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HS190 Sociological and Psychological Frameworks

DOMESTIC ABUSE

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DEFINITION AND TYPES OF DOMESTIC ABUSE • Women’s Aid (2020) defines domestic abuse ‘as an incident

or pattern of incidents of controlling, coercive, threatening, degrading and violent behaviour, including sexual violence, in the majority of cases it is experienced by women and is perpetrated by men’.

• The government’s definition of domestic violence and abuse is ‘any incident or pattern of incidents of controlling, coercive, threatening behaviour, violence or abuse between those aged 16 or over who are or have been intimate partners or family members regardless of gender or sexuality. The abuse can encompass, but it is not limited to psychological , physical, sexual, financial, emotional’ (Home Office, 2012).

• Some forms of domestic abuse are ‘psychological, emotional, physical, sexual or financial’ (Home Office, 2021).

• The terms ‘domestic abuse and domestic violence’ may be used ‘interchangeably’ throughout the slides.

Home Office, 2020

STATISTICS OF DOMESTIC ABUSE IN THE UK

• According to Office for National Statistics (ONS), (2020) 2.3 million adults aged between 16-74 years experienced abuse last year with the majority being women at 1.6 million and 757,000 men were abused by women.

• According to Agerholm and Parry (2020), there was a 25% rise in calls to the NSPCC concerning children witnessing domestic abuse in the year ending 2019 and that children were at ‘huge risk of harm’.

• Unfortunately, every week two women die in the UK from domestic abuse (ONS, 2019).

GOV.UK, 2021

IMPACT OF DOMESTIC ABUSE ON THE VICTIM, FAMILY AND THE GOVERNMENT

• Domestic abuse has a tremendous impact on overall wellbeing with long-lasting health consequences such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), (NHS, 2018). • Due to accumulative stress over time the survivors tend to develop unhealthy coping

mechanisms such as alcohol and drug abuse (Women’s Aid, 2020). • Reports suggest that 36% of women who have been severe abused physically or sexually have

attempted suicide (Women’s Aid, 2020). • Bartley (2012, cited in Backwith, 2015) reiterate how domestic abuse can affect the emotional

behaviour of children resulting in adverse childhood experiences which then leads to relationship problems hence increasing the risk of children becoming abusers in adulthood. • The economic and social cost in ‘England and Wales for victims of domestic abuse was almost

£66 billion in the year ending 2017. The framework cost comprises three distinct: Anticipation (costs on protection and preventative ); Consequence (cost on physical and emotional harms, lost output, health, property damage and victim services); Response (cost on police, legal cost, criminal justice system, civil legal system, multi-agency risk assessment conferences’ (Home Office, 2019).

SOCIAL WORK AND DOMESTIC ABUSE

• During this year’s social work month, BASW England launched Domestic Abuse Guidance for social workers with inputs from Women’s Aid, Safe and Together Model, Ann Craft Trust, and domestic abuse survivor (BASW, 2021).

• NICE guideline on ‘recognising and responding to domestic violence and abuse’ also includes in their quality statement that frontline staff must be aware of indicators of domestic abuse in order to help start a conversation with victims in a safest and private way possible (NICE, 2016).

• NICE multi-agency working guidelines highlight the importance of putting clear protocols for sharing information both within and across agencies about people who are vulnerable to abuse and perpetrators of abuse and making sure that confidentiality around information sharing is secure (NICE, 2014).

• However, Mullender (2009) critically points out that even though domestic violence is endemic right across society social work has been slow in legitimising domestic violence as a ‘statutory responsibility’ but rather was more on child protection whilst blaming women for their attitude.

THEORIES OF INTEREST RELEVANT TO DOMESTIC ABUSE :

FEMINIST AND SOCIAL LEARNING. ●Now, feminism is well understood when these terms are distinguished. According to Sharf (2012, cited in Teater, 2014), sex is used to refer to the biological differences between females and males such as genitalia and genetic differences, something that is assigned at birth. While Valentich (2011, cited in Teater, 2014) describes gender as a social construct relating to beliefs, thoughts , attitudes, roles attributes based on labels of masculinity and femininity in society which varies from cultures and across time.

●Maclean and Harrison (2015) point out that there is no one ‘Feminist Theory’, rather a range of perspectives. However, the theory principles attempts to describe and address gender roles differences, inequalities and ethical issues. For example, in the nineteenth-century women fought and won the right to vote.

