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PREPARING THE COLLEGE STUDENT INSIDE THE HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETE:

THE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES OF HOW IDENTITY

INFLUENCES ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT OF MALE STUDENT-ATHLETES OF

REVENUE PRODUCING SPORTS IN CORE ACADEMIC CLASSES

___________

A Dissertation

Presented to

The Faculty of the Department of Educational Leadership

Sam Houston State University

___________

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Education

___________

Anita L. Bundage

May, 2024

PREPARING THE COLLEGE STUDENT INSIDE THE HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETE:

THE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES OF HOW IDENTITY

INFLUENCES ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT OF MALE STUDENT-ATHLETES

OF REVENUE PRODUCING SPORTS IN CORE ACADEMIC CLASSES

Anita L. Bundage

___________

APPROVED:

Julie P. Combs, Ed.D.

Committee Director

Peggy C. Holzweiss, Ed.D.

Committee Member

Gabriela J. Silvestre, Ph. D.

Committee Member

Stacey L. Edmonson, Ed.D.

Committee Member

Stacey L. Edmonson, Ed.D.

Dean, College of Education

iii

DEDICATION

This is dedicated to my number one fan, Phoebe Amara. I told you when I started

this journey, that I was doing it to make the world better for you. I hope that by the time

you are old enough to fully understand this work, the world is indeed, much better. I

would also like to dedicate this to my father, who although is no longer present on this

side, is surely up there telling every angel and ancestor about this accomplishment.

ABSTRACT

Bundage, Anita L., Preparing the college student inside the high school athlete: The

secondary teachers’ perspectives of how identity influences academic engagement of

male student-athletes of revenue producing sports in core academic classes.

Doctor of Education (Educational Leadership) May, 2024, Sam Houston State

University, Huntsville, Texas.

Academic performance of male student-athletes who participate in revenue-

producing sports is typically lower than that of other athletes and non-athletes at the

collegiate level. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the

experiences of high school teachers in core academic classes who educate these students.

The goal of this descriptive phenomenological study was to determine how identity,

specifically athletic identity, influenced academic engagement in core academic classes.

This study was conducted through semi-structured interviews with five educator

participants from a Houston area suburban school district. Five emergent themes were

revealed through the experiences of the educator participants: Connections, On the

Campus, In the Classroom, Outliers, and Undercurrents. Within the revealed themes,

educator participants of on-level core academic classes discussed the presence of strong

athletic identities, while educators of advanced academic classes felt there was a mix of

more balanced student-athlete identities and stronger academic identities. Also shared

was the sentiment that due to the high expectations of athletic program, particularly

football, the majority of male student-athletes in that sport are not getting the necessary

academic preparation to be successful at the postsecondary level. Also, educator

participants mentioned feelings of frustration and pressure to help athletes remain eligible

for competition while also getting inconsistent support at times from coaches.

In addition to providing topics for future research, results from this study may

provide stakeholders with a framework for improving academic success rates for male

student-athletes participating in revenue-producing sports. Educator participants offered

suggestions to address expressed concerns. These suggestions include educator

workshops for teachers of student-athletes, campus and district personnel assigned solely

to student-athletes, and the combination of summer workouts with academic camps.

KEY WORDS: College Readiness, Student-athlete, Revenue-producing sports, Identity

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A task such as this is not done in isolation. From day one, I have had an

abundance of support, both near and far. To my family, Tanya, Phoebe, Bailey, Vivi, the

Bundages, the Hunters, and the Strongs, thank you for your prayers, check-ins, and

encouragement. I want to give a special shout out to my cousin, Kristal Gosselin, for

always stepping in and watching Phoebe when I needed a few hours to focus. To the

entire FCC, thank you all for being the best hype group on the planet. I want to thank my

mother, Jimmye Bundage, who was the original Sam Houston State Graduate. Thank you

for setting the example and expectation early for academic excellence. I want to thank my

aunts, Patricia Walsh, Mary Carolyn Johnson, Mattie Hall, Faitha Hunter, and Barbara

Clark for investing in my growth since literally day one of my life. I could not and would

not have made it this far if it was not for you all’s continuous acts of selflessness and

love.

I want to acknowledge and give flowers to my colleagues who encouraged me to

start, continue, and finish this program. Dr. Rotasha Smith, Dr. Debra Creel, and Dr.

Shukella Price. You all walked so that I could run…to type, type, and type some more,

until I could not type anymore; but inevitably did. Dr. Victoria Brinkman, you were an

absolute “ram in the bush” when I would want to give up. Thank you for always coming

in clutch for me. To Mrs. Jessica Beckham, thank you for being a sounding board,

clarifier, and cheerleader. Your knowledge and insight were invaluable. To Cohort 44,

thank you all for still checking in on me, even after you were finished. The comradery we

developed over Zoom and eventually in person, provided enough laughs and inside jokes

that will last a lifetime. To my Stockton Junior High and Conroe High School family,

vii

thank you for always checking on me, encouraging me, and calling me “Dr” before it was

official so I could keep my eye on the prize.

To the faculty in the Educational Leadership Doctoral Program, thank you for

providing me with countless opportunities to learn and grow both professionally and

personally. I was not sure what to expect but you all took the time to make sure that I was

successful. This experience has increased my capacity as a change agent and I will

forever be grateful for that.

To my committee, “thank you” is not strong enough. Dr. Stacey Edmonson, your

passion for the education is profoundly present in all that you do. I appreciate your

insight on my topic and feedback on my dissertation. Dr. Gabriela Silvestre, I am grateful

that I veered off the standard coursework and took your class. I appreciate your interest in

my experiences and my contributions. Dr. Peggy Holzweiss, thank you for reinforcing

my curiosity to find out “why”. You provided a framework for my thoughts and I

appreciate that I now have that framework in my academic toolbox. Last but certainly not

least, Dr. Julie Combs. Dr. Combs, you are a superheroine. I will forever be grateful for

your support, even when you were the one who needed it the most. Thank you for being

you.

