ANTHROPOLOGY Los Angeles Zoo Visit or Online Los Angeles Zoo Research

Monkeys

• 85% of all primates (195 species) • Two groups divided geographically and by

several million years of evolutionary history: – New world (Platyrrhine) – Old World (Catarrhine)

Nose Types

Platyrrhine-New World Catarrhine-Old World

Distribution of New World Monkeys

New World Monkeys (platyrrhine, flat-nosed)

• Approx. 70 species found in a wide range of arboreal environments

• Outward facing noses • Size, diet and ecological adaptation vary • Some possess prehensile tails • All diurnal, except owl monkey • Quadrupedal, except spider monkeys are semibrachiators • Most live in mixed-sex groups of all ages

New World Monkeys

• Exhibit a wide range of size, diet and ecological adaptation.

• Almost exclusively arboreal. • Broad noses with outward facing nostrils. • Three families:

– Callitrichidae (marmosets and tamarins) – Atelidae – Cebidae (all others)

Prehensile Tails

Atelines, such as spider monkeys, are

the only primates with a fully

prehensile tail. The tail is very muscular, and its undersurface has dermal ridges,

like fingertips and toe prints, that improve

the tails grip.

Capuchin

Prince Bernhard’s titi monkey (discovered in 2002)

Female muriqui with infant

Squirrel monkeys

white-faced capuchins

male uakari

golden lion tamarins

howler monkeys

Old World Monkeys (catarrhine, downward facing nose) Habitat ranges from tropical jungle to semiarid desert to seasonally covered snow areas.

Old World Monkeys

• More morphological and behavioral diversity than New World Monkeys.

• The most widely distributed of all living primates (except for humans).

• Most are. quadrupedal and primarily arboreal • One recognized taxonomic family:

Cercopithecidae.

Old World Monkeys cont. All Old World monkeys are placed in one taxonomic family, Cercopithecidae:

1. Cercopithecines • More omnivorous with cheek pouches, arboreal, mostly

found in Africa 2. Colobines

• Mainly eat leaves

•Most are quadrupedal and primarily arboreal •Display ischial callosities, hardened skin on rear •Display sexual dimorphism

Ischial Callosities-Raised White Callused Discs used to prevent blood vessel shut down in lower limbs.

The proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatis) of Borneo which, because of its long pink nose and silly face, the Indonesians

call ‘Belanda’-meaning ‘whiteman’

Sykes Monkey (Sub-Saharan Africa)

Savanna Baboons (Sub-Saharan Africa)

Hamadryas baboons

Black-and-white colobus monkeys (Sub-Saharan Africa)

Male proboscis monkey (South East Asia, China, and Japan)

Hominoids (Apes and Humans)

Hominoidea Designation for the super family of anthropoids that includes apes and humans.

Differ from Monkeys in several ways: • Larger body size (except for gibbons and

siamangs). • Absence of a tail. • Shortened trunk. • Differences in position and musculature of the

shoulder joint.

What Distinguishes Apes and Humans from Monkeys?

Lower back shorter and more stable More complex brain and cognitive capabilities More complex behavior Increased period of infant development and dependency More socialized

Hominoids have the most flexible shoulder joints of all primates.

Gibbons and Siamangs

Hylobatidae-Gibbons & Siamangs

• “Lesser apes” • Most agile of the primates and most spectacular

brachiators of the mammals. • brachiation

Form of locomotion in which the body is suspended beneath the hands and support is alternated from one forelimb to the other; arm swinging.

• Have a monogamous mating pattern-they mate for life with the same individual.

• Gibbons live in small family groups in tropical forests of Southeast Asia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Mentawi Islands.

• The largest of the gibbons, the siamang, has a naked throat sac which can be inflated to the size of its head.

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Skeleton of a brachiator (gibbon)

Catarrhine Evolution

White-Handed Gibbon

• White handed gibbons have a white face ring. White hands and feet. The coat color varies.

• The male defends his territory from other males and the female keeps away other females.

• Males and female groom each other 15 minutes per day.