Herold (2019)

FEMINIST THEORY LINK TO DOMESTIC ABUSE

• Feminist perspective view domestic abuse as an indication of the oppression that women face in society and gender inequality. And feminism has successfully highlighted the magnitude of domestic violence (Maclean and Harrison, 2015).

• Feminist view domestic abuse as a result of male supremacy over women and predominantly male becoming a perpetrator while female as victims (Teater, 2014).

• Though there has been some progress in areas like voting rights, equal access to education, the struggles for equality and against oppression, violence and abuse are still going on (Council of Europe Portal, 2021).

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF FEMINIST THEORY

STRENGTHS ●According to Valentich (2011, cited in Teater, 2014), feminist theory is; - ‘Anti-oppressive in nature’, meaning feminist social work has a commitment to social change by challenging

inequalities and power imbalance so that both male and female can have access to equal opportunity. - This theory can be applied in combination with other theories such as the strength-based approach.

●Sharf (2012, cited in Teater, 2014) emphasises that the theory is empowering to women in a gender-oppressed environment resulting in women accepting who they are and reaching their potential rather than someone defining them.

WEAKNESSES

●Due to various approaches within feminism, it is fair to say that these approaches can be in conflict with each other and lose focus on the values and goals (Teater, 2014). For example, radical feminists emphasis is on consciousness-raising as a way of freeing women from their ‘inner’ oppression whilst liberal feminist believe in the process of political activism and legal or policy reform (Teater, 2014). ●In terms of feminist social work practice, ethical and cultural understanding must be thought of especially when practising in non-European countries, due to cultural diversity (Valentich, 2011 cited in Teater, 2015).

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY • Social learning theory was developed by

psychologist Bandura, and it is concerned with how people learn and behave when they observe others (Salkind, 2004).

• Bandura considers how environmental and personal factors (cognitive, affective and biological events) interact to influence human learning and behaviour. The emphasis is on environment and reinforcement in learning (Salkind, 2004).

• Bandura believes that ‘observational learning’ can only take place when ‘cognitive processes’ intervene in the learning process. And these mediational processes are; attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation (Salkind, 2004).

Pformacademy (2013)

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY LINK TO DOMESTIC ABUSE

Bandura (1977, cited in Malim and Birch, 1998), illustration of Bobo doll experiment believes that children’s behaviour and learning can be influenced by models in their lives such as parents ,peers, characters on TV which provide a source of vicarious reinforcement and children encode and imitate their behaviour. Learning takes place after observing others.

●Social learning theory echoed by the fact that people learn behaviour by observing their models. Since behaviour can be learned and relearned, in domestic abuse situations removing a child/ person from abusive behaviour by bringing them into a healthy environment that teaches new behaviours such as group therapy, positive role models can promote self-efficacy and may help prevent intergenerational abuse transmission (Salkind, 2004).

Rathbone (no date)

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF SOCIAL LEARNING

STRENGTHS ●Social learning theory is able to explain that children can imitate aggression, this is shown in the Bandura Bobo doll experiment (1977, cited in Malim and Birch, 1998). Therefore, in terms of domestic abuse, the theory can help explain that exposure to violence in childhood can lead to the negative outcome of behaviour in future relationships. ●Evidence has shown that abused children tend to become abusers themselves later in future relationships (Moorhead, 2013). Bearing in mind that experiencing abuse in childhood is not causal to abusive behaviour. ●According to Phillips (1986, cited in Cardwell and Flanagan, 2012), daily murder rates in America almost always increased in the weeks following a major televised boxing match, suggesting that people were observing and imitating the aggressive behaviour they watched proving that social theory applies to adults as well.

WEAKNESSES ●This theory does not explain why other individuals who watch violent programmes don’t imitate behaviour (Malim and Birch, 1998). ●The theory does not consider the biological factors that there are some individual who are genetically predisposed to committing violence (Hogenboom, 2014). Nonetheless, genetic predisposition is not a licence to committing violence because we all have free will to chose violent or nonviolent acts. ●There are concerns of ethical issues like exposing young children to violence which is a limitation (Malim and Birch, 1998).

WHAT WE CAN DO ABOUT DOMESTIC ABUSE

• It is very disturbing to see that one in three women globally are being abused and that in this country there is an increase of 9% in domestic abuse-related crimes and violence against women (ONS, 2020) .