And finally, to my educator participants, thank you for your time and your

vulnerability. My hope is that this study starts a wave of change that will improve not

only your experience, but also the experiences of student-athletes everywhere. What you

do matters. Thank you and take care.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DEDICATION .................................................................................................................. III

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... VIII

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ XI

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 1

Background of Study ................................................................................................... 3

Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 8

Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................... 9

Significance of the Study ........................................................................................... 10

Conceptual Framework .............................................................................................. 11

Research Questions .................................................................................................... 12

Definition of Terms ................................................................................................... 13

Delimitations .............................................................................................................. 14

Limitations ................................................................................................................. 14

Assumptions .............................................................................................................. 15

Organization of the Study .......................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .......................................................... 17

The High School Student-Athlete Experience ........................................................... 18

Identity ....................................................................................................................... 49

Motivation .................................................................................................................. 59

Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 65

CHAPTER III: METHOD ................................................................................................ 67

Research Questions .................................................................................................... 67

Research Design ........................................................................................................ 67

Context of the Study .................................................................................................. 68

Selection of Participants ............................................................................................ 69

Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 70

Role of Researcher ..................................................................................................... 70

Instrumentation .......................................................................................................... 72

Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 73

Trustworthiness .......................................................................................................... 74

Summary .................................................................................................................... 75

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS .............................................................................................. 76

Overview .................................................................................................................... 76

Participants ................................................................................................................ 76

Emergent Themes ...................................................................................................... 77

Description of Phenomenon ...................................................................................... 95

Summary .................................................................................................................... 96

CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........ 97

Overview .................................................................................................................... 97

Discussions of Findings in Relation to the Research Questions ................................ 98

Discussion of the Findings in the Context of the Literature Review ....................... 101

Discussions of the Findings in Relation to the Conceptual Framework .................. 102

Recommendations for Practitioners ......................................................................... 106

Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................... 113

Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 114

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 116

APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................. 130

APPENDIX B ................................................................................................................. 135

APPENDIX C ................................................................................................................. 138

VITA ............................................................................................................................... 140

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Participant Demographic Data .............................................................................. 77

2 Operational Definitions of Emergent Themes ...................................................... 78

3 Description of Subthemes of On the Campus ....................................................... 80

4 Description of Subthemes of In the Classroom .................................................... 82

5 Description of Subthemes of Outliers ................................................................... 89

6 Description of Subthemes of Undercurrents ......................................................... 93

CHAPTER I

Introduction

While attending a family event, I struck up a conversation with a young man

named Chris, who was a friend of one of my family members. He, like me, participated in

basketball. Although my days of playing as a college athlete are finished, Chris was still

playing at the college level. He was a star high school basketball player for one of the

most recognized high school basketball teams in the area.

Chris was one of many talented members of this team, as multiple gifted athletes

from around the area were on the roster. Due to the team’s depth in talent, they were a

high school perennial powerhouse who made state playoff runs year after year. Being

familiar with the playoffs and the amount of time required for it, my curiosity led me to

ask him about schoolwork and how he kept up. Chris’s response to me was that most of

the season, not just during the playoffs, he was allowed copious amounts of grace from

teachers when it came to turning in assignments and missing class time. He said that there

were some times that he did not have to turn in assignments, and was given a passing

grade anyway. I posed a question to him, asking if he thought he felt like he was learning

anything in high school or if he felt like he was just being kept eligible. The teachers,

according to him, were very supportive of the team and did their best to make the

academic load as light as possible.

I asked Chris how his academic experience in high school affected his academic

experience now that he was in college. He had been a part of more than one college team

by the time our conversation occurred, transferring schools in hopes of improving his

athletic status as a basketball player. He admitted that academic responsibilities were

much more rigorous in college and transferring on multiple occasions had delayed his

ability to graduate. He shared that his academic successes were more attributed to

expectations from his family and the provided academic support given to collegiate

athletes as compared to his academic foundation received in high school.

Recently, I did an internet search about the young men on the rest of Chris’s high

school roster. My goal was to track their journeys as student-athletes after one of the

team’s most successful seasons. I was able to find four more of his teammates. Most of

those former teammates had similar stories of transferring to and from multiple colleges

and universities. While reading, I came across comments implying that not being

academically prepared played a part in a couple of his teammates’ transfers and college

choices. Reading these comments caused me to reflect on my previous conversation and

how Chris shared his high school academic experience was more about staying eligible as

opposed to learning.

In a 2017 study, Fuller et al. established that some teacher participants

acknowledged the issuance of privileges to athletes in their high school classes that were

not extended to non-athletes. Such privileges included giving extra credit so an athlete

could remain eligible, more time on assignments, and permission to miss class for non-

academic reasons (Fuller et al., 2017). Although these privileges do provide relief,

particularly due to the demands of time and energy of being a student-athlete, these

privileges may have long-term negative effects on academic achievement.

As stated in Woods et al., (2018), the disconnect that occurs between secondary

and postsecondary education has caused issues in arriving at what it means to be college-

ready, which students are actually college ready, and which students will be successful in

college classes. In comparison, levels of importance when it comes to skills and

knowledge are not in alignment, which speaks to limited coordination between the two

entities (Woods et al., 2018). Understanding that these statements and studies are from

the perspective of their impact on all secondary students, it brings to attention the impact

of this disconnect on student-athletes who may be missing out on opportunities to

increase their college readiness levels due to a prioritization of their athletic identity.

From my experiences as an athlete, coach, athletic coordinator, and now

administrator over athletics, I find that preparation for college-bound student athletes is

multi-layered and requires a thorough understanding of the nuances of college readiness

and being a secondary student-athlete. This understanding is not held to just the student-

athlete, but every stakeholder involved in the success of the student-athlete.

Background of Study

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) was established in 1906 as

a governing body for sports at the collegiate level (NCAA, 2022). In addition to creating

rules and regulations for college-level competitions, the NCAA also creates standards for

eligibility for future college prospects. Within this association are over 1,000 colleges and

universities that provide academic and athletic opportunities for over 500,000 student-

athletes (NCAA, 2022). Currently, there are three divisions in the NCAA, Division I,

Division II, and Division III. These subsets were created in 1973 to ensure equitable

competition and academic opportunities for collegiate student-athletes (NCAA, 2022).

Prior to 1965, the NCAA did not attach athletic eligibility with the academic

performance of student-athletes (NCAA, 2014b). In response to criticisms that secondary

student-athletes with subpar academic achievement were still being admitted to college,

the NCAA increased its standards in regard to academic requirements for potential

collegiate student-athletes (Chen et al., 2013). In 1983, the NCAA adopted Proposition

48, which set the standard at the time for determining the eligibility of high school

athletes to compete in college. Under Proposition 48, a high school student-athlete’s

grade-point average (GPA) would need to be at least a 2.0 in 11 of their core classes to be

able to enter and compete as a college freshman (NCAA, 2014b). Additionally, minimum

SAT (i.e., 700) and ACT (i.e., 15) score requirements were also applied (NCAA, 2014).

Proposition 48 proved to be controversial. Students who enrolled after the

implementation of the proposition graduated at higher rates than the rest of the student

body, but the SAT and ACT requirements potentially affected African-American and

students who lived in poverty arbitrarily (NCAA, 2014b). Nevertheless, the NCAA

continues to operate under academic eligibility standards but with evolved requirements.

Prior to a student-athlete becoming academically eligible to compete at a postsecondary

institution, he or she must maintain academic eligibility at the secondary level to compete

and subsequently earn credits towards high school graduation.

The Student Right-To-Know Act, a division of the Campus Security Act of 1990,

established that institutions receiving federal funding were required to report graduation

information to the Department of Education (Bradley, 1992). Earlier that year, however,

members of the NCAA had already passed its own legislation that required college to

report disaggregated graduation rates according to student-athlete race, gender, and sport

of participation (NCAA, 2014b).

One may argue that lower graduation rates in revenue-producing sports are

attributed to the ability for collegiate student-athletes to go professional in those sports.

