ethics. He can be reached at [email protected].

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

103

Jishan Zhu, PhD, is an assistant professor of management at the SUNY College at Old Westbury. He has published in journals such as the European Journal of Operations Research, Journal of Revenue and Pricing Management, International Journal of Data Analysis Techniques and Strategies, and Journal of High Technology Management Research. He spent many years working in the industry in addition to his teaching career. Many of his journal articles are based on his industrial experiences. Dr. Zhu holds a PhD in business from the University of Iowa. He can be reached at [email protected].

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

104

Project Leadership: An Emerging Phenomena

*

Matthew P. Earnhardt, Tracey M. Richardson, and Jim W. Marion

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Despite an evolving profession, project managers do not always lead projects to success. However, leadership roles influence project performance and are tied to project success. This study examined 87 interview summaries to explore the emergent leadership theme. The objective was to investigate the phenomena of project management leadership development and its impact by analyzing successful project managers’ descriptions of how their project management leadership evolved. Findings indicate that on-the-job training is the primary means by which project managers become leaders. Responsibility, communication, initiative, and taking care of followers are important for project leader effectiveness. Recommendations for future research are discussed. Key words: leadership, project leaders, project management This study builds upon a previous study by Marion, Richardson, and Earnhardt

(2014), which examined 87 project managers’ responses to interview questions

associated with entry into the field, career progression, and advice for the new

project manager, seeking to better understand practicing project manager career

progression. In that study, a conceptual project management career path was

presented (see Figure 1), and it was concluded that the project management

career path remains an informal one in many companies. Furthermore, it was

found that project managers arrive at that role through years of experience in

which they become accomplished in managing, leading, and executing projects

as they rise through the ranks. A recommendation was to delve into the interview

data to seek out the leadership theme as it translates into successful project

managers.

A benefit of qualitative inquiry is that researchers have the opportunity to

answer a research question that was not originally posed. This study examined

those 87 interview summaries to explore the emergent leadership theme. The

objective was to investigate the phenomena of project management leadership

development and its impact by analyzing successful project managers’

* To cite this article: Earnhardt, M. P., Richardson, T. M., & Marion, J. W. (2015). Project

leadership: An emerging phenomena. International Leadership Journal, 7(2), 104–125.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

105

descriptions of how their project management leadership evolved. The study’s

purpose was to give voice to the practicing project manager, providing new

insights regarding successful career progression. Therefore, the current study

will offer a literature review on project skills and traits and then provide results

related to project management leadership development.

Figure 1. The conceptual framework of the project management career path

Literature Review

Despite an evolving profession, project managers have not always led projects to

success. However, leadership roles influence project performance and are tied to

project success (Anantatmula, 2010; Kaminsky, 2012; Shore, 2005). Kaminsky

(2012) exclaimed that projects often fail because of lack of leadership, rather

than lack of management. In other words, a project will fail without leadership

from the people on the project. Project failure has been linked to leadership, and

“human skills” have an incredible influence on project management practices

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

106

(Shore, 2005; Skulmoski & Hartman, 2010). Anantatmula (2010) indicated that

motivating a project team, communicating values, and paying attention to project

processes are what make up “good” project leaders. Following Yukl’s (2013)

definition of leadership, a project manager (leader) is someone who influences

others to agree about what needs to be done and then facilitates those efforts to

accomplish a shared objective. In order to influence others, project managers

should have good interpersonal skills, which often result in influencing others

beyond the project arena (Jowah, 2012). Stagnaro and Piotrowski (2014) refer to

the successful project manager as a social architect who leads others to actively

participate on the common goal. Though some research has been done on the

leadership aspect of project management, more work needs to be done

(Bopanna & Gupta, 2009; Müller, Geraldi, & Turner, 2012; Shore, 2005). Given

the dearth of studies exploring leadership within the project management

profession, the current study addresses project leadership.

Although the research on project management has acknowledged the

importance of leadership in organizations, the role of leadership regarding

projects has largely been ignored until recently (Müller et al., 2012). Bopanna

and Gupta (2009) echo this sentiment by stating that the project management

literature has focused on management rather than leadership. While leadership

is seen as a success factor, it is not explored with any depth (Shore, 2005).

Therefore, relevant to the current study, it is important to explore both leadership

in project management and project leader skills and traits.

Leadership in Project Management

Every project is unique and fraught with complex problems and unknowns.

Therefore, the project manager’s role is important to project success

(Anantatmula, 2010). Austin, Browne, Haas, Kenyatta, and Zulueta (2013) note

that “it is often said leaders are focused on the big picture and long term goals

while managers are focused on day to day activities and achieving those goals.

In project management, both roles are merged” (80). Kaminsky (2012) indicates

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

107

that projects often fail because of lack of leadership rather than lack of

management.

A project manager has influence over internal and external stakeholders of the

project, including considerable influence over the project team. In the current

complex business environment, there is a demand for teams and leaders who

are creative, fast, and flexible in executing a project (Barnwell, Nedrick, Rudolph,

Sesay, & Wellen, 2014). As the team leader, the project manager must establish

a collaborative culture that accounts for internal and external forces in project

execution (Barnwell et al., 2014). This is difficult because team selection often

occurs under less than ideal conditions (Anantatmula, 2010). Hogan (2011)

noted that leadership can align teams with project goals, leading to project and

organizational success. Additionally, project leaders keep a unifying spirit to the

project (Lundy & Morin, 2013). Important to understanding why leadership in

project management is so important is an understanding of the skills and traits

that are important for the project leader.

Project Leader Skills and Traits

Anantatmula (2010) states that competence and leadership style are critical to

facilitating project success factors. In addition to style, the personal traits of the

leader also contribute to project success and execution (Nixon, Harrington, &

Parker, 2012). In other words, the project leader must exhibit appropriate skills,

traits, and competence for project execution to the various team members. For

example, to lead project teams effectively, intrapersonal and interpersonal skills

are needed (Redick, Reyna, Schaffer, & Toomey, 2014).

According to Bopanna and Gupta (2009), good leadership requires good soft

skills, such as the ability to set clear goals that others buy into and by which they

are motivated. Fisher (2011), who investigated the telecommunication,

engineering, consultancy, and banking industries, identifies six specific skills and

behaviors needed by the effective project manager that focus on people:

(a) cultural awareness, (b) conflict management, (c) authentic behavior,

(d) influence, (e) leading, and (f) understanding the behavior of others. Fisher

explains that in addition to those skills, an effective project manager must show

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

108

concern and respect for others. In other words, the “people side” is very

important to project effectiveness. In a Delphi study of project managers, Keil,

Lee, and Deng (2013) found many of the same skills as Fisher, but added

communication, personal characteristics, problem solving, professionalism, and

organization as necessary skills for the successful project leader.

Communication is critical for a project leader. An effective project leader should

listen actively and communicate the shared values of the group. Wiegold (2011),

in describing communication in music, states that “the best musical compositions

have integrity and a sense of purpose and voice, while at the same time being

fluid, flexible, never staying on ideas too long and always reaching forward for

implied goals” (46). The same can be said of project leaders who need to

communicate the vision of the project and ensure everyone has a voice and input

into the shared purpose. The importance of communication in leadership and

project leadership has been affirmed by countless researchers (e.g., Friedman,

2011). Strong communication helps project managers succeed in successfully

executing a project (Friedman, 2011; Keil et al., 2013).

Traits are also very important to the project leader and can impact project

success. Cohen, Ornoy, and Keren (2013) conclude that project managers have

unique personality traits that differ from the general population. Additionally,

Müller and Turner (2010) indicate that certain traits lead project managers to

remain in their job longer (person–job fit). Some of the traits that impact project

success are the degree of innovativeness, communication apprehension, Myers–

Briggs Type Indicator score, openness, degree of emotional intelligence,

preference for soft skills, technical skill, level of self-monitoring, conflict

management style, and degree of change orientation (Creasy & Anantatmula,

2013; Dolfi & Andrews, 2007). In considering the role of project leader traits on

project success, one needs to recognize that a variety of factors impacts project

outcomes, including external and internal constraints. Having said that, attention

should be given to project managers’ traits within the systems and organizations

within which they operate (Creasy & Anantatmula, 2013). The literature indicates

a link between personality traits and job performance and project manager

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

109

success, though Thal and Bedingfield (2010) indicate that more research needs

to be performed in this area.

Method

This article is a follow-up study of an emergent topic—project management

leadership. In Marion et al. (2014), graduate students in a project management

degree program were given the assignment to interview a professional project

manager and pose questions associated with entry into the field, career

progression, and advice for the new project manager. The authors qualitatively

coded the 87 project managers’ career experiences as documented in the

informal interviews. The interview followed the topical protocol presented in Table

1.