• They are located in China, Thailand, Laos, Burma, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.

• Their vocalization is that the female starts the great call, and the male begins as she finishes. The great call is given at 8:16 am on average.

• Exhibit sexual dicromatism- Males are brunets and the females are blondes.

Kloss’s Gibbon

• All Kloss’s Gibbon’s are Black. • They are active longer each day and have a

greater day range. • Their call is said to be different from other

gibbons. The pair does not duet. The male usually sings 1 hr before dawn and the female sings 20 min about 1 hr after dawn. They do not sing everyday or in the rain.

• They do not sleep in the same tree 2 nights in a row, to avoid predators.

Siamang • The Siamang's have a throat sac that they

inflate when they make their great call. The male screams his part out of the call while the female produces a series of barks.

• They mostly feed in the midcanopy but also emergent trees and understory. The female leads the group and eats faster and longer than the male.

• The male Siamang carries the infant after it is 8 months old and returns it to the female to nurse and sleep.

• They are found in Sumatra (Indonesia), Malay Peninsula.

Gibbons and Siamangs • Found in the tropical areas of southeast Asia.

• Adaptations for brachiation may be related to feeding while hanging from branches.

• Diet is largely fruit, leaves, flowers, and insects.

• Basic social unit is a monogamous pair and their offspring.

• Males and females delineate their territories with whoops and “songs”.

Lar gibbons, Hylobates lar

Agile gibbon, Hylobates agilis

Siamang, Symphalangus syndactylus

Orangutan

• Three species-Pongo pygmaeus of Borneo (hair is orange, brown or maroon, and coarse) and Pongo abelii (pale red coat, longer hair and longer face) of Sumatra. Recently a third species was added: Pongo tapanuliensis in Northern Sumatra.

• Primarily frugivorous • The male is solitary and his territory overlaps the territories of

several separate females. Two adult females occasionally travel together for up to 3 days.

• Marked sexual dimorphism. – sexual dimorphism

Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species.

Males of each orangutan species (from left to right): Bornean, Sumatran, Tapanuli Tapanuli orangutans resemble Sumatran orangutans more than Bornean orangutans in body build and fur color. However, they have frizzier hair, smaller heads, and flatter faces. Dominant male Tapanuli orangutans have prominent moustaches and large flat cheek pads, known as flanges, covered in downy hair. Both male and female Tapanuli orangutans have beards but with Bornean orangutans, only the males do

Catarrhine Evolution

Borneo Orangutan • Borneo Orangutans have coarse, long hair

that varies from orange to brown. • Males have large throat pouch. • The male’s large cheek pads is influenced

by social factors. A subordinate males housed with a dominant adult male may not develop cheek pads until 2 males are separated.

• The males great call can be heard up to 1km (328ft) away and tells others his location.

• A new nest is done every night.

Sumatran Orangutan • Recent genetic evidence suggests that

this is a full species that diverged 1.5 million years ago.

• Sumatran Orangutans are thinner than Borneo orangutans.

• Males are solitary and females travel with their offspring.

• They usually eat fruit, leaves, bark, flowers and animal prey, including small mammals and termites.

• The male long call, a long series of reverberating grunts, carried over 1km (3281ft) through the forest to signal the resident male’s location.

• They are found in Sumatra (Indonesia).

The Orang-utans, the people of the forest, still found in the jungles of Borneo and Sumatra.

Quadrumanual Locomotion

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Gorillas

• Largest of all living primates. • Confined to forested areas of western and eastern

equatorial Africa. • Marked sexual dimorphism • Almost exclusively vegetarian. • Shy and gentle creatures. • Live in small groups. • Practice dominant one male grouping

Catarrhine Evolution

Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla)

• Three separate subspecies: – Gorilla gorilla gorilla-Western lowland gorilla Top of head is brown and rest of body brown gray. – Gorilla gorilla beringei-Mountain gorilla Longer and blacker hair and more compressed body – Gorilla gorilla graueri-Eastern Lowland Gorilla Have longer face and broader chest. Hair is dark

black. Subspecies-variant due to geographic variation

Western Lowland Gorilla • The top of the western lowland gorillas

head is brown and the rest of the body is brown gray.