Although access to professional opportunities are available, particularly in the revenue-

producing sports, the number of draft-eligible student-athletes who do turn professional is

significantly lower than the number of draft-eligible student-athletes who do not. In

2015, the NCAA released a report which contained the estimated probabilities for NCAA

student-athletes to go professional in their sport. When including all divisions of NCAA

football, the report stated that out of 16,380 draft-eligible participants, only about 1.6%

make it to the NFL (NCAA, 2015a). With respect to men’s basketball, the report stated

that out of 8,002 draft-eligible participants, only about 1.2% make it to the NBA (NCAA,

2015a). Therefore, for the other approximately 98% of draft-eligible student-athletes and

those student-athletes still competing who will not go professional, college readiness will

be an important factor in attaining a degree from their institution.

NCAA Division I institutions have an added incentive to increase graduation rates

among their student-athletes. In October of 2016, the Division I Board of Directors, along

with the NCAA Board of Governors made a significant shift in how broadcast revenue

from Division I sports would be disseminated to its member schools and conferences

(Hosick, 2016). According to the agreement, starting in the 2019-2020 academic school

year and continuing through 2024-2025, an “academic distribution unit” would be created

in conjunction with existing student-athlete support funds using three-quarters of the

yearly increase in the television contracts for NCAA Division I sports, as opposed to

slightly less than two-thirds in 2016-2017 (Hosick, 2016). As it stands, institutions must

meet one of three requirements in order to earn an academic achievement unit. Of the

three, two are directly tied to graduation rates. With this new arrangement, the student-

athletes at a member school must: (a) achieve at least an overall Academic Progress Rate

of 985 in all of their sports; (b) achieve a 13% or higher Federal Graduation Rate (FGR)

than that of the general student population of that school; or (c) achieve a minimum

comprehensive Graduation Success Rate of 90% for all sports teams of that school

(Hosick, 2016).

By creating this additional component of revenue distribution, NCAA Division I

member institutions are able to earn more income geared specifically for the academic

advancement of its student-athletes based on academic achievement. Prior to this change,

funds were already allocated for academic support, however conferences received

additional qualifying financial units based a higher percentage of athletic achievement via

member school participation and success in the Division I Men’s Basketball

Championship (Hosick, 2016).

According the University Interscholastic League (UIL), the governing athletic

body for public and some private, secondary schools in Texas, after the first six weeks of

the school year, a student-athlete who receives a grade below a 70 in any of their classes

will be deemed ineligible to participate in extracurricular competitions for a three-week

period of school (UIL, 2022a). Before January of 1985, to remain eligible to participate

in extra-curricular activities, students only needed to pass at least three classes in the

previous semester (Ligon, 1988). Although there are strict exceptions to this rule (e.g.,

students receiving a grade below 70 in classes identified as exemption eligible), this “No

Pass, No Play” requirement is the general rule for student-athletes who compete in Texas

(UIL, 2022a). With respect to college readiness for male student-athletes, particularly

those who participate in revenue-producing sports, the previously mentioned change in

revenue distribution illustrates a growing investment at the postsecondary level in the

academic achievement of athletes. The foundation for that academic achievement,

however, begins before that student-athlete ever steps foot on a postsecondary campus.

The success of postsecondary athletic programs, both short and long term, relies heavily

on who is recruited into the program from the high school level.

High school sports in Texas are a substantial part of creating school culture and

traditions. Thousands of students partake in these extracurricular activities. The National

Federation of State High School Associations reported that in the 2018-2019 school year,

Texas ranked first in the nation for the total number of student-athletes competing for

high schools across the state, with over 825, 924 student-athletes (National Federation of

High School Associations, 2019). Additionally, Texas also ranks first in the nation for

student-athlete participation in boys’ basketball and 11-player football, with 60,384 and

165,641 participants, respectively. With respect to NCAA Division I recruiting however,

Texas ranks below its comparable participation numbers in the states of California and

Florida in percentages of high school boys recruited for those sports (NCAA, 2013a).

For current high school student-athletes seeking to gain eligibility as a “Qualifier”

to compete at a Division I college or university, they must meet the following academic

requirements: (a) 10 of the 16 required courses completed prior to the beginning of their

seventh high school semester, (b) completion of 16 NCAA approved core-courses, and

of past and current controversies regarding eligibility requirements, members of the

NCAA have made the collection of academic data, including graduation rates, an

important practice. By tracking academic information, stakeholders within the NCAA

organization are able to observe the impact of more demanding eligibility expectations on

student-athletes getting their diplomas (NCAA, 2014b). As requirements become more

stringent, it will be imperative that aspiring collegiate student-athletes are not only

prepared to qualify for postsecondary athletic participation while in high school, but also

learn the foundational academic and social skills necessary to maintain the demands of

being a college athlete.

Statement of the Problem

Researchers (e.g., Gard, 2017) have reported in past studies a break between the

necessary postsecondary readiness needed for first-time college students and the college

readiness being taught at the high school level. With respect to student-athletes at the

postsecondary level, the benefits of participation, more often than not, are acknowledged

and understood (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011). What is less acknowledged and

understood, however, are the reason or reasons why some college athletes participating in

Division I sports typically display fewer occurrences of academic success and

achievement than non-athletes on campus. More specifically, observations have been

made that student-athletes participating in revenue producing sports (e.g., football, men’s

basketball) have statistically significantly poorer academic performance than student-

athletes in non-revenue producing sports and non-athletes (Pellegrini & Helsa, 2018).

Academic readiness and academic development deficits of Division I student-athletes

have resulted in more research seeking to understand the connection between two,

however, results are not conclusive and various gaps still linger (Comeaux & Harrison,

2011).

Brecht and Burnett (2019) reported that a student-athlete’s perception of their

academic ability was a strong indicator of their academic success in college. With that

said, it was also stated that student-athletes who entered college with pre-existing

academic deficiencies and “waning motivation” (Brecht & Burnett, 2019, p. 52)

frequently became discontented, which increased the likelihood of receiving subpar

grades in college. In order to attract, and retain, the best student-athletes, it is imperative

that institutions create systems within their athletic programs that not only cater to the

athletic careers of recruits but also support their academic needs as well.

Because people balance different identities in their lives, it is important to

investigate how motivation is affected when those identities cross, such as in this study

focused on athletics and academics (Yukhymenko-Lescroart, 2021). For high school

student-athletes, the classroom should be an area of academic focus. However,

environments can sometimes be created that cater more towards athletic identities,

therefore negatively impacting the academic growth of that student athlete. With respect

to motivation in the lives of student-athletes, especially athletically talented student-

athletes, their academic and athletic domains are two of the most commanding domains;

therefore, it is plausible that there is a correlation between the two (Yukhymenko-

Lescroart, 2021).