Table 1: Interview Protocol Questions

Order Question

1 How did the project manager get started in the field?

2 How has the project manager’s career progressed?

3 What advice would the project manager give to someone considering a

PM career?

The initial objective was to learn about project management careers. The

leadership theme was so dominant that it drove this follow-up examination of the

participants’ descriptions of their experiences in the current research study. The

interviews were coded for a second time, seeking themes to answer the following

research questions: (a) How does a project manager develop leadership skills?

and (b) What is the impact of the new skill set?

The coding process involved a review of each interview and an effort to link the

interviews’ individual comments to themes and begin a cataloging process

(Saldaña, 2012). To this end, the 87 interview summaries were imported

independently into the qualitative coding software NVivo (Version 9, QSR

International, 2010), and the list of emergent themes was loaded as categories or

nodes. Further analysis was conducted through key word queries to ensure all

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

110

instances of specific leadership key words or phrases were reviewed and coded

(Bazeley & Jackson, 2013). Then, themes were collected and the frequency of

each theme was documented. A word frequency analysis was performed against

each segment of coded text in order to gain an understanding of how closely

each identified theme was related to others in terms of common words and

expressions, allowing the authors to reflect on the implication (Bazeley &

Jackson, 2013). Relationships were established, and then themes were classified

into groups. Finally, the conceptual framework was built up from the themes,

classifications, and relationships.

Analysis

In this analysis, following the recommendations of Marion et al. (2014), the

leadership theme observed from that previous study was further analyzed in

order to better understand (a) the phenomena of project management leadership

development and (b) the impact of project management leadership. The analysis

of the 87 interview summaries revealed a series of recurring themes. Table 2 lists

the leadership themes and illustrates both the number of participants who

contributed to the theme (sources) and the number of times the theme presented

itself (references). The themes describe the success factors that the project

managers experienced throughout their careers. Leveraging NVivo’s (Version 9,

QSR International, 2010) sorting feature, the themes were examined a second

time, and groupings emerged. Each recurring theme was identified, supported by

interview summary excerpts, and is discussed here.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

111

Table 2: Leadership Themes

Name Sources References Rank

Leadership_On the Job Training 23 27 621

Leadership_Traits 6 7 42

Leadership_Military Experience 6 6 36

Leadership_Responsibility 6 7 42

Leadership_Communications 5 5 25

Leadership_Promotion 5 5 25

Leadership_Not Required to Be an Expert 3 3 9

Leadership_Supporting the Team 3 3 9

Leadership_Taking Initiative 2 2 4

Leadership_Education 1 1 1

Leadership_Well Organized 1 1 1

Leadership_Response of Followers 1 1 1

Leadership_Demonstration of Skills 1 1 1

Leadership_Adaptability 1 1 1

Leadership_Setting the Pace 1 1 1

Each series of codes was grouped according to rank. The rank was a function

of the number of times that the theme appeared and the number of interviews in

which it appeared. On-the-job leadership stood out as the most commonly

appearing theme. Group 1 included themes ranking greater than 100. Group 2

included those ranking from 26 to 50. Group 3 included themes ranking exactly

25. Group 4 includes themes ranking from 2 to 25. Finally, Group 5 included

those ranking exactly 1.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

112

Table 3: Leadership Themes by Grouping Theme Group

1 Group

2 Group

3 Group

4 Group

5

Leadership_On the Job Training X

Leadership_Traits X

Leadership_Military Experience X

Leadership_Responsibility X

Leadership_Communications X

Leadership_Promotion X

Leadership_Not Required to Be

an Expert X

Leadership_Supporting the Team X

Leadership_Taking Initiative X

Leadership_Education X

Leadership_Well Organized X

Leadership_Response of

Followers X

Leadership_Demonstration of

Skills X

Leadership_Adaptability X

Leadership_Setting the Pace X

Group 1 Interview Excerpts (Sources 23/References 27)

Leadership: On-the-Job Training (OTJ)

My start into that field began years before through a series of career opportunities and experience that enabled me to lead projects of increasing intensity and responsibility.

Progressing through my organization gaining experience in leadership roles, I began to find myself in charge of increasingly larger assignments and overseeing more and more people.

Project management was a part of the overall skill sets expected, but there was no formal or defined training. I was simply expected to bring jobs in on time, on budget and safely. A good project manager just somehow knew what to do.

The Group 1 interview excerpts are representative of the frequently expressed

observation that leadership is a skill that is developed over the duration of a

career. It is of interest to note the emphasis on learning by doing rather than

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

113

through formal training. Regardless of the stated importance of other factors,

traits, or skills, it is typically on the job where such factors are acquired.

The career path experience described by successful project managers is

observed to be similar to that of successful functional managers. The sequence

of taking advantage of leadership opportunities, gaining experience, and being

assigned greater responsibility is the story of “working one’s way up through the

ranks.” The only observed difference is that in the case of the interviews, the

senior ranks were involved in managing projects rather than functions. In a multi-

project organization, it may be that more leadership opportunities are available

than functional opportunities, thereby making project management a potentially

excellent field for career growth.

Group 2 Interview Excerpts (Sources 18/References 20)

Leadership: Traits

Being able to demonstrate that you can follow procedures; have people skills; and are able to manage time, people, and money will help you get hired. He stressed the ability to be able to moderate between the stakeholders will be a plus.

Leadership: Military Experience

Her background as a soldier developed her team-building skills and perseverance to complete any mission.

Leadership: Responsibility

[The subject] said that the best thing a program manager can do for their career is to take on more responsibility. Sometimes you have to go looking for more responsibility and take the initiative.

Learning to lead, as described in the interviews, was enhanced with the

willingness on the part of the manger to take responsibility. In the Group 2

interview excerpts, military service offered opportunities to learn responsibility.

Once opportunities to take responsibility have been accepted, managers have

the forum to demonstrate leadership skills.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

114

Group 3 Interview Excerpts (Sources 10/References 10)

Leadership: Communications

A good foundation in communication and learning to manage people will make all the difference in the world.

Leadership: Promotion

As he worked his way up the company, he eventually was moved to a project manager position.

As evidenced in the Group 3 interview excerpts, communication is a foundational

leadership skill. The expression of such skill is said to lead to promotions.

Group 4 Interview Excerpts (Sources 8/References 8)

Leadership: Not Required to Be an Expert

He advised me that I don’t need to be the expert in the field that I am managing a project for because my job is to organize, plan, and motivate those around me.

Leadership: Supporting the Team

He told us it was his job to ensure that we had what we needed to do our job and also his job to make sure no one could interfere with us doing our job. I think that is the perfect description of what a project manager is there to do.

Leadership: Taking Initiative

If you find yourself leading in the little parts of your life, from always being the one to plan the party, to the one who designs the new deck, to the vacation planner, to the one people come to at work to get ideas about how to do something, then you are a project manager already.

The Group 4 interview excerpts illustrate that although effective leaders take

initiative, this does not imply that the leader does the work of the team. Instead,

the leader supports the team and makes effective use of the available expertise.

The likely implication of these interview excerpts was that project management

candidates were not necessarily those with deep technical domain expertise.

Rather, they were more likely to be generalists who have significant interpersonal

skills. Project management research supports this with its increasing emphasis

on the human side of project management rather than the traditional “hard

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

115

paradigm” of management linked solely to the management of the triple

constraint (scope, time, and cost).

Group 5 Interview Excerpts (Sources 6/References 6)

Leadership: Education

The project manager position comes with great responsibility for any program and, as a result, requires advanced education, specific training.

Leadership: Well Organized

Her meetings are well organized and cover all necessary business. Leadership: Response of Followers

Look at yourself and ask, “Do people follow my lead in life?” People have always responded to my leadership. From grade school to college, working, playing rugby and other sports, I have always found myself in a leadership position.

Leadership: Demonstration of Skills

Being able to demonstrate that you can follow procedures; have people skills; and are able to manage time, people, and money will help you get hired.

Leadership: Adaptability

[The subject] expressed that leadership abilities are a must in project management [as is] the ability to adapt to many different personality types to get the job done.

Leadership: Setting the Pace

Program or project management is like a marching band. There is a drum line, and everyone else takes their cues from the beat of the drums. Program managers are the drums—be the drums.

The Group 5 themes appear only once throughout all interviews. They were

illustrative of the many generic capabilities that successful leaders often display

within the field of project management. The Project Management Institute (PMI)

Project Management Competency Development Framework appeared to support

the view that successful project managers employ a range of personal as well as

project management performance competencies.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

116

Correlation Coefficient

Another approach taken to evaluate the degree to which each theme was related

to examine the similarity of words used in each theme. In this cluster analysis

generated by NVivo (Version 9, QSR International, 2010), the correlation

coefficients measuring the relationships of common words found between

themes are illustrated in Figure 2 (QSR International, 2014). For example, in the

dendrogram, two major groupings of themes diverge based upon their

relatedness. The upper portion of the diagram could be viewed as themes

associated with on-the-job experiences. The lower portion could be viewed as

themes associated with personal demonstration of skills and observable traits. It

is interesting to note that the first theme suggests they are successful project

managers because of their inherent personal characteristics (suggesting

personality), and the second theme suggests that becoming a successful project

manager can be taught and learned through education and experience.