• Abuse seems to thrive in silence and isolation therefore it is crucial as individuals to engage in conversation with those people that tend to isolate themselves and direct them to have more group and support networks without discrimination.

• Getting acquainted with the Domestic Abuse Act 2021 which ‘provides further protections’ to victims and ‘strengthen measures to tackle perpetrators, will help us broaden our knowledge in this area (Home Office, 2021).

• There is hope because many charities, society and our government recognise domestic violence and they are campaigning to help victims and I believe that these efforts will continue.

• The government #YOUARENOTALONE campaign which I think is very crucial in raising awareness that despite the pandemic which has exacerbated the abuse, help and support for the victims is still available for them (Home Office, 2018).

Home Office, 2018

Reflection and personal learning • I chose not to include causes of domestic abuse in my presentation because I did not want to justify the actions of abusers nor as a rationale

for the behaviour. However , I believe that theoretical knowledge is crucial and will enhance my understanding of the causes of domestic abuse and help me develop more effective responses to domestic abuse in practice.

• As a woman, writing this presentation and looking at statistics about domestic abuse was very disturbing . I was getting angrier by the hour that I have been so naïve to the magnitude of domestic abuse which has been happening ever since. This has activated my passion to take domestic abuse seriously meaning not normalising nor becoming numb to it .

• BASW (2018) published an interesting document about the reality and magnitude of domestic abuse across different working areas in social work yet a practitioner who wrote it explains the lack of in-depth training , knowledge or personal development on the subject instead there is a presumptuous knowledge of domestic abuse . It is therefore crucial that as a social worker I understand my role in helping victims of domestic abuse and their families. This has propelled me to reflect on the scale of my knowledge in this area and what to do about it because I understand the complexity of this issue. I intend to look at serious case reviews and engage in purposefully ongoing training in this area. If our understanding is that it is a social issue , then probably we can work together to change ourselves and the society we are living in.

• In terms of theories that I have applied , I am aware that the social work profession is a dynamic profession hence applies an eclectic approach in various areas of practice . Therefore, I will always take an eclectic approach in practice as no single theory can provide a clear-cut explanation or understanding of the situation .In this case, both theories give a great understanding of domestic abuse which can lead to ideas on finding solutions on what and how to tackle domestic abuse in complex and conflict situations.

• I think the strength of the feminist perspective is that it is very pliable and accommodating especially when an oppressed group feels unrepresented within another oppressed group. For example, lesbians as an oppressed group within a black ethnic minority group. According to Teater (2014), the perspective is not rigid rather very fluid as it encompasses a wide range of issues such as gender, race and with every development, it gets better.

• Feminist theory has criticised the profession for failing to recognise power relationship and imbalance between the woman professional who apply policies and laws that are discriminatory against the woman service user.

• In terms of social learning, it is fair to say that human behaviour is very complex , therefore it can not be limited to nature or nurture , it is the interaction of both. Therefore, social learning theory is not a full explanation of behaviour. For example, if an individual does not have a role model or if the individual is born with predispositions to a certain behaviours such as aggression may not need a role model instead might seek for one.

Reference • Backwith, D. (2015) Social work, poverty, and social exclusion. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

• BBC News (2020) ‘Male domestic abuse victims ‘sleeping in cars and tents’’, 24 September. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-54237409 (Accessed: 15 April 2021).

• British Association of Social Work (2021) Accompanying documents and resources: ‘BASW england domestic abuse guidance launch’ webinar. Available at: https://www.basw.co.uk/system/files/resources/20210318_wsww_slides_- _domestic_abuse_launch9_-_read-only.pdf (Accessed: 20 April 2021).

• British Association of Social Work (2018) Domestic abuse is everywhere in social work. Available at: https://www.basw.co.uk/media/news/2018/nov/domestic-abuse-everywhere-social-work (Accessed:20 April 2021).

• Broom, D. (2020) As the UK publishes its first census of women killed by men, here’s a global look at the problem. Available at: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/11/violence-against-women-femicide-census/ (Accessed: 15 April 2021).

• Cardwell, M. and Flanagan, C. (2012) Psychology A2- the complete companion. 3rd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

• Council of Europe Portal (2021) Feminism and women’s rights movements. Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/web/gender-matters/feminism-and-women-s-rights-movements. (Accessed: 20 April 2021).