Purpose of the Study

According to Gard (2017), a lack of postsecondary preparedness has caught the

attention of various stakeholders, such as the National Collegiate Athletic Association

(NCAA), resulting in an increase in the rigor of enrollment requirements of prospective

student-athletes. These requirements include the type of courses taken in high school, the

grade point average and the scores of college entrance exams taken by those prospective

student-athletes (Gard, 2017). However, this increase in rigor for enrollment has not

addressed academic concerns that occur at the secondary level. I analyzed state academic

reports and data indicate that although graduation rates for districts reflect success at the

secondary level, further research into those reports indicate that only a small portion of

graduating classes are college ready. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to

describe experiences of high school educators who have direct, daily influences on the

academic foundations of male student-athletes. In conducting this study, the intent was to

grow awareness on how identity and motivation influence college readiness for male high

school student-athletes participating in revenue producing sports as experienced through

the perspective of the educator.

Significance of the Study

The significance of this study was to provide insight to necessary stakeholders

(i.e., school administration, athletic coaches, parents, guardians, educator preparation

programs) about how identity influences the experiences high school educators face when

instructing student-athletes in core classrooms. By gaining this perspective, the goal was

to inform practices within the school system and support system that curates an

environment of balanced academic and athletic growth and achievement for male

student-athletes in preparation for postsecondary institutions. Additionally, results of this

study may signal a need to strengthen the postsecondary literacy of secondary counselors

and administration with respect to how it impacts college bound student-athletes as a

preparation practice. Finally, the educational significance of this study was to add to the

void of literature with respect to identity, academic achievement, and college readiness in

secondary student-athletes.

Conceptual Framework

Turkeli (2020) defines athletic identity as an individual’s prioritization order and

the value given to their participation in sports and role as a student-athlete. According to

Chen et al. (2010), the value given a sport is likely to influence the student-athlete

balance in regard to one’s identity. Furthermore, it was also stated that those student-

athletes who have a stronger association with their athletic identity are more inclined to

neglect other facets of their lives so that they are able to put more focus on athletics

(Chen et al., 2010; Turkeli, 2020). At the secondary level, student-athletes are given

sanctioned opportunities to participate in organized sports for their perspective schools.

There is a lot of community pride, recognition, adoration, and even money associated

with athletic participation, particularly when those athletic activities are successful.

Additionally, and as stated in the introduction, teachers sometimes offer support to

student-athletes in the form of giving grace points to help keep an athlete eligible to

participate. Although this practice is not required, this phenomenon is not uncommon in

my experience. In the short term, it is beneficial for many reasons, however, the long-

term effect may have an adverse impact on the student-athlete’s college readiness levels,

particularly if these academic perks and social status boosts evolve into expectations due

to their status as athletes.

In addition to identity theory, this study will also use Victor Vroom’s motivation

theory. The purpose of this extra layer is to investigate the extent to which academic

motivation is related to the level of student-athlete identity. According to Vroom (1964),

motivation is a “process governing choices made by persons…among alternative forms

of voluntary activity” (Vroom, 1964, p. 7). In other words, what is the reasoning behind

someone’s choice to perform a particular action, or actions, in the midst of multiple

options and results? When considering motivation and performance, Vroom establishes

that when a person does a job, there are a multitude of endings that may occur (Vroom,

1964).

Evaluating the effectiveness of performance is predicated on the criteria set forth

by the job. For example, if I work for a bakery and the expectation is that I bake at least

five cakes a day and I end up baking nine cakes, I have exceeded the expectation. With

that said, the question becomes, “Why did I bake extra cakes?” According to Vroom

(1964), it is due to the outcome’s effect on me. If I understand that my performance may

produce a result that is favorable for me, I may be more motivated to perform the

necessary tasks at a higher level.

Student-athletes perform dual roles on a daily basis in school. They are students

who have also chosen to participate in athletic programs. Both require substantial

amounts of time and effort to be successful. The effect of how the focus of one identity

may influence performance and motivation on the other identity, was the framework used

to conduct this study.

Research Questions

To gain an understanding of how teachers view athletic identity, academic

motivation and engagement of student-athletes participating in revenue-producing sports,

this study was focused around the following two research questions: (a) How do

secondary educators perceive the role identity has on college readiness levels for male

student-athletes who play football or basketball with respect to academic engagement,

performance, and motivation in their core content-focused classroom?; and (b) How do

secondary educators describe their experiences in supporting the academic success of

male student-athletes who play football or basketball?

Definition of Terms

To provide a clear and consistent understanding of terms used in this study, the

following definitions are given:

Amateur

With respect to athletics, an amateur is a person who participates in athletic

competitions only for its various benefits, including mental, physical, and social, without

receiving any form of financial compensation (AAU, 2022d).

Athletic Identity

Athletic Identity is defined as the extent in which a person’s self-perception is

committed to their athletic role and athletic status (Brewer et al., 1993).

College Readiness

According to Conley (2007), college readiness is determined by examining the

level a student is prepared to both register and obtain success, without assistance, in a

postsecondary setting.

Revenue-Producing Sports

Athletic activities that generate funds for campuses through the sales of tickets,

media exposure, and merchandise sales are considered to be revenue-producing.

Student-Athlete

A student-athlete is a student who participates in school sponsored sports

competitions (Lyst, 2019).

Delimitations

Male student-athletes were the focus of this study due to them experiencing, on

average, lower graduation rates from postsecondary institutions than female student-

athletes (NCAA, 2021). For this reason, only male student-athletes were included in this

study. In addition, only male student-athletes at the high school level were the focus of

participant interviews.

Participants were limited to educators who educate male student-athletes

participating in revenue sports (football and/or basketball) at the secondary level.

Regarding academic eligibility requirements for the postsecondary level, participants

were asked about their experience with respect to academic eligibility requirements for

NCAA Division I and core content classes.

Limitations

One limitation of this study could be the lack of participant transparency. Because

I am a former student-athlete and a current administrator, participants might have been

wary of being completely open with their views and experiences. The teachers’ potential

fear of being perceived as having biases towards or against student-athletes might have

limited their confidence in answering truthfully.

Another limitation was that there were only five participants included in the study

by design. Due to the large number of teachers educating student-athletes and the time it

would take to talk with them all individually, it was not feasible to include each one in

this study. The experience identified in this study may not be transferrable to other

contexts. Thus, it is important that the details of this study be taken into consideration

prior to its application in other educational settings.

Assumptions

The goal of this study is to give educators a voice in the potential opportunity to

enhance not only their teaching experiences, but also the educational experience of male

student-athletes. Therefore, a major assumption made throughout this study is that

participants answered questions honestly and thoroughly. At the secondary level,

educators have an array of student-athletes (e.g., male, female, team sport members,

individual sport members, multiple sport athletes) in their classrooms. Thus, the second

assumption is that participants were able to focus answers around only male student-

athletes who participate in revenue-producing sports.

Organization of the Study

In Chapter I, the goal is to create a foundation for the need to investigate the

building of college readiness in secondary student-athletes. There are many stakeholders

involved in creating college readiness levels in male student-athletes. In this study, the

role of the educator is highlighted.