Figure 2. Node cluster by word similarity

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

117

From Themes to Theory

An inductive approach to developing theory began with the data (interviews),

sought patterns in the data (themes), and then sought to build up a larger picture

of the phenomena under study (conceptual framework; Creswell, 2013). Themes

were identified by a process of closely reading the text and using constant

comparison with other thoughts, ideas, and expressions found in the interview

summaries. Details deemed to be significant are highlighted and coded in NVivo

(Version 9, QSR International, 2010). Codes that appear more frequently and are

observed in more than one interview are considered to carry more weight than

those that do not, and this is reflected in the thematic ranking system. In this

study, the frequency of occurrence of the identified themes and the relationships

between the themes were used as the basis for building a clearer picture of the

phenomena under study.

Framework

Figure 3 on the next page represents the conceptual framework inferred from the

themes found in the interview summaries. The conceptual framework was

constructed as follows:

1. A cluster analysis of the themes was performed using NVivo (Version 9,

QSR International, 2010), and the Pearson’s correlation for word similarity

between the themes was analyzed.

2. Each of the interview segments identified as themes were then reread and

compared with other themes in that frequency group to draw conclusions

on how the themes were related.

3. The themes were then organized first in group order (indicating frequency

of theme occurrence), then by the logical relationship of each theme to

other themes identified within the group.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

118

Figure 3. Conceptual framework

Discussion

As evidenced in the project manager interviews, on-the-job training was the

primary means by which project managers become leaders. Interview excerpts

indicate that leadership was developed as a skill over the duration of a career. In

the interviews, many participants stated that as they progressed through their

organization and gained more experience, they saw themselves gaining

responsibility over larger assignments and increased leadership roles. Another

project manager indicated that he received no formal training; it was through

experience that he understood expectations.

It should be noted that the emphasis on learning by doing rather than through

formal training, reinforcing Clarke’s (2009) research regarding the benefits of

learning leadership on the job. Furthermore, as indicated by our study and in

congruence with Atwood, Mora, and Kaplin (2010), leaders need to find their own

way regarding using leadership skills in the workplace, and education and

experience have an effect on leader behavior. This study’s analysis indicated the

same results through interviews with project managers. Project managers can

learn leadership through both education and experience.

Certain personality characteristics seem to be present in the project leader,

namely responsibility, communication, and initiative. First, taking responsibility

led to opportunities to build and demonstrate leadership capability. Learning to

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

119

lead, as described in the interviews, was enhanced with the willingness on the

part of the manager to take responsibility. In one interview, the program manager

stated that the best thing a project manager could do was take on more

responsibility, and proactivity was a key ingredient to success. In leadership and

team literature, proactive individuals and teams achieve positive outcomes

(Williams, Parker, & Turner, 2010). The results of the current study with project

managers would indicate the same.

Further, communication was considered an essential skill when displayed

effectively. Strong communication helped project managers succeed in

successfully executing a project (Friedman, 2011; Keil et al., 2013). Neufeld,

Wan, and Fang (2010) agree, indicating that communication effectiveness is a

strong predictor of leader performance. In a study of change, Gilley, Gilley, and

McMillan (2009) note that providing effective communication is a necessary

foundation for employee motivation and success. In the interview summaries

used for this study, one project manager called communication a foundational

skill. Communication is critically important to leader success and needs more

attention in the project manager (leader) toolkit. Gilley et al. indicate that leaders

do not devote sufficient time to communication strategies. Therefore, project

leaders need to give sufficient attention to communication strategies with internal

and external organizational stakeholders.

Third, effective leaders are those who take initiative, but initiative in leadership

was related to supporting the members of the team rather than doing the work of

the team. Instead, the leader supported the team and made effective use of

available expertise. Bruttel and Fischbacher (2013) describe taking initiative as a

crucial leadership element. One of the current study’s participants stated:

If you find yourself leading in the little parts of your life, from always being the one to plan the party, to the one who designs the new deck, to the vacation planner, to the one people come to at work to get ideas about how to do something, then you are a project manager already.

Leaders exhibit a number of abilities that do not have the same frequencies of

responsibility, communication, and initiative, but are important nonetheless.

Project managers indicated that positive response to followers was important.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

120

Furthermore, demonstrating the skills and leading the way were important skills

of the project leader. Also, adaptability and willingness to change were seen as

important. Adaptability did not just refer to the general organization but to an

ability to work with others with different personality traits.

Our study did not identify one particular leadership theory that was more

successful than others with project leaders. One reason for that was it was

beyond the scope of the current study to test different leadership theories, but

also because, as Almansour (2012) notes, any number of leadership styles will

work in motivating employees dependent on the situation. It is up to the individual

to determine what style works best based on their values, beliefs, preferences,

and organizational cultures. Therefore, project leaders need to find what

leadership style works best within their particular organization and with their

particular followers.

Limitations

Though several insights emerged in the current investigation, there are still

several limitations to the current research. One limitation that is inherent to

qualitative research is that it typically has high internal validity and low external

validity. The authors attempted to mitigate those limitations by using a larger-

than-typical sample size (Marshall, Cardon, Poddar, & Fontenot, 2013).

Additionally, the students of nine different graduate-level Project Management

Fundamentals courses followed a specific interview process. Each of these

sections was taught by a different professor, suggesting that the results remained

consistent regardless of numerous external variables. That said, the absence of

interviewer training for the many graduate students performing the interviews and

the authors’ lack of contact with both the students and the interviewees

contribute to the low external validity. A second limitation is the lack of

demographic information collected, making it difficult to draw generalizable

conclusions that would have benefited the data. Information such as the

participants’ industry, years of experience, and whether or not they were certified

project management professionals would have greatly aided the study.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

121

Future Research

The results offer several areas for future research. One is related to proactivity

and leadership within project management. Congruent with other studies, results

indicate that being proactive is an important skill of the project leader. But as

Williams et al. (2010) indicate, more work needs to be done regarding proactive

behaviors and individual and team performance. Perhaps future research could

investigate the role of proactivity on project management and leadership team

success. As indicated, several leadership themes, such as adaptability,

demonstrating skills, leading the way, and working with followers, were important

to the project manager. The project manager interviews did not discuss these

themes with the prevalence of some of the other themes. Future research should

investigate their importance to project leadership. Finally, future research should

ask in-depth demographic information and determine the cultural differences

between project leaders from different countries and organizational types.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Shore (2005) indicates that more studies exploring project

leadership are needed. Following the recommendations and building on the work

of Marion et al. (2014), this study sought to fill that gap and explore project

management leadership development. The study indicated that project managers

primarily gain leadership competence through on-the-job training. This would

indicate that project leadership can be taught to a certain degree through

experience and training. Furthermore, the study concluded that to a degree,

personality plays a role in the leadership characteristics of the project manager.

The study found that responsibility, communication, initiative, and willingness to

adapt and change were important skills for the project leader. Finally, the study

recommended several avenues for future research.

References

Almansour, Y. M. (2012). The relationship between leadership styles and motivation of managers conceptual framework. Researchers World, 3(1), 161–166.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

122

Anantatmula, V. S. (2010). Project manager leadership role in improving project performance. Engineering Management Journal, 22(1), 13–22.

Atwood, M. A., Mora, J. W., & Kaplan, A. W. (2010). Learning to lead: Evaluating leadership and organizational learning. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 31(7), 576–595. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/01437731011079637

Austin, C., Browne, W., Haas, B., Kenyatta, E., & Zulueta, S. (2013). Application of project management in higher education. Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance, and Marketing, 5(2), 75–99.

Barnwell, D., Nedrick, S., Rudolph, E., Sesay, M., & Wellen, W. (2014). Leadership of international and virtual project teams. International Journal of Global Business, 7(2), 1–8.

Bazeley, P., & Jackson, K. (Eds.). (2013). Qualitative data analysis with NVivo. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Bopanna, K., & Gupta, J. (2009). Managing clinical trials in India. Pharmaceutical Medicine, 23(2), 91–97. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/01317117- 200923020-00004

Bruttel, L., & Fischbacher, U. (2013). Taking the initiative: What characterizes leaders? European Economic Review, 64, 147–168. doi:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2013.08.008

Clarke, P. A. (2009). Leadership, beyond project management. Industrial and Commercial Training, 41(4), 187–194. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00197850910962760

Cohen, Y., Ornoy, H., & Keren, B. (2013). MBTI personality types of project managers and their success: A field survey. Project Management Journal, 44(3), 78–87. doi:10.1002/pmj.21338

Creasy, T., & Anantatmula, V. S. (2013). From every direction: How personality traits and dimensions of project managers can conceptually affect project success. Project Management Journal, 44(6), 36–51. doi:10.1002/pmj.21372

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

123

Creswell, J. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3

rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dolfi, J., & Andrews, E. (2007). The subliminal characteristics of project managers: An exploratory study of optimism covering challenge in the project management work environment. International Journal of Project Management, 25, 674–682.