• Social structure: 1 male-multifemale groups. Large groups may have 2 silverback males with several females and their offspring.

• Behavior: Arboreal climbing. Western lowland gorillas climb more than mountain gorillas. The chest beating display of these lowland gorillas is a threat display that may include hooting and throwing of vegetation. Males, spend more time on the ground eating more herbs in the dry season. Females, feed higher in the trees and eat more leaves than males.

• Sleeping: gorillas make a new nest each night.

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Gorilla gorilla gorilla (Lowland Male)

G. g. gorilla (lowland female)

G.g. beringei (Mountain Male)

G.g. beringei (Mountain female)

Mountain Gorilla

• This silverback is taking edible outer layer off a stem.

• Gorillas eat parts of 142 plant species, including wild celery, thistles, nettles, and bamboo, but only 3 types of fruit.

• These Gorillas spend 25% of the day eating and rest during midday.

• The belch vocalization is a contact call and a sign of contentment made while foraging.

• Nests are built on the ground, using non food plants.

• They are found in Uganda, Rwanda and Zaire.

Mountain Gorilla

• This silverback male named Rugboo, the leader of one of the groups habituated for tourism.

• Mountain Gorillas have longer hair than other Gorillas.

• They are black, except for the adult male, which has a silvery white back and gray hips.

• The silver black males is dominant to all other members and leads the direction of the travel.

• Males leave at age 11 and may travel alone or with other males for 2-5 yrs.

Eastern Lowland Gorilla • They have larger face and broader chest

than western lowland gorillas. They are black except for the adult male which has a silvery saddle shaped back.

• Eastern lowland gorillas have dietary traditions: groups so not eat the same foods as other groups if they have not been brought up on those foods from an early age.

• During October and November these Gorillas occupy bamboo forest, digging 200mm (8in) holes in the ground to reach young bamboo.shoots.

• New nest are made on the ground each night.

Catarrhine Evolution

Chimpanzees-Pan troglodytes

• Structurally similar to gorillas. • Chimpanzees spend more time in the trees. • Highly excitable, active and noisy. • Most varied diet of non human primates, including

occasional small mammals. • Live in large communities of as many as 50

individuals. • Have multi-male societies. • Have ranked societies.

Catarrhine Evolution

Perineum Swelling

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Chimpanzee • Chimpanzees are black, but some old

individuals have a gray back. Both genders have short white beard.

• Chimpanzees use some plants for what has been described as medicinal purposes.

• Females live a more solitary life, spending 65% of their time with their offspring.

• Males have a stable dominance hierarchy and are dominant over females.

• It has been hypothesized that chimpanzees in different areas have different cultural traditions that are passed on from one generation to the next.

Chimpanzee • A Western chimpanzee cracks palm nuts

with a stone hammer on a rock anvil. • Chimpanzees modify and use objects in

their environment as tools for termite fishing, ant dipping, weapons, ect.

• They are found in Guinea to Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Congo Republic, Central African Republic, Zaire, Uganda, Tanzania.

• Their great call is graded 34, from soft grunts, whimpers, and lip smacks to barks.

• Using a grass as a tool, this female is extracting from a mound.

Chimpanzee Predators

Chimpanzees are omnivorous, consuming a wide variety of foods, including meat from

various mammals.

Chimpanzee Spears

A chimpanzee made this spear from a tree branch, sharpening one end with

its teeth.

Chimpanzees who make such spears use them to thrust into the

hollows of trees and kill bushbabies. Here, an adolescent

female holds a dead bushbaby. This method is primates’ first use of tools to hunt other mammals.

Bonobo or Pygmy Chimpanzee-Pan paniscus

• They are found in the southern part of Zaire, south of the Zaire River.

• Adapted to the transitional zone between forest and savanna.

• Bonobos have a more slender (linear) body build than chimpanzees.

• The face is black from birth. A white tail tuft is seen in adults and infants.

• Bonobos are less aggressive and reconcile more often than chimpanzees.