An abundance of literature and research is present on academic achievement and

college readiness for postsecondary student-athletes. There is, however, a noticeable void

in the amount of current literature for secondary student-athletes in regard to college

readiness, academic achievement, and the impact of athletic identity. Due to the

eligibility requirements of the NCAA, the growing amount of investments by families

involved in sports (e.g., time, travel, private lessons), and the futures of those secondary

student-athletes, this introductory chapter of this study addressed the need to both

increase and expedite the amount of research available on college readiness for secondary

student-athletes.

In Chapter II, a review of literature is provided in three parts. The first part of the

literature review will describe the documented role of athletics in the high school setting

and its impact on student-athletes. The second part will illustrate the typical life of a high

school male student-athlete competing in two revenue sports, football and basketball. The

third and final part will focus on identity and motivation and how these concepts may

interact or counteract with each other in the high school setting for high school student-

athletes.

In Chapter III, a description of the method used to conduct this study was

provided. This chapter starts with an explanation of the proposed framework of a

phenomenological research design. A description of the selection of participants, data

collection methods, and instrumentation follows. Finally, data analysis techniques

conclude this chapter, along with measures to address the trustworthiness of the study. In

Chapter IV, descriptions of the study’s findings are grouped by emergent themes and

concludes with a description of the phenomenon. Chapter V contains the application of

the findings to the research questions, theoretical framework, and literature review.

Chapter V concludes this study with implications for stakeholders and future research

topics.

CHAPTER II

Review of the Literature

Regardless of postsecondary athletic goals, male student-athletes who participate

in revenue-producing sports in high school dedicate a great deal of time and resources

that may impact college readiness. There exists, however, an absence in the literature

with respect to the effects of time and resources on student-athlete identity, motivation,

and academic achievement at the high school level from a narrative perspective,

particularly those who pursue postsecondary participation. According to Gayles and

Baker (2015), one of the biggest hurdles for high school student-athletes is learning how

to balance all of the expectations and responsibilities associated with being a collegiate

student-athlete. One of the ways to address this issue is to inspect the foundational

nuances associated with the identity of being both a student and an athlete simultaneously

at the secondary level.

Once student-athletes reach the postsecondary level, it has been indicated that the

longevity of their stay in college was predicted most accurately by how well the student-

athlete did academically during their first year (Brecht & Burnett, 2019).

Notwithstanding the competition level, student-athletes must be able to balance both

academic and athletic requirements in order to be successful (Brecht & Burnett, 2019).

The objective of this literature review is to illustrate the experiences of male student-

athletes in revenue-producing sports in high school and those looking to compete beyond

high school, highlight participation’s relationship with student-athlete identity, and

introduce documented perceptions of educators who teach them.

My initial search began with the terms student-athlete, revenue-sports, secondary

school, athletics, identity, motivation and college sports. Although several of those words

are interchangeable with similar variations (i.e., secondary school and high school), the

search remained within those areas. I utilized the ERIC, Sage Journals, and Google

Scholar as initial databases. Additionally, the University Interscholastic League (UIL)

website, NCAA website, and National Federation of State High School Association

website provided some additional data.

The first part of the literature review will describe the documented role of

athletics in the high school setting and its impact on student-athletes. The second part will

illustrate the typical life of a high school male student-athlete competing in two revenue

sports, football and basketball. The third part will focus on identity and motivation and

how these concepts may interact or counteract with each other in the high school setting

for high school student-athletes.

The High School Student-Athlete Experience

According to the 2018-2019 High School Athletics Participation Survey, a total of

540,769 male student-athletes participated in high school basketball and 1,006,013 male

student-athletes participated in high school football in the United States (National

Federation of State High School Associations, 2019). Based on statistics found in the

NCAA Guide for the College-Bound Student-Athlete, of those male student-athletes who

participated in high school basketball, only 18,816 or 3.5% became NCAA student-

athletes. With respect to the 1,006,013 male student-athletes who participated in high

school football, only 73,712 or 7.3%, became NCAA student-athletes (NCAA, 2022).

Given these statistics, there are a substantial number of male student-athletes in high

school who participate in those revenue-producing sports who do not become collegiate

student-athletes. This outcome does not imply, however, that those male student-athletes

who do not receive athletic scholarships did not pursue that goal becoming a collegiate

level student-athlete.

UIL

Much like the governing role of the NCAA in collegiate athletics, the University

Interscholastic League (UIL) serves as a governing body for extracurricular activities in

the state of Texas. Created in 1910, its purpose is to provide a regulated framework for

establishing coordinated and supervised competitions between schools (UIL, 2022f).

Membership in UIL, however, is not open to every school. According to its membership

page, only schools whose accreditation is given by the Texas Education Agency may

become members (UIL, 2022e). Since its start, UIL enrollment has moved from only

public-school districts, to now including Texas charter schools open to all students and

some private schools. There are four separate groups which make up the administrative

body of the UIL: (a) the Legislative Council, which establishes guidelines and rules; (b)

the State Executive Committee, which interprets guidelines and rules, handles any

disputes, oversees the appeals process, and conducts any necessary investigations of

violations; (c) the Waiver Review Board, which reviews any appeals with respect to

waivers; and (d) the District Executive Committee, comprised of a school administrator

from each campus in a designated district, which serves as the initial and local governing

body within that district (UIL, 2022b).

Student-athletes do not typically have regular or direct interactions with the state

UIL. On a more consistent basis, the coach or sponsor of the activity is the local

governing body. However, there is one direct expectation of the student-athletes that the

UIL has implemented and it affects all facets of participation for the student-athletes, and

that is student-athlete eligibility. The first qualification for participation establishes who

is eligible to compete in UIL-sponsored contests in academics, music, or athletics. There

are 10 eligibility requirements that a student must meet in order to gain initial eligibility

to participate in a competition in Texas: (1) the individual must not have graduated from

high school; (2) unless attending an approved home school, the individual must be a full-

time student during the day; (3) the individual must have been in attendance since Day 6

of the active school year or have been enrolled and attending for at least 15 or more days

before the competition; (4) the individual must be in compliance with state laws with

respect to grade level and academic credits; (5) the individual must have the required

amount of credits during the initial six weeks of the active school year; (6) the individual

must be enrolled in a program of high school courses; (7) the individual initially enrolled

in their freshman year no more than 4 years or their sophomore year no more than 3 years

prior to the competition; (8) the individual is not a recruit to the school; (9) the individual

has abided by rules regarding awards; and (10) the individual must meet other

competition-specific requirements with respect to the individual’s activity (i.e., academic,

music, or athletic competitions) (UIL, 2022c).

For students to be eligible to participate in athletics specifically, the following

must be true: (a) the individual meets all initial eligibility requirements; (b) the individual

has not turned 19 prior to September 1st of the competition year; (c) the individual has

not relocated schools for athletic reasons; (d) the individual has retained his or her

amateur status; (e) the individual has met the 15 calendar day and residency rule prior to

post-season competition; and (f) the individual is a resident of the participating schools’

attendance zone (UIL, 2022c). Once these two sets of main requirements are met by a

student, he or she is deemed eligible to compete as a student-athlete for their school in

Texas.