Fisher, E. (2011). What practitioners consider to be the skills and behaviors of an effective people project manager. International Journal of Project Management, 29(8), 994–1002. doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2010.09.002

Friedman, K. (2011). You’re on! How strong communication skills help leaders succeed. Business Strategy Series, 12(6), 308–314. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ 17515631111185941

Gilley, A., Gilley, J. W., & McMillan, H. S. (2009). Organizational change: Motivation, communication, and leadership effectiveness. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 21(4), 75–94.

Hogan, J. (2011). The leadership lever. IT Professional Magazine, 13(3), 10–13. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/MITP.2011.47

Jowah, L. (2012). The matrix structure: Does it create an authority gap for the project manager? Journal of US–China Public Administration, 9(10), 1097–1106.

Kaminsky, J. B. (2012). Impact of nontechnical leadership practices on IT project success. Journal of Leadership Studies, 6, 30–49. doi:10.1002/jls.21226

Keil, M., Lee, H. K., & Deng, T. (2013). Understanding the most critical skills for managing IT projects: A Delphi study of IT project managers. Information & Management, 50(7), 398–414. doi:10.1016/j.im.2013.05.005

Lundy, V., & Morin, P. (2013). Project leadership influences resistance to change: The case of the Canadian public service. Project Management Journal, 44(4), 45–64. doi:10.1002/pmj.21355

Marion, J. W., Richardson, T. M., & Earnhardt, M. P. (2014). Project manager insights: An analysis of career progression. Organisational Project Management, 1(1), 53–72. Retrieved from http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/opm/article/view/3949

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

124

Marshall, B., Cardon, P., Poddar, A., & Fontenot, R. (2013, Fall). Does sample size matter in qualitative research? A review of qualitative interviews in IS research. Journal of Computer Information, 54, 11–22.

Müller, R., Geraldi, J., & Turner, J. R. (2012). Relationships between leadership and success in different types of project complexities. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 59(1), 77–90.

Müller, R., & Turner, J. R. (2010). Leadership competency profiles of successful project managers. International Journal of Project Management, 28(5), 437–448. doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.09.003

Neufeld, D. J., Wan, Z., & Fang, Y. (2010). Remote leadership, communication effectiveness and leader performance. Group Decision and Negotiation, 19(3), 227–246. doi:10.1007/s10726-008-9142-x

Nixon, P., Harrington, M., & Parker, D. (2012). Leadership performance is significant to project success or failure: A critical analysis. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 61(2), 204–216. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17410401211194699

NVivo (Version 9, 2010) [Computer software]. Doncaster, Victoria, Australia: QSR International.

QSR International. (2014). NVivo for Windows: Getting started. Retrieved from http://download.qsrinternational.com/Document/NVivo10/NVivo10-Getting- Started-Guide.pdf

Redick, A., Reyna, I., Schaffer, C., & Toomey, D. (2014). Four-factor model for effective project leadership competency. Journal of Information Technology and Economic Development, 5(1), 21–35.

Saldaña, J. (2012). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (No. 14). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Shore, B. (2005). Failure rates in global IS projects and the leadership challenge. Journal of Global Technology Management, 8(3), 1–5.

Skulmoski, G. J., & Hartman, F. T. (2010). Information systems project manager soft competencies: A project-phase investigation. Project Management Journal, 41(1), 61–80. doi:10.1002/pmj.20146

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

125

Stagnaro, C., & Piotrowski, C. (2014). Shared leadership: A critical component in IT project management. Journal of Technology Research, 5, 1–21.

Thal, A. E., & Bedingfield, J. D. (2010). Successful project managers: An exploratory study into the impact of personality. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 22(2), 243–259. doi:10.1080/09537320903498587

Wiegold, P. (2011). Introduce creative leadership skills. Strategic HR Review, 10(1), 45–46. doi:10.1108/shr.2011.37210aaa.003

Williams, H. M., Parker, S. K., & Turner, N. (2010). Proactively performing teams: The role of work design, transformational leadership, and team composition. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(2), 301–324.

Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in organizations (8 th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson

Education. Matthew P. Earnhardt, PhD, is an assistant professor at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University–Worldwide. Prior to joining Embry-Riddle, Dr. Earnhardt taught at several universities and had a career with the United States military and Lockheed Martin Corporation. He holds a PhD in Organizational Leadership with a Global Leadership Emphasis from Regent University. He can be reached at [email protected]. Tracey M. Richardson, EdD, is an assistant professor at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University–Worldwide. Prior to joining Embry-Riddle, Dr. Richardson had a 20-year career as an aircraft maintenance officer for the United States Air Force. She has an EdD in Organizational Leadership from Argosy University and holds both the Project Management Professional (PMP

® ) and PMI Risk Management Professional (PMI-RMP

® )

certifications from the Project Management Institute (PMI). She can be reached at [email protected]. Jim W. Marion, PhD, is an assistant professor at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University– Worldwide, where he also serves as the chair of the MS in Engineering Management program. His experience includes multiple product launches in the United States, Europe, and Asia, and significant experience with Japanese companies. Dr. Marion has a PhD in Organization and Management from Capella University and holds the PMP

® certification.

He can be reached at [email protected].

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

126

No Laughing Matter:

Understanding the Leadership of George W. Bush Through the Skewering of the President

*

Michael A. Genovese

Loyola Marymount University

“George W. Bush is doing the job of two men: Laurel and Hardy.” —Old, recycled political joke

This article takes political humor seriously, and uses humor as a lens through which we might come to a deeper understanding of the complexities and contradictions of the presidency of George W. Bush. In this article, I explore the use of political humor to discern how the popular image of George W. Bush impacted his leadership as president. Bush was the victim of some savage humor. Yet, in being treated as a joke so often, he was able to disarm some critics and was also able at times to take advantage of adversaries who took him for an intellectual lightweight. Key words: Bush, humor, leadership, politics, satire

Political humor is funny—except when it isn’t. And it is serious business as a way

of unmasking hypocrisy, bringing the corrupt and venal to their knees, or

exposing the knaves and fools who sometimes occupy high public office. In a

democracy, it is also a useful tool for reminding politicians that they should not

get big-headed or aloof, as we are always ready to knock them down a peg.

All presidents have faced criticism; and all presidents have found themselves

skewered by the biting impact of humor. In a democracy, free speech and the

deflating of our leaders are more than rights; we take them as a responsibility, or

even as a pleasure. For presidents, being mocked goes with the territory. It is

healthy for our political system that we knock the elites off their haughty pedestal

now and then.

Of course, this mocking can go too far at times. Former vice president and one-

time presidential candidate Walter Mondale went so far as to suggest that the

* To cite this article: Genovese, M. A. (2015). No laughing matter: Understanding the leadership of

George W. Bush through the skewering of the president. International Leadership Journal, 7(2), 126–146.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

127

presidency has become the “nation’s fire hydrant” (Robinson & Sheehan, 1983,

193).

In this article, I will explore the use of political humor to discern how the popular

image of George W. Bush impacted his leadership as president by developing

the following five points:

1. George W. Bush was mocked repeatedly and mercilessly in the popular

media, and virtually all humorous parodies of President Bush stressed his

lack of intelligence, fractured syntax, bumbling and fumbling sentence

structure, and Texas cowboy image, creating a clear and simple narrative:

Bush is dumb!

2. President Bush was a comedic enabler, repeatedly giving humorists

ammunition that could be used against him.

3. George Bush was not dumb.

4. The popular image of Bush as a dumb person lulled his adversaries into a

false sense that they could outfox him, allowing Bush to often outflank his

rivals.

5. Clearly, President Bush was not dumb, and yet he made a host of

mistakes.

Political Humor in Context 2

“Humor is anarchistic.” —Malcolm Muggeridge (Gardner, 1989, 14)

One of the biggest fears for politicians is that the public will laugh at them, and

not with them. Just ask Sarah Palin. Is it even possible to think of Palin and not

see Tina Fey’s mocking—yet so very close to reality—parody of Palin? Today,

Palin exists as little more than a caricature of herself. Humor hurts.

If imitation is the sincerest form of flattery, parody is the deepest slit of the

throat. In a television (especially cable) and social media era, political parody

seems—to the politician at least—ubiquitous and able to spread like a virus.