• They use their hands to dig for earthworms along stream banks and for truffles in secondary forest.

• They build a new nest in a tree every night.

Bonobo or Pygmy Chimpanzee • Live in fluid communities, but

bonobo society is centered on male- female bonds (rather than the close male-male bonds observed in chimpanzees).

• Unlike all other nonhuman primates, bonobos copulate throughout the female’s estrous cycle.

• They often copulate face to face-a trait only seen in humans, manatees, whales/dolphins.

Miocene Fossil Hominoids (23-5 m.y.a.)

• During this era, a diverse group of hominoids emerged in Africa, Asia and Europe.

Four Points: • They were widespread geographically. • They were numerous. • Known remains date between 23 and 6 m.y.a. • They are poorly understood.

Miocene Hominoid Geographical Groupings

• African forms (23-14 m.y.a.) - generalized, primitive hominids from western Kenya.

• European forms (13-11 m.y.a.) - several researchers suggest an evolutionary link with the African ape/hominid group.

• Asian forms (16-7 m.y.a.) - largest and most varied group geographically.

Miocene Hominoids: Some Conclusions

• They are hominoids - more closely related to the ape-human lineage than to Old World monkeys.

• They are mostly large bodied hominoids. • Most of the forms discovered are probably

not ancestors to any living form.

Miocene Hominoids: Some Conclusions

• One form shows facial features similar to the modern Orangutan, suggesting an evolutionary link.

• There are no definite hominids yet discerned from the Miocene-dated locale.

Humans

• The only living representative of the family Hominidae.

• Adapted to digest an extremely wide assortment of foods.

• Completely dependent on culture. • Uniquely disposed to spoken language. • Habitual bipedal locomotion.

Endangered Primates

Three reasons: • Habitat destruction. • Hunting for food. • Live capture of export or local trade.

Primates at the Los Angeles Zoo- OLD WORLD AFRICA 4/19

• Lowland gorilla- Gorilla gorilla gorilla • Chimpanzee-Pan troglodytes • Coquerel’s Sifaka-Propitecus coquereli • Mustached Guenon- Cercopithecus bigotes • Francois langur-Trachypithecus francoisi • Ring-Tailed Lemur- Lemur catta • Blue Eyed Lemur • Red-crowned Mangabey- Cercocebus torquatus • Kikuyu colobus monkey- Colobus guereza • Mandril-Mandrillus sphinx

Primates at the Los Angeles Zoo-Old World Asia 4/19

• Siamang-Hylobates syndactylus • Golden Cheek Gibbon • Orangutan-Pongo pygmaeus

Primates at the Los Angeles Zoo-New World (Central & South America) 4/19

Cotton top tamarin- Saguinus oedipus •White faced saki-Pithecia pithecia •Squirrel Monkey-Saimiri sciureus •Crested Capuchin monkey-Capuchino crestado •Black-handed spider monkey-Ateles geoffroyi •Black Howler-Alouatta caraya •Golden Lion Tamarin-by aviary

The End

Lemurs and lorises are the most “primitive”, or close to earlier mammalian ancestors. They rely on olfaction, as evidenced by moist, fleshy pad, or rhinarium.

Lemurs and Lorises (sub-order, strepsirhini) Primates

Strepsirhini Haplorhini (all lemurs and lorises)

• Lemurs are found only on the island of Madagascar and adjacent islands off the east coast of Africa

• Size ranges from 5” to 2-3’

• Nocturnal or diurnal

• Arboreal or terrestrial

• Quadrupeds, leapers, climbers, and clingers

• Groups of 25 to solitary living

• Lemurs have nails like all primates and a “dental comb.”

Lemurs

Ring-tail lemur tooth comb

Lemurs

The ring-tailed lemur Lemur catta is a large strepsirhini primate and the most recognized lemur due to its long, black and white ringed tail…

Orangutans Pogo pygmaeus • Found in heavily forested areas of

Borneo and Sumatra. • Almost completely arboreal. • males = 200 lbs, females = 100 lbs • Pronounced sexual dimorphism. • Solitary • Principally frugivorous (feed-eating).