On certain occasions, not meeting these specific requirements however, does not

mean that a student-athlete will not be allowed to participate. To be considered for

eligibility to compete in varsity competition, the UIL provides an opportunity for the

student-athlete to apply for waivers. These waivers do not apply to all of the initial

eligibility requirements, but rather those eligibility requirements impacted by adversities

brought on in the life of the student-athlete at no fault of their own. A student-athlete and

their family may apply for the following waivers: (a) Four-Year Waiver, (b) Parent

Residence Waiver, (c) Foreign Exchange Waiver (via the UIL Portal), (d) Retroactive

Waiver, and (e) Middle School and High School Over-Age Waivers (UIL, 2022e).

The second area of eligibility pertains to academic expectations. As stated earlier,

high school student-athletes in Texas must maintain academic eligibility compete. After

the first six weeks of the school year, a student-athlete who receives a grade below a 70

in any of their classes will be deemed ineligible to participate in extracurricular

competitions for a three-week period of school (UIL, 2022a). For student-athletes who

receive special education services, not meeting standards in accordance to his or her

Individual Education Plan (IEP) will deem them ineligible to participate in

extracurricular competitions from a three-week period as well (UIL, 2022a).

School districts are able to create their own grading policy, with the expectation

that there are clear distinctions and measurements in place that determine what is passing,

while being applicable to all students (UIL, 2022a). These policies also include allowing

UIL waivers for approved courses. As stated in Texas Education Code Sec. 33.081,

which offers guidance on extracurricular activities with respect to academics, courses

considered eligible for academic waivers include Advanced Placement and International

Baccalaureate courses, as well as core subject (i.e., English, Math, Science, and Social

Studies) dual credit courses (Education Code, 2021). School districts have the ability to

recognize other advanced core subjects that can fall under the umbrella of being waivable

and interesting enough, with respect to GPA, school districts can choose to acknowledge

other courses as honors courses in its calculation (UIL, 2022j).

Impact of Secondary Athletic Participation on Students

The overall benefits of participating in athletics has been researched and

documented for decades. For instance, past research has indicated that students who

participate in organized sports report having better mental and overall health than

students who do not (Pyle et al., 2003). Studies have also indicated that students who

participate in extracurricular activities are less likely to drop out of high school and have

increased academic achievement. In a 1995 study including over 14,000 high school

students and high school dropouts conducted by McNeal, results revealed that the

probability of students who competed in athletic competitions dropping out was almost

two times less than students who did not. In this study McNeal (1995) used a logistic

regression to analyze student data in various categories versus what was determined to be

the baseline student in the study; a 15-year-old White female student who was on track to

graduate, had both parents at home, and had an afterschool job with minimal hours. The

categories included socioeconomic status, race, gender, age, afterschool work hours, and

student participation group (i.e. athletics, academic clubs, fine arts, trade school

activities, etc.) (McNeal, 1995). Additionally, results pointed out that participation in

athletics was a mitigating factor on students dropping out with respect to outside factors

such as low socioeconomic status and other environmental factors that would otherwise

increase the likelihood of a student choosing to drop out of high school (McNeal, 1995).

Silliker and Quirk (1997) created a study focused around academic achievement

of student athletes. Participants in this study were male and female students who were a

part of their high school soccer team. These student-athletes were selected because their

soccer season was confined within one grading period and the number of participants on

both male and female teams was deemed adequate. The goal of the researchers was to see

how participation impacted grade point averages both during the season and after the

season was over. The high school’s counselors were asked to keep in-season and off-

season GPA and attendance data on the student-athletes. What Silliker and Quirk (1997)

discovered is that the student-athletes had significantly higher GPAs during the season

than during the off-season. Additionally, although there was not a significantly higher

attendance rate, it was still higher during the playing season. Researchers found that

overall, female soccer players had both a higher GPA and attendance rate than did male

soccer players. Lastly, male soccer players had the most significant difference between

their GPA in-season and their GPA off-season (Silliker & Quirk, 1997).

Moreover, participation in sports increases a sense of belonging, self-esteem, and

interest in school (Logan et al., 2019). From my own experience as a student-athlete,

being a part of a team created a sense of extra accountability in my own academic

achievement and that of my teammates. In fact, that accountability carried over to my

team’s behavior and how we carried ourselves as students in the school setting.

Nevertheless, prior research has also been inconclusive with respect to academic

performance and high school student-athletes. Positive correlations have been found

between academic success and participation in high school sports but negative

correlations have also been found when considering demographical factors such as race,

gender, and type of sport (Hwang et al., 2016). Another aspect to consider is the impact

of identity, particularly due to the overall development of the student-athlete as an

individual. Not only is it just a matter of the impact of high school sports participation on

the academic achievement of the student-athlete but Hwang et al. (2016) adds another

layer to consider: Does participation in high school sports change the identity dynamic

from being a student-athlete to being an athlete first and student second?

In their 2016 study, Hwang et al. (2016) attempted to find factors outside of those

previously researched, particularly, direct correlations between athletic participation and

academic achievement, that contributed to identity in high school students who were

involved in sports. Inconsistencies in previous findings led the researchers to look at

other variables such as how the student thought others perceived their goals for after high

school, how involved their parents were in their academics, how involved the student was

in athletics, which sports the student participated in, and how talented the student was in

their respective sport (Hwang et al., 2016).

Results of this study reflect that when an athlete bases his or her identity primarily

on his or her athletic participation and performance, it may have a negative effect on

academic achievement (Hwang et al., 2016). Additionally, having an increased focus on

themselves as solely an athlete can also have a negative effect on how that athlete views

educational value in comparison to career aspirations and expectations. On the other

hand, when an athlete’s identity is more well balanced, educational success is less

negatively impacted. In fact, association with athletics is seen as a way to enhance social

status and increase involvement within the school, thus increasing the overall value of the

educational experience (Hwang et al., 2016).

Typical Life of a High School Male Student-Athlete Competing in Two Revenue Sports

in Texas Time

One of the biggest investments of student-athletes, regardless of level, is time.

This investment occurs whether the student-athlete aspires to compete at the collegiate

level or not. For those who do strive to become collegiate athletes, many participate in

their respective sports all year, thus becoming overly committed to this goal at the

expense of other endeavors (Gayles & Baker, 2015).

In conjunction with Texas Education Code, the UIL sets boundaries on the

amount of time that a student-athlete is required to practice and the number of contests

they can compete in per week during the academic school year. According to UIL’s

(2022k) Limits on Practice and Performance guidelines, the school week opens on

12:01am on the first day of instruction in the week and closes at the end of instruction on

the last day of the week. Usually, that means Monday morning through Friday afternoon.