2 From Building Tomorrow's Leaders Today: On Becoming a Polymath Leader (pp. 102–103), by

M. A. Genovese, 2014, New York, NY: Routledge. Copyright 2014 by M. A. Genovese. Adapted with permission.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

128

Chevy Chase doing Gerald Ford, Dan Aykroyd doing Richard Nixon, Dana

Carvey as both George H. W. Bush and Ross Perot (“Here’s five dollars, bark

like a dog”), Phil Hartman as Ronald Reagan, Darrell Hammond as Bill Clinton,

and, of course, Will Ferrell as George W. Bush on Saturday Night Live (SNL) and

in the one-man Broadway hit You’re Welcome America: A Final Night with

George W. Bush, all parodied and punctured their targets while imprinting on the

minds of many an image of bumbling buffoonery.

While we have a long history of comically mocking our leaders—from the plays

of the Greek comic Aristophanes to Cervantes’ Don Quixote, from the biting

drawings of Honoré Daumier to the cartoons by Thomas Nast and Herblock and

Mark Twain’s classic short stories—today’s media have been especially effective

at dispensing the message to a national audience. And as hard news and soft

entertainment seem increasingly to be merging (e.g., Saturday Night Live, The

Daily Show, The Colbert Report), news has become entertainment, and

entertainment, news.

The public consistently demands that their president pass the character test,

and one measure of character is seen as having a good sense of humor as well

as being able to take a joke and laugh at oneself. Abraham Lincoln was widely

known for his “stories”—humorous parables that also taught a lesson and helped

humanize him. John F. Kennedy had a quick wit that served him well in the early

days of televised presidential news conferences. Ronald Reagan was a master

of self-deprecating humor (one famous saying: “People say that hard work never

killed anybody, but I say, why take the chance?”) that often offset criticism as well

as endeared Reagan to the public.

Humor tests politicians, and it also tests citizens. Those among us who engage

in public debate and exhibit no sense of humor are to be feared more than

listened to. The Israeli novelist Amos Oz (2006) noted quite appropriately: “I have

never once in my life seen a fanatic with a sense of humor, nor have I seen a

person with a sense of humor become a fanatic (64–65).” Indeed, we should be

wary of people and presidents who do not exhibit a healthy sense of humor.

Richard Nixon seemed absolutely humorless. Jimmy Carter’s staff joked that

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

129

“Carter’s idea of self-deprecatory humor is to insult his staff” (Genovese, 2014,

103).

In his collection of presidential humor, Gardner (1989) writes:

Bromidic as it may sound, humor is a most essential element in a democracy. Curiously, the one ingredient that totalitarian societies seem to have in common is a lack of humor. In a dictatorship the practice of satire is a jeopardous pastime indeed. This is doubtless because no public figure willingly subjects himself to the barbs of the satirist if there is some way to dispose of the troublesome fellow. In a democracy we cannot so readily eliminate our critics and iconoclasts. (xi–x)

This is not altogether surprising. Humor can be a wounding weapon, and a

persuasive one. The witty plays of George Bernard Shaw have proselytized more

theatergoers than the grim narratives of Henrik Ibsen. So humor is considered

subversive by the powers that be, who often pay it the compliment of

suppression.

Humor is necessary in a democracy for reasons other than serving as a device

for spreading truth and attacking fools and knaves. In a free society, every few

years, the populace engages in a wrenching struggle for power. Humor lets us

take the issues seriously without taking ourselves too seriously. If we are able to

laugh at ourselves as we lunge for jugular, the process loses some of its malice.

The wise politician knows he or she is a walking target for ridicule.

Misstatements, exaggeration, flip-flopping, and phoniness become the butt of

jokes, and in the case of president, he can become the “butt-in-chief.”

Experienced politicians try, usually in vain, to be guarded in what they say.

Successful politicians learn how to swallow ridicule.

Freud (1928), in his treatise on jokes and the unconscious, said that jokes were

a rebellion against authority, an often-therapeutic venting toward, or mocking of,

those in power. Humor helps us cope with the painful and forbidden and thus, at

times, helps us cope in an unfair or mad world. Carr and Greeves (2006) note

that “wherever human beings are oppressed—by corrupt government, poverty or

merely the specter of disease and death—jokes thrive” (8).

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

130

People everywhere are ambivalent about political leaders, and rightly so. They

know someone has to solve public problems, forge policy compromises, and help

govern our communities and nation-states. Yet most people fear the abuse of

power, think politics is often unsavory, and view most politicians as hopelessly

unprincipled. In short, they are suspicious of power-wielding politicians. Writers

from Niccolò Machiavelli and William Shakespeare to Mark Twain and George

Orwell warn us about the guile, manipulation, and “double-sidedness” inherent in

the art of political leadership (Machiavelli, 1532/2011). Even at its best, politics

can be the skilled use of a blunt instrument. One way we deal with this is by

laughing at politicians. We laugh at pretentiousness, hypocrisy, failures, and

duplicity. Humor puts politicians on notice that we are watching and inherently

distrustful, if not outright cynical. A good joke at the expense of a politician helps

level the playing field. It helps prick pomposity and sappy sentimentality (Carr &

Greeves, 2006).

Americans have a rich tradition of poking, and sometimes piercing, fun at

politicians. Every president has been skewered by comedians and caricaturists

as well as partisan activists. Mark Twain, Henry Adams, Will Rogers, H. L.

Mencken, Bob Hope, Mort Sahl, and countless others—including Art Buchwald

and Molly Ivins—all successfully made us laugh at politics and politicians.

Further, the well-crafted cartoon by Thomas Nast or Herblock sometimes proves

more of a rhetorical weapon than a rival’s policy argument. Political humorists

abound in today’s 24/7 media culture. Thus Jay Leno, Jon Stewart, Garry

Trudeau, Jon Stewart, Dennis Miller, Stephen Colbert, and Bill Maher, among

others, earn a splendid living making us laugh at Hillary and Bill Clinton, George

W. Bush, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Barack Obama, and the rest. 3

Humor is a means of lighthearted (usually) fencing or even an unsubtle

communication of disrespect toward politicians who seem to be always craving

flattery. Who can help laugh (as well as cry) at Bill Clinton’s squirming to explain

his relationship with a White House intern, or at Republican leaders squirming

3 This section draws on the pioneering work on political humor by Thomas E. Cronin (2014), who

has generously allowed me to borrow from his work.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

131

about Congressman Mark Foley and his inappropriate advances toward

Congressional pages?

Another reason we laugh at politicians is because some of them actually are

corrupt—corrupted by the money it takes to win office, by bribes in office, and

sometimes by power itself. Richard Nixon and his vice president, Spiro Agnew,

are mainly remembered today for their various corruptions in office—and they are

quite rightly satirized, ridiculed, and scorned. More recently, U.S. Representative

Randy “Duke” Cunningham made millions for himself as he represented his San

Diego-area constituency by steering Department of Defense and other federal

agency contracts to grateful businesses who rewarded him in-kind. He served jail

time and was one of the reasons Democrats retook the House of

Representatives in the 2006 elections.

Thus, laughing at wayward politicians is in some ways retribution, a

punishment, a scolding, and a way to get back at sleaze. By laughing at

politicians, we are trying to warn them and set parameters—letting them know

what’s acceptable and what’s not. Clinton may not have been convicted when he

was impeached for his lies about an external affair, but the many jokes made at

his expense reminded him that we are not entirely accepting of what he did.

Irreverent humor can help demystify and check some of the unacceptable

behaviors of corrupt and venal politicians.

Comedians and cartoonists operate as a disloyal opposition; a kind of third

party maintaining the negative campaign long after the election is over. Through

humor, they can raise objections or question the sincerity, honesty, integrity, and

the lack of transparency of those in office.

We laugh at politicians because politics can be deadly serious. Humor can

relieve some of the tension that is all too present in public affairs. The effective

politician has to be able to take a joke and to tell jokes about his or her own

mistakes to let people know he or she is human. A politician who can poke fun at

him or herself earns our respect. “There is an art to politics,” notes Klein (2007),

“and neither Kerry nor Gore had it” (234). Neither John Kerry nor Al Gore could

tell a joke or come across as especially spontaneous, endearing, or real.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

132

Few things are worse for a politician than to be called “humorless” or, worse,

“absolutely humorless.” Ralph Nader, Jimmy Carter, Richard Nixon, and Lindsey

Graham were so tagged. “He’s just a total joke” might be even more damaging.