African Apes

Gorillas, Gorilla gorilla

• Largest of the living primates. • Confined to forested regions of central Africa. • Males can weigh up to 400 pounds, females 200

pounds. • Primarily terrestrial, using a posture called

“knuckle –walking”. • Groups consist of one large silverback male, a few

adult females, and their subadult offspring.

Gorillas, Gorilla gorilla Lowland Gorillas.

Male Female with infant

Mountain Gorillas (Silverback Gorillas)

Female. Male.

Mountain Gorillas (Silverback Gorillas)

Mountain Gorillas (Silverback Gorillas)

Mountain Gorillas (Silverback Gorillas)

Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes

• Found in equatorial Africa. • Anatomically similar to gorillas particularly in

limb proportions and upper-body shape. • Locomotion includes knuckle-walking on the

ground and brachiation in the trees. • Eat a variety of plant and animal foods. • Large communities of as many as 50 individuals.

Bonobos, Pan paniscus

• Only found in an area south of the Zaire river. • Population is believed to only number a few

thousand individuals. • Exploit the same foods as chimps, including

occasional small mammals. • Male-female bonds constitute the societal core. • Sexuality includes frequent copulations throughout

the female's estrous cycle.

Chimpanzees and Bonobos

Female bonobos with young. Chimpanzees, male, female, and infant (Not necessarily a nuclear family. Nuclear families are rare.)

Chimpanzees and Bonobos

Chimpanzees and Bonobos

Chimpanzees and Bonobos

Humans Homo sapiens • The only living species in the family

Hominidae. • Human teeth are typical primate

teeth (heterodont). • Dependence on vision for

orientation to the world • Flexible limbs and grasping hands • Omnivorous diet • Cognitive abilities are the result of

dramatic increases in brain size. • Bipedal

Endangered Primates • Over half of all living primates are endangered, many

face immediate extinction. Three reasons: – Habitat destruction – Hunting for food – Live capture for export or local trade

Species/Subspecies Common Name

Location Estimated Size of Remaining Population

Barbary Macaque North Africa 23,000

Tana River Mangabey Tana River, Kenya 800 – 1,100

Drill Cameroon, Bioko ?

Preuss’ guenon Cameroon, Bioko ?

Preuss’ Red Colobus Cameroon 8,000

Iana River Red Colobus Iana River, Kenya

200-300

Mountain Gorilla Virunga Volcanoes and Impenetrable Forest 550-650

Hunting of Primates • In West Africa the most serious

problem is hunting to feed the growing human population.

• Estimated that thousands of primates, are killed and sold for meat every year.

• Primates are also killed for commercial products.

(a) Red-eared guenons (with red tails) and Preuss’ guenons for sale in a bushmeat market, Malabo, Equatorial Guinea.

(b) Body parts, mostly from various monkey species, for sale in a West African market.

Congolese villagers carrying the body of the silverback gorilla shot and killed in the July 2007 attack. His body was buried with the other members of his group who were also killed.

Click and visit Wildlife Direct, established by Richard Leakey and Emmanuel de Mérode http://wildlifedirect.org/

Orphaned Bonobo Infants Cared for at a Bonobo Sanctuary. Click to visit Bonobo Conservation Initiative http://www.bonobo.org/

• primitive Referring to a trait or combination of traits present in an ancestral form.

• stereoscopic vision Condition where visual images are superimposed on one another. Provides for depth perception, or the perception of the external environment in three dimensions.

• adaptive niche Entire way of life of an organism: where it lives, what it eats, how it gets food, how it avoids predators, etc.

• .

• brachiation Form of locomotion in which the body is suspended beneath the hands and support is alternated from one forelimb to the other; arm swinging.

•

• estrus Period of sexual receptivity in female mammals correlated with ovulation.

• frugivorous Having a diet composed primarily of fruit.

Dental Formulae

Skeleton of a terrestrial quadruped

Skeleton of an arboreal New World Monkey (bearded saki)

Skeleton of a vertical clinger and leaper (indri)