In that school week, a student-athlete is limited to eight hours of practice before and after

school. During school hours, a student-athlete may only participate in one athletic class

period per day. If that student-athlete participates in another state-approved class that is

also an extracurricular, UIL-sanctioned activity, such as Band or Theatre Arts, they are

allowed to participate in it during the same school day as their athletics class, as long as

the extracurricular (competition-focused) portion related to that course is not practiced

more than one period in the school day (UIL, 2022k). In other words, a football player

who is also a member of the school band can have an athletic period and a band period in

the same day. The significance of this rule is that while it does limit the amount of time

during the school day for a student-athlete competing in both arenas, it adds to the

amount of time invested before and after school. With that said, student-athletes

participating in an athletic period are limited to a total of 300 minutes of in-class practice

time per week and are not to exceed 60 minutes per class, regardless of a traditional or

block schedule (UIL, 2022k).

Once interschool competitions start, only one of those days can be dedicated to an

interschool competition, as UIL limits participation to one contest per school week (UIL,

2022k). There is an exception to this rule, and that applies to tournaments and what the

UIL considers calendar weeks. With respect to competition and practice, UIL considers a

calendar week starting at 12:01am on Sunday morning and going through Saturday night

at midnight (UIL, 2022k). While the school-week limitation states that a student-athlete

may only compete in one interschool competition during the school week, the calendar

week allows for a student-athlete to compete in multiple interschool competitions. With

that said, the week that a student-athlete’s team is participating in an invitational

tournament at the end of the week, there can only be one interschool competition for the

calendar week (UIL, 2022g). What this typically looks like is having a game scheduled

with one school on a Tuesday and then tournament games Thursday, Friday, and

Saturday. There cannot be an added interschool competition outside of the tournament,

within tournament days. Make note that this exception is not applicable to all sports. For

the purpose of this study, I will only discuss it as it applies to basketball.

Using these rules, the following is an example of a typical week of a Conference

6A high school varsity boys’ basketball player. School starts at 7:30am and ends at

3:00pm every day. Afterschool varsity practice on Monday is held from 3:15pm to

5:45pm. On Tuesday, the varsity interschool game is held on campus from 7:30pm to

around 8:45pm. Wednesday’s practice is held from 3:15 to 5:45pm. Thursday’s practice

is held from 3:15pm-5:45pm. On Friday, the interschool game is held at the opponent’s

campus, so the entire boys’ basketball team may leave school before regular dismissal in

order to arrive at the site on time for sub-varsity games (i.e., Freshman, Sophomore, &

Junior Varsity teams).

As mentioned earlier, basketball is an activity where teams participate in

tournaments. However, the UIL does limit the amount of tournament participation.

According to athletic rules stated in the Basketball Plan of the UIL Athletic Rules, neither

high school teams nor individual players may compete in more than three tournaments if

they have 21 single interschool competitions scheduled (UIL, 2022g). Applying this rule,

during tournament week afterschool practice on Monday is held from 3:15pm to 5:45pm.

Tuesday’s game is held at the opponent’s campus, so the entire team may leave school

early again to arrive at the site on time. After the game ends around 8:45pm, the team

must drive back to campus. Wednesday’s afterschool practice goes from 3:15pm to

5:45pm. Thursday begins the ABC Basketball Invitational Tournament in another city

located a significant number of miles away from school. The varsity team’s first game of

the tournament is at 11:00 am so they must leave campus early again to make it on time.

They win the first game are scheduled to play at 6:00 pm that same evening. Because

they subsequently win the 6:00 pm game, they are moved into the Winners’ Bracket of

the tournament and are scheduled to play at 1:00 pm on Friday. Again, they must leave

school early in order to make the game on time. The team wins this game and is

scheduled to play at 6:00 pm Friday evening. After winning the 6:00 pm game, they are

then scheduled to compete in the championship game scheduled for 1:00 pm on Saturday.

After the weekend, this cycle starts over again.

Rules and regulations for high school football vary from those previously stated

for basketball, however the time commitment is also substantial. One of the most

significant differences is the start date for high school football. The actual start date for

high school football teams vary, depending on the team’s division and whether or not the

team participated in spring training the previous year (UIL, 2022l). The general rule

however, is that practices do not start prior to the first Monday in August. Regardless, for

many high school football teams in Texas, football season begins prior to the academic

year starting.

Currently, football Spring Training is only available to 5A and 6A schools.

According to the 2022-20223 UIL Athletic Calendar (2022l), the start date for

Conference 1A-4A and Conference 5A and 6A schools that did not participate in Spring

Training was August 1. For those Conference 5A and 6A schools that did participate in

Spring Training, their official start date was August 8 (UIL, 2022l). Spring Training is an

avenue of practice time afforded Conference 5A and 6A high school football teams in

Texas after the conclusion of their seasons. As the name suggests, this training usually

occurs in the spring semester of the academic school year. During Spring Training, high

school football coaches are allowed to conduct regulated practices with their teams.

General rules of Spring Training according to the UIL are that high school teams have 18

days of allowed practice and those days must happen within a span of 34 consecutive

calendar days (UIL, 2022h). There are similar regulations regarding safety (e.g., number

of practices with full contact activities, number of days certain clothing and equipment

can be worn, and number of minutes of full contact per week), but it otherwise follows all

other UIL practice expectations (UIL, 2022h).

Football practices prior to the start of the academic school year are not required to

adhere to the 8-hour rule that teams are governed by after school begins. There are

however, specific expectations. Regardless of official start date, all players must adhere

to a 5-day acclimatization period. The purpose of this time is get acclimated not only to

outside temperatures, but also, the physicality of the sport. Variations in what can be

worn and equipment used progress throughout this time period, as do expectations for

practice time and allowed contact activities. According to UIL Fall Football Practice

Regulations (UIL, n.d.), practice times during this time period are limited to no more than

3 hours per practice session.

Another significant difference between basketball and football is in the number of

games. According to UIL Athletic Rules for high school football, teams and participants

are allowed to compete in no more than 10 games in an 11-week season prior to

postseason competition (UIL, 2022h). Exceptions to this rule are only applicable in

districts that have 10 teams. In this case, that district’s District Executive Committee can

vote to create zones for district play. The significance of this exception is that it may add

an additional game to the season for determining an overall district champion (UIL,

2022h).

Typically, unlike most basketball teams, sub-varsity football teams (i.e. Freshmen

and Junior Varsity) compete on a different night. With that said and using UIL football

rules, the following is an example of a typical week for a Conference 6A high school

varsity football player. School starts at 7:30 am and ends at 3:00 pm every day. Because

the varsity game is on Friday, afterschool practices will be held Monday thru Thursday

from 3:15 pm to 5:15 pm. Friday’s game is away, so the varsity team leaves during the

last class period of the day in order to prepare and travel to their opponent’s stadium.

Kickoff for the game is scheduled for 6pm and the game ends around 7:45 pm. After the

game, the team heads back to campus. On Saturday morning, players and coaches come

in for a couple of hours to review film, treat injuries, and lift weights. The following

week, the game is on Thursday night. Monday thru Wednesday’s after school are from

3:15 to 5:15 pm. This Thursday’s game is a home game, so no traveling is necessary,

unless the home team’s stadium is located off campus. The game is scheduled to start at 7

pm and will end around 8:45pm. On Friday, school starts at 7:30 am the next morning

and after school practice will held from 3pm-4:30 pm. On Saturday, a light practice and

video sessions will be held from 9 am to 11 am. After the weekend, the cycle starts over

again.