Still, Will Rogers repeatedly warned, “the trouble with practical jokes is that very

often they get elected.” Most people are bored and bewildered by politics and

politicians. Lawmaking, policymaking, and diplomacy are slow moving, tedious,

and hard to follow. Political humor typically focuses on the negative. Unattractive

foibles, negative traits, as well as lies and mistakes, invite mocking. We want to

(and need to) laugh at misery, failure, and sleaze so as to lessen their effects on

us. Negativity is simply more interesting to us than positive news. This is why,

sadly, negative ads and campaigns work so well. Thus the sinister refrain in

recent elections, “If you can’t say anything nice about a candidate, by God, let’s

hear it!” (Cronin, 2004, para. 1).

A day rarely goes by when rival politicians aren’t accusing one another of being

“political.” You don’t hear doctors accusing one another of being “medical,” or a

good writer accusing a fellow colleague of “being a writer.” If in being political, a

politician—by definition—is being disingenuous, then only humor can mend our

wounds. We thus invite self-mocking when politics is seen as self-loathing.

Humor as Teacher, Pain-Reliever, Weapon, or Insult?

Someone once said that freedom encourages jokes, and conversely that jokes

encourage freedom. George Orwell noted that every joke “is a tiny revolution” in

that whatever diminishes the dignity or levels those in power can be both funny

and liberating (Adams, 2005, 12). But Alexander Rose (2001), after analyzing

joking in authoritarian regimes such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union,

suggests that jokes there were rarely tiny revolutions. They were “temporary pain

relievers serving as a substitute for being allowed to participate in real politics”

(68). Yet the most useful political humor makes us laugh not only at politicians

but at life and ourselves. Cervantes’ Don Quixote and Woody Allen films do

precisely this. March (March & Weil, 2005) writes:

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

133

Cervantes glorifies laughter, not because comedy must serve a serious aim, such as teaching us something, but because laughter is fundamental. It allows us to go beyond our tragic condition, to understand the human condition better by recognizing that life is intrinsically funny. . . . Don Quixote celebrates imagination, commitment, and joy. He reminds us of how ambiguous reality is and how it can be subject to humorous interpretations. He thus makes us aware of certain absurdities in the life of a leader. . . [and] the comic nature of the posturing and pretention of leaders. (90–91)

Humor can also misinform and encourage bigotry, hate, and needless

denigration. Lewis (2006) rightly warns that just as is the case with raunchy

sexist jokes or mean-spirited ethnic jokes, political humor can be lethal, can

misinform, and can just as easily help us deny than cope with our societal

problems.

Thus attack humor, like negative political ads, can be divisive, yet they can also

be effective. Lewis (2006) reminds us that “At its most insidious, humor can put

us into a nonserious frame of mind about matters we urgently need to take

seriously” (205).

On the Necessity of Politics and Politicians

Laughing at politics is natural, inevitable, and usually desirable. But laughter can

also trivialize and perhaps demonize the essential enterprise of politics. And as

journalist Dionne (2004) writes: “A nation that hates politics will not long survive

as a democracy.” (3). Does political humor help us “put up” with the uglier side of

politics, or does it demean and destroy both our politics as well as our politicians,

thus preventing us from constructively engaging in the necessary and, at times,

honorable work of politics and community building?

Relentless negative ads, innuendo humor, and trash-talking pundits have

succeeded in mocking politics and politicians. A steady diet of attack humor

doubtless encourages the cynical “Don’t vote, it only encourages them” attitude.

So let us laugh at politics and politicians and salute the humorists like Molly

Ivins and Art Buchwald, but let us also respect the inevitability, necessity, and

desirability of politics and politicians. We will continue to ask of politicians to

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

134

accomplish the impossible. They, in turn, will struggle and sometimes succeed,

and we will form our judgments and predictably laugh at their failures.

Politics is a rough, tough, ceaselessly demanding profession. We force our

politicians to perpetual self-promotion and then knowingly place them in many a

no-win situation and mock them for what we often wrongly assume they can do.

What this may suggest is that we are as much the hypocrites as the politicians,

and, in the end, that may be the real joke.

Political humor can take many forms, but one of the most common—and

effective—is parody. Often seen in sketch comedy (e.g., SNL), parody involves a

comedian taking the persona of another in order to amusingly imitate or mock

that person. As communications expert Hariman (2008) writes, “parodic

techniques involve various combinations of imitation and alteration: direct

quotation, alternation of words, textual rearrangement, substitution of subjects or

characters, shifts in diction, shifts in class, shifts in magnitude, etc.” (250). In

particular, Hariman notes that “when the weight of authority is converted into an

image, resistance and other kinds of response become more available to more

people” (254). Will Ferrell mocking George W. Bush’s fumbling style and Tina

Fey ridiculing Sarah Palin are good examples of this type of humor.

Satire can also be an effective form of political humor. In satire, one takes on

the persona of another in order to exaggerate and thereby expose the absurdity

of that person. Stephen Colbert does this by “becoming” a Bill O’Reilly on his

Comedy Central show The Colbert Report. Of course, as Roth (1971) noted

more than 50 years ago, it is hard to do satire in America because reality can be

so absurd that it soon outdoes the satire one is attempting.

George W. Bush: Humor, Image, and Power

“There are two things I admire about George W. Bush: his face.” —Old recycled political joke “Madame, if I had another, do you really think that I’d be wearing this one?” —Abraham Lincoln, in answer to a woman accusing him of being two-faced (Leidner, 2015, 88)

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

135

With this brief introduction to the uses and abuses of political humor, we can now

turn to the central subject at hand: how humor was used against George W.

Bush, its impact on his public image, and the role it played in Bush’s power.

1. George W. Bush was mocked repeatedly and unmercifully in the popular

media, and virtually all the humorous parodies of President Bush stressed

his lack of intelligence, fractured syntax, bumbling and fumbling sentence

structure, and Texas cowboy image, creating a clean and simple narrative:

Bush is dumb!

One cringes with the thought that George W. Bush’s two daughters watched

Saturday Night Live. Famously portrayed as a moron, a pseudo-cowboy, a

puppet, and a daddy’s boy, other than Bill Clinton—another rich and deserving

target—“43” was, at least after 2004, relentlessly mocked, abused, and skewered

by late-night comedians and cable TV programs, as well as in the movies.

The tragic events of 9/11 rallied the media behind the president, and for about

two years or so, made humor directed at George Bush tantamount to treason.

But as the war in Iraq turned bad, and the president’s popularity dropped, he

once again became an inviting target for political humor.

Will Ferrell mocked him as a moron on Saturday Night Live (SNL), and Comedy

Central aired (before 9/11) a sitcom That’s My Bush, featuring a dim bulb of a

president modeled after Bush. Late-night comedians Jay Leno, David Letterman,

Craig Ferguson, and others regularly (as they did with other presidents) directed

their undeniable talents at the president. Oliver Stone made a feature-length film

(W., 2008) starring Josh Brolin as a daddy-obsessed failure. Comedy Central

aired an animated satire entitled Lil’ Bush (with Bush as a child, along with Lil’

Cheney, Lil’ Condi, and others), and South Park and The Simpsons regularly

featured Bush in less than a positive light (Kingsley, 2011). Political cartoonist

Garry Trudeau’s Doonesbury featured Bush as a cowboy hat atop an asterisk

(after 9/11, the cowboy hat was replaced with a Roman military helmet atop an

asterisk).

On SNL, Will Ferrell played Bush as a lovable oaf, a well-meaning fool. It was a

character the viewers liked, even if he was not admired. Did this character’s

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

136

likability—derived in part perhaps from Ferrell’s humorous but somewhat

sympathetic portrayal—help voters warm up to the real Bush? Had Ferrell

portrayed Bush as an angry, harsh, or unlikable figure, the humor might not have

worked. When Ferrell walked on camera as Bush, viewers smiled, they did not

sneer. So, did SNL swing the 2000 and/or 2004 elections to Bush?

The composite portrait of George W. Bush is one of an intellectually

challenged, immature daddy’s boy, utterly incapable of putting together a series

of coherent sentences, not to mention govern a nation.

Did this matter? While beginning his presidency with a 50% approval rating,

Bush’s public approval ratings soared after 9/11, reaching the 90% mark—the

highest ever recorded for a U.S. president—and hovering in the 80% range for

two years. Bush’s ratings began to decline steadily as the war in Iraq—along with

the justifications for that war—shattered. By 2006, Bush fell to the 40% level, and

in 2008, after the Great Recession, his approval rating fell to 22%. When he left

office, his popularity was below 20%—a record low to go along with his 2001

record high (American Presidency Project, n.d.).

By 2006, the “Bush is dumb” image prevailed. The old narrative of strength,

determination, and power gave way to a new narrative: Bush as the fumbling,

bumbling village idiot.

2. President Bush was a comedic enabler, reportedly giving humorists

ammunition that could be used against him.

George W. Bush hand-delivered all the comedic ammunition the comedy world

needed to skewer him. His “is our children learning?” bumbled syntax and

malapropisms were a comedian’s dream. He was an easy target because he

supplied a never-ending stream of bloopers nearly every time he spoke.