• Cunningham, J and Cunningham, S. (2017) Social policy and social work. 2nd edn. London: SAGE.

• GOV.UK (2021) Domestic abuse: ethnicity facts and figures. Available at: https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/crime-justice-and-the-law/crime-and-reoffending/domestic-abuse/latest. (Accessed: 15 April 2021).

• Herold, D. (2018) We can do it – the story of Rosie the Riveter. Available at: https://www.warhistoryonline.com/instant-articles/we-can-do-it-the-story.html (Accessed: 15 April 2021).

• Hogenboom, M. (2014) ‘Two genes linked with violent crime’, BBC News, 28 October. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-29760212 (Accessed: 17 April 2021).

• Home Office (2018) Domestic abuse: get help during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/domestic-abuse-how-to-get-help (Accessed: 12 April 2021).

• Home Office (2020) Home secretary announces support for domestic abuse victims. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/home-secretary-announces-support-for-domestic-abuse-victims (Accessed: 12 April 2021).

• Home Office (2012) New definition of domestic violence and abuse. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-definition-of-domestic-violence ( Accessed: 12 April 2021).

• Home office (2019) The economic and social costs of domestic abuse. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-economic-and-social-costs-of-domestic-abuse (Accessed: 25 April 2021).

• ITV News (2021) ‘‘I wouldn’t be alive if I didn’t ask for help’ Ruth Dodsworth speaks of domestic abuse ordeal on This Morning’, The ITV news, 21 April. Available at: https://www.itv.com/news/wales/2021-04-21/i-wouldnt-be-alive-if-i-didnt-ask-for-help- ruth-dodsworth-appears-on-this-morning-following-domestic-abuse-ordeal (Accessed: 20 April 2021).

Reference • Maclean, S. and Harrison, R. (2015) Theory and practice, a straightforward guide for social work students. 3rd edn. Lichfield: Kirwin Maclean Associates Ltd.

• Malim, T. and Birch, A. (1998) Introductory psychology. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.

• Moorhead, J. (2013) ‘Breaking the cycle of abuse’, The Guardian, 17 September. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2013/sep/17/breaking-the-cycle-of-abuse (Accessed: 17 April 2021).

• Mullender, A. (2009) ‘Persistent oppressions: the example of domestic violence’, in Adams, Dominelli and Payne (eds.) Practising social work in a complex world. London: Red Globe Press, pp. 33-44.

• National Health Services (2018) Causes –post-traumatic stress disorder. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/causes/ (Accessed: 20 April 2021).

• National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2014) Domestic violence and abuse: multi-agency working public health guidance [ph50]. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ph50 (Accessed: 20 April 2021).

• National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2016) Domestic violence and abuse: quality standard [qs116] Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/qs116 (Accessed: 20 April 2021).

• Office for National Statistics (2020) Domestic abuse in England and Wales overview: November 2020. Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/domesticabuseinenglandandwalesoverview/november2020 (Accessed: 15 April 2021).

• Office for National Statistics (2019) Homicide in England and Wales: year ending March 2018 (average taken over 10 years). Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/homicideinenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2018 (Accessed: 15 April 2021).

• Parry, J. and Agerholm, H. (2020) Calls about children witnessing domestic abuse ‘rise 25%’. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-51757753.amp (Accessed: 29 April 2021).

• Pformacademy (2013) Social learning theory. Available at: https://pformacademy.wordpress.com/2013/06/13/social-learning-theory/ (Accessed: 26 April 2021).

• Rathbone, C. (no date) Bandura and social learning theory on aggression and modelling. Available at: https://images.app.goo.gl/A1KPiDHbgF9ypQsS8 (Accessed: 15 April 2021).

• Salkind, N.J. (2004) An introduction to theories of human development. London: SAGE.

• Teater, B. (2014) An introduction to applying social work theories and methods. 2nd edn. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

• Women’s Aid (2020) The nature and impact of domestic abuse. Available at: https://www.womensaid.org.uk/information-support/what-is-domestic-abuse/the-nature-and-impact-of-domestic-abuse/ (Accessed: 20 April 2021).

• Women's Aid (2020) What is domestic abuse? Available at: https://www.womensaid.org.uk/information-support/what-is-domestic-abuse/ (Accessed: 15 April 2021).