Although born in Connecticut to a family of old money, earning degrees from

Northeastern Ivy League universities, Bush adopted the persona of the Texas

cowboy. He developed a Texas twang, dropped the “g” at the end of most words

(e.g., “talkin’” and “thinkin’”), cultivated a walk that was more of an exaggerated

swagger, and developed a folksy style that was very appealing to his political

base. But was it the real George W. Bush? Real, cultivated, developed, or

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

137

earned, Bush became a cowboy who mangled the English language and was

easily portrayed as a caricature of himself.

3. Bush was not dumb.

George W. Bush often appeared dumb, but dumb he was not. While often

satirized as being an intellectual lightweight, Bush was by no means the oaf he

was portrayed as. While no official Bush IQ score has been released, serious

scholars have provided estimates. Bush earned a respectable 1206 on his SATs,

which roughly translates into a 120 IQ. Simonton (2006) estimated Bush’s IQ to

be 124. Additionally, the president earned a BA from Yale University and an MBA

from Harvard University.

4. The popular image of Bush as a dumb person lulled his adversaries into a

false sense that they could outfox him, allowing Bush to often outflank his

rivals.

Was George W. Bush “an Eisenhower” who exercised a “hidden hand” brand of

leadership while appearing to be a bumbler? No. Bush’s leadership—especially

post 9/11—was anything but hidden-handed. He exercised leadership with a

sledgehammer, barking, “I’m the decider.”

Was Bush “a Reagan,” called, as well as seen, by many as an amicable dunce

who nonetheless often managed to get the best of his political adversaries?

Perhaps a bit. But George W. Bush was, in the end, George W. Bush, exercising

his own brand of leadership best characterized as “damn the torpedoes, full

speed ahead.” After 9/11, he was able to easily roll over adversaries. This was

due largely to context, as 9/11 opened a door to power through which Bush was

not at all shy about marching. His adversaries—for a time at least—offered little

to no resistance as the crisis presidency of 9/11 made Bush all but untouchable.

This seeming paradox—that Bush was dumb yet so often seemed to get his

way—was a political asset for Bush. He was repeatedly “misunderestimated” (as

one “Bushism” has it) by his adversaries. This paradox also formed the core

dilemma in David Hare’s play Stuff Happens. As political scientist Altschuler

(2010) wrote:

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

138

Hare’s curiosity was piqued by the contradiction between the popular stereotype of Bush as not particularly bright and his ability to prevail over others seen as far more intelligent. “I wanted to write the story of how a supposedly stupid man completely gets his way with two supposedly clever men,” Hare explained, referring to Secretary of State Colin Powell and British Prime Minister Tony Blair, “and wins repeatedly.” (89)

This caused Hare to reassess his view of Bush, who in the play is portrayed as

“a lively and skilled manipulator who plays the role of a bumbling pseudo-Texan

but constantly achieves his desired ends” (Altschuler, 2010, 93–94). Hare was

not alone in this reassessment.

5. Clearly, President Bush was not dumb, and yet he made a host of

mistakes.

How, indeed, do we come to grips with the failure of the Bush presidency?

Having dispelled the “Bush is dumb” myth, how did the president and his team of

smart, experienced men and women blunder so badly? Tuchman (1984)

provides us with a useful approach for understanding the failures of government:

A phenomenon noticeable throughout history regardless of place or period is the pursuit by governments of policies contrary to their own interests. Mankind, it seems, makes a poorer performance of government than of almost any other human activity. In this sphere, wisdom, which may be defined as the exercise of judgment acting on experience, common sense and available information, is less operative and more frustrated than it should be. Why do holders of high office so often act contrary to the way reason points and enlightened self- interest suggests? Why does intelligent mental process seem so often not to function? (7)

Tuchman’s (1984) answer is that governments exhibit a persistent pattern of

“wooden-headedness,” defined as “assessing a situation in terms of

preconceived fixed notions while ignoring or rejecting any contrary signs. It is

acting according to wish while not allowing oneself to be deflected by the facts”

(7). Bush’s presidency seemed a close fit to Tuchman’s definition.

I would argue that four factors help us understand the failures of the Bush

presidency, and without giving precise weight to these factors, they combine to

provide a partial answer to this question.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

139

• George W. Bush was intelligent in an IQ sense, yet lacked the emotional

intelligence necessary for good judgment. He was intellectually lazy and

thus had a stunted intellectual growth. He was smart but incurious; he had

a respectable IQ but seemed not to exert himself or work to develop his

intelligence.

• Throughout his life, Bush ventured and lost, yet never seemed to feel the

sting of his failures, thus he was robbed of the lessons he might otherwise

have learned had he suffered the consequences of his mistakes. When he

was arrested on a DUI charge in 1976, he paid a small fine and the story

disappeared. When he failed in the oil business, his father’s friends bailed

him out. He never paid a price for failure, so he did not learn the valuable

lesson it might have taught him. Skating through life is not really living life—

not fully, at least. One can easily develop a sense of entitlement or idea

that this charmed life is God’s own doing and easily slip into hubris.

• Bush relied on faith over evidence, belief over reason. The story of Bush

finding God and changing his ways at 40 rings true. Yet, one can go too far

in placing it all on faith. After all, who among us can truly understand God’s

plan? No, we must do the hard work of thinking and do our best to rely on

reason in decision making. Strongly held beliefs can obscure rather than

enlighten, and Bush’s faith-based decision making was nowhere more

evident, and nowhere more damaging, then in the decisions leading to the

war in Iraq.

• Bush has a bit of a daddy complex. His father was a decorated Navy pilot

in World War II; W. had a questionable stint in the National Guard. His

father was a member and captain of the Yale baseball team that went to

the College World Series twice; W. was a cheerleader. His father was a

successful businessman; W. failed at several business ventures. In Iraq, W.

seemed determined to win or finish the job his father had—to W.—only just

begun. Living in the extended shadows of a highly accomplished father is a

challenge under any circumstance. In the harsh glare of the presidential

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

140

spotlight, it can be debilitating. George W. Bush did not seem up to the

task.

Not Funny!

“Everything human is pathetic. The secret source of Humor itself is not joy but sorrow. There is no humor in heaven.” —Mark Twain (1897/2011, 55)

The question remains: if George W. Bush was not dumb, why did he make such

monumental blunders? I refer here to (a) the response to Hurricane Katrina,

(b) the decision to go to war in Iraq, (c) the prosecution of the war in Iraq, and

(d) the collapse of the economy. The first three fiascos rest on the shoulders of

the president; the fourth involves wider blame. Regardless, why so many

blunders?

Did Bush have a dysfunctional advisory system? While he relied too heavily on

his vice president in his first six years, the people were not the tipping point

problem. Nor was the quality of his advisors who were generally qualified and

experienced.

Might the culprit be the “system,” the Madisonian construction of checks and

balances embedded into the separation of powers? While this often proves a

reliable gauge in explaining why President X failed to achieve his goals, in the

case of George W. Bush, this does not apply, as the crisis of 9/11 expanded

Bush’s power and gave him enormous—and only marginally checked—powers.

Bush had the power to get his way, and he was anything but shy about using that

power (Genovese, 2012).

Were there psychological factors at work that warped Bush’s decision making?

Was there some sort of Oedipus complex at work? Was he trying to outperform

his more successful father? While some may see an Oedipus complex at work

here—and the evidence does suggest it, it is simply too far a leap to draw this

conclusion.

Plato (380 BC/2013) argued that leaders had to go through extensive and

laborious training in order to be successful. While coming from a wealthy,

politically active family, George W. Bush had limited experience when he won the

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

141

presidency. Was that the problem? Was Bush, as his critics charged, lacking in

political skill? In many ways, Bush seemed a natural politician, comfortable

making decisions (“I’m the decider”) and willing to make political changes as he

deemed necessary. Bush was able to gain key legislative victories before 9/11 on

education reform and tax cuts, and he even reached across partisan divides to

promote his legislative agenda (see Lammers, Genovese, & Belt, 2014).

Machiavelli (1532/2011) warned leaders that they must not ignore the lessons

of the past, and to guide their actions by the lives of the great leaders of the past.

Did Bush ignore this advice? While he did not demonstrate a keen knowledge of

the past, Bush (2010) went to great lengths to let us know that he was a

voracious reader, claiming that he and advisor Karl Rove “squared off in a book

reading contest” (52). He also once noted that his favorite philosopher was Jesus

Christ, and that his model was not his father, but Ronald Reagan. Yet, it is hard

to see any of these influences in his behavior as president. He more often

ignored the lessons of the past, preferring an ad hoc, fly-by-the-seat-of-your-

pants style of leadership.

Abbott (2013) argues that we can understand and evaluate the “bad

presidents” by applying standards established by Shakespeare. In his historical

plays, Shakespeare presents three “categories of badness”: badness as

ineptness, badness as ruthlessness, and badness as impotence (201). Abbott

suggests that given the Bush response to Katrina, the road leading to the

invasion of Iraq, and the inept prosecution of the war, ineptness best

characterizes the Bush presidency.

As the rationale for invading Iraq fell apart, Bush was left with little to do but

jump from reason to reason: WMDs, Hussein linked to 9/11, bringing democracy

to the Middle East. Had he “pre-decided,” force feeding the data into his

preconceived conclusions? This disturbing possibility raises several questions

about the “ineptness” of Bush. This is especially alarming when one compares

the presidential decision making of the father to the hasty and ill-conceived

decision making of the son. While there are many causes of presidential failure

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

142

according to Pious (2008), in this case, the failure squarely points to Bush the

“decider.”

How, in the end, are we to judge the presidency of George W. Bush? As

Sherlock Holmes would say, “eliminate all the other factors and the one which

remains must be the truth” (Doyle, 1890). What remains?

Three factors stand out when we are explaining the failures of the Bush

presidency:

• Bush was incurious and intellectually lazy. He was not “dumb” as the late-

night narrative suggested; he merely did not fully develop or use his

intellectual and cognitive tools.

• The previous factor led Bush to exhibit a careless ineptitude seen in his

responses to Katrina and the prosecution of the war in Iraq.

• Bush was a faith-based, not an evidence-based, decision maker. Compare

his father’s decisions in the first Gulf War (evidence and reason based) to

those of George W. Bush.

Bush’s sin was not that he was dumb, but, for worse, that he was lazy and ill

prepared. His wasted youth—so unlike the wild youth of Shakespeare’s Henry V,

who used his experiences to grow—did not prepare him for the heavy lifting

required of the president. He was a perpetual child who, in confronting the

pressures of 9/11, could not fully rise to the occasion because he had so very far

to go.

Conclusion

Humor did not bring George W. Bush down. George W. Bush brought George W.

Bush down. While riding high at 90% approval with nearly limitless power,

comedy might have (should have?) taken the president down a notch or two. But

it did not, and perhaps could not. The public needed a Superman in the White

House, and they suspended disbelief, eschewed humor, and gave of themselves

to the savior for whom they hungered.

Comedy can puncture, perhaps even wound, but even when speaking the truth,

it is no match for a popular president, a blindly supportive public, and a helpless

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

143

opposition and a determination to be a war president. That is real power, and

comedy is not even a pretender.

Two wars and an economic recession brought down George W. Bush. In the

end, when his hapless image caught up with him and the public embraced a

“Bush is dumb” narrative, it was far too little and far too late. Bush’s failures made

that narrative believable, even necessary.

Did the skewering of George W. Bush cause his decline, or did it reflect his

decline? Certainly, Bush got a free pass from comedians after 9/11, but that free

pass could last only for so long. By 2003, the comedy directed at Bush got

sharper and more frequent. As his policies met with a certain amount of failure,

the Bush parodies may have marginally accelerated this swift and drastic decline.

Of course, the consequences of the Bush presidency are anything but funny.

Be it the two wars, an economic meltdown, the narrowing of constitutional rights,

the “outing” of CIA official Valerie Plame, or the misleading of the public about

Iraq’s alleged weapons of mass destruction, the Bush years proved as damaging

for the nation as they were beneficial to our nation’s comedians. Amid such

debilitating events, humor can be a healthy and cleansing antidote to the harsh

reality on the ground.

Humor may soften the blow, but does it also distract? Does it make the

intolerable tolerable? Does it give us comfort when events should make us

uncomfortable? Is any political joke a mini-rebellion, or, to paraphrase Marx, is

humor the opiate of the masses? Is humor truly a politician’s best friend?

References

Abbott, P. (2013). Bad presidents: Failure in the White House. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, pg. 201.

Adams, R. (2005). Tiny revolutions in Russia: Twentieth century Soviet and Russian history in anecdotes and jokes. New York, NY: Routledge.

Altschuler, B. (2010). Acting presidents: 100 years of plays about the presidency. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

144

American Presidency Project. (n.d.). Presidential job approval: F. Roosevelt (1941)–Obama. University of California–Santa Barbara. Retrieved from http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data/popularity.php

Bush, G. W. (2010). Decision points. New York, NY: Crown, 2010.

Carr, J., & Greeves, L. (2006). Only joking: What's so funny about making people laugh? New York, NY: Gotham.

Cronin, T. E. (2004, November 28). “I am a politician”: I am the lifeblood of democracy. The Seattle Times. Retrieved from http://old.seattletimes.com/html/opinion/2002101979_cronin28.html

Cronin, T. E. (2014). Laughing at leaders, laughing at politicians. Leadership and Humanities, 2(1), 27–43.

Dionne, E. J., Jr. (2004). Why Americans hate politics. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Dole, R. J. (2000). Great political wit: Laughing (almost) all the way to the White House. Louisville, KY: Broadway Press.

Doyle, A. C. (1890). The sign of the four. London, United Kingdom: Spencer Blackett.

Freud, S. (1928). Humour. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 9, 1–6.

Gardner, G. (1989). The mocking of the president: A history of campaign humor from Ike to Ronnie. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Genovese, M. A. (2012). A presidential nation: Causes, consequences, and cures. New York, NY: Westview Press.

Genovese, M. A. (2014). Building tomorrow's leaders today: On becoming a polymath leader. New York, NY: Routledge.

Hariman, R. (2008). Political parody and public culture. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 94(3), 247–272.

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

145

Kingsley, M. (2011). Oliver Stone’s improbable W. In I. W. Morgan (Ed.), Presidents in the movies: American history and politics on screen (pp. 177– 191). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Klein, J. (2007). Politics lost: From RFK to W: How politicians have become less courageous and more interested in keeping power than in doing what’s right for America. New York, NY: Broadway.

Lammers, W. W., Genovese, M. A., & Belt, T. (2014). The presidency and domestic policy: Comparing leadership styles, FDR to Obama. Boulder, CO: Paladin.

Leidner, G. (2015). Lincoln’s gift: How humor shaped Lincoln’s life and legacy. Naperville, IL: Cumberland House.

Lewis, P. (2006). Cracking up: American humor in a time of conflict. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Machiavelli, N. (2011). The prince. New York, NY: Simon & Brown. (Original work published 1532)

March, J. G., & Weil, T. (2005). On leadership. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

McDonald, D. (1971, November 7). Our gang [Review of Our gang (Starring Tricky and his friends), by Philip Roth]. The New York Times, p. 1.

Oz, A. (2006). How to cure a fanatic. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Pious, R. M. (2008). Why presidents fail: White House decision making from Eisenhower to Bush II. London, United Kingdom: Rowman & Littlefield.

Plato. (2013). The republic. New York, NY: Senior & Brown. (Original work published circa 380 BC.)

Robinson, M. J., & Sheehan, M. A. (1983). Over the wire and on TV: CBS and UPI in campaign ’80. New York, NY: Russell Sage/Basic Books.

Rose, A. (2001, December 1). When politics is a laughing matter. Policy Review, 110(2001/2002), 50–71. Retrieved from http://www.hoover.org/research/when-politics-laughing-matter

International Leadership Journal Summer 2015

146

Simonton, D. K. (2006, August). President IQ, openness, intellectual brilliance, and leadership: Estimates and correlations for 42 U.S. chief executives. Political Psychology, 27(4), 511–526.

Tuchman, B. (1984). The march of folly: From Troy to Vietnam. New York, NY: Ballantine.

Twain, M. (2011). Following the equator: A journey around the world. Lexington, KY: Forgotten Books. (Original work published 1897.)

Michael A. Genovese, PhD, currently holds the Loyola Chair of Leadership Studies, is a professor of political science, and the director of the Institute for Leadership Studies at Loyola Marymount University. In 2006, he was made a fellow at Queens College, Oxford University. In 2015, he was named President of the World Policy Institute. Dr. Genovese has written over 40 books, including Leadership Matters and The Paradoxes of the American Presidency, both with Thomas E. Cronin. He has won over a dozen university and national teaching awards, including the Fritz B. Burns Distinguished Teaching Award (1995), and the Rains Excellence in Research Award (2011). Dr. Genovese frequently appears as a commentator on local and national television. He is also associate editor of White House Studies, is on the editorial boards of Rhetoric & Public Affairs and the International Leadership Journal, has lectured for the U.S. Embassy abroad, and is editor of Palgrave Macmillan Publishing’s “The Evolving American Presidency” book series. Dr. Genovese has been The Washington Center’s scholar-in-residence at three Democratic National Conventions and the 2008 presidential inauguration and served as scholar-in- residence at the 2012 Republican National Convention. He can be reached at [email protected].