With respect to these two sports scenarios, the reoccurrence of these typical

cycles, with the exception of tournament weeks in basketball, can stretch over large

amounts of time, especially for successful teams. As stated earlier, in 2022, 5A and 6A

high school football teams begin practice within the first two weeks of August.

According to the 2022-2023 UIL Official calendar, the UIL State 5A and 6A

Championship Football games were scheduled for December 16th and December 17th

(UIL, 2022d). In theory, student-athletes who participated in those UIL State

Championship Football games have been engulfed in a schedule of balancing athletic and

academic expectations for an entire semester.

Furthermore, because basketball season falls in the midst of several school

holiday periods (e.g., Thanksgiving Break, Winter Break, Spring Break), it is one of the

longest lasting seasons with respect to the academic calendar. According to the UIL

Official Calendar for the 2022-2023 school year, the boys’ basketball season started on

October 26, 2022 and ended with the State Championship games, held March 9-11, 2023

(UIL, 2022l). Within this time span, both students and student-athletes have gone through

several UIL grading cycles, semester finals, and for some, State Assessments such as End

of Course (EOC) retests and Texas English Language Proficiency Assessment System

(TELPAS).

These time commitments do not just start in high school. Student-athletes in

junior high have similar experiences with respect to time and impact on academics. The

UIL sets limits on competitions to one per school week, however, that is per UIL activity.

If a student-athlete participates in multiple UIL-sanctioned events, for example, football

and band, he or she may play their football on Monday and then participate in their band

contest that Thursday. One thing to note is a major difference between high school time

schedules and junior high schedules in large ISDs, is that junior high bell schedules run

later in the day than high schools do. In my school district, junior high school dismiss at

or around 4 pm. According to the UIL Junior High Athletics Coaches Manual, with rare

exception, no athletic competitions of any kind may begin before the end of the school

day. It does not however, address early dismissal from school for travel time to those

competitions.

At the high school level, depending on the sport and success of the team,

extracurricular absences can occur more frequently. Per Texas Education Code § 25.092,

students in Texas are required to be present no less than 90 percent of school days in

order to be eligible to obtain credit for a class (Public Education, 2019). Extracurricular

absences however, do not count in this equation. School districts are given the power to

establish their own policies regarding absences and extracurricular activities, provided

the school districts abide by the following expectations established by this excerpt from

Texas Education Code § 33.0811:

(a), the board of trustees of a school district may adopt a policy establishing the

number of times a student who is otherwise eligible to participate in an

extracurricular activity under Section 33.081 may be absent from class to

participate in an extracurricular activity sponsored or sanctioned by the district or

the University Interscholastic League or by an organization sanctioned by

resolution of the board of trustees of the district. (b) A policy adopted by the

board of trustees of a district under this section: (1) prevails over a conflicting

policy adopted under Section 33.081(a); and (2) must permit a student to be

absent from class at least 10 times during the school year. (Public Education,

2021).

In conjunction with Texas Education Code, the UIL created its own resolution

that states the following regarding extracurricular absences:

The Legislative Council of the University Interscholastic League has taken the

position that the previous state law mandating a maximum of ten absence through

district competition, a maximum of five absences for post-district competition, and

a petition to the UIL requesting a maximum of two additional absences for UIL

state competition only, is educationally sound. (UIL, n.d., Extracurricular Absences

section).

Although both agencies established a basic framework regarding extracurricular

absences, there is still a bit of clarity needed. As it stands, it can be interpreted in a

number of ways that allow for potential inconsistencies in compliance. While doing

research, I reached out to the UIL Policy and Administration Division in an attempt to

gain some insight. My first question was if the maximum number of days was applicable

for the school year or for just the active season. The person I spoke with said that it was

really up to school districts to decide how they wanted to apply the rule. It is important to

note and consider, that depending on the size of the school, some students may participate

in multiple extracurricular activities. Due to this situation, the amount of missed

instruction due to participation in those activities may add up quickly.

For example, one campus utilizes block scheduling at the time of this study.

Students have a total of eight classes split into two four-period days which are called “A”

and “B” days. Athletics is scheduled during the last period of the day on both days and is

approximately 90 instructional minutes. Seventh-grade athletics is currently scheduled

during the last period on “A” days and the eighth-grade athletics is scheduled for the last

period on “B” days. I recently did a review of the campus’s early dismissal times for the

student-athletes for this school year. During the fall sports (volleyball, football, and

cross-country), there were a total of 20 early-release from last block days for the student-

athletes and coaches participating in those sports. Using “early-release emails” sent to

teachers and conversations with the athletic coordinator, I found that approximately 12

out of 30 instructional hours, or 40%, were collectively impacted during those sports

seasons. This number included both student-athletes and teachers who are also coaches.

With respect to subgroups, on 7th grade football games days that fell on “B” days,

approximately 72% of the student-athletes missed instructional minutes in a core-content

class.

Summer and Non-school Hour Time Investments

Prior to 2003, secondary school coaches were not allowed to host strength and

conditioning camps throughout the summer with their student-athletes (Odenwald, 2009).

Since 2003, high school coaches have been granted limited summer time access to their

student-athletes. Many coaches used this time to maintain and, in some cases, increase

the physical attributes of their student-athletes, as well strengthen team chemistry and

curate positive relationships with the attendees. With a 2010 UIL amendment change,

junior high coaches of both seventh and eighth grade student-athletes were subsequently

granted limited summer time access to their student-athletes (Odenwald, 2009). Per UIL

regulations, the length of this summer conditioning program cannot extend beyond six

weeks and is not required (UIL, 2022i). Based on my past experience, many student-

athletes however, do attend and in particular, student-athletes who play football represent

the largest number in attendance.

For student-athletes wishing to continue playing and improving their skills

beyond or in addition to their home schools, many of them continue their training in off

campus activities. Some student-athletes will hire personal trainers and skill coaches to

improve their abilities. Others will strive to be members of outside competition teams in

their sport.

The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), for example, is an organization that came

into existence in 1888 to provide an opportunity for athletes, both young and old, to

compete in an array of amateur sports (AAU, 2022a). Various sports are included under

the AAU umbrella, and basketball was one that I participated in when I was younger.

According to its website, USA AAU includes at least 40 competitive programs for over

700,000 participants (AAU, 2023b) As the AAU scene has grown over the years, its

impact on student-athletes in school is becoming more and more complex. For example,

according to the 2023 Boys’ Basketball Handbook:

Athletic competition is good unto itself, and opportunities for participation need

not be restricted to individuals representing academic or scholastic institutions.

However, the AAU recognizes that athletics can be a powerful tool for shaping

the educational development of young people, and for the enhancement of

educational opportunities for its participants. AAU organizations should consider

the academic well-being of its athletes, and ensure that participation in AAU

activities does not adversely affect their academic progress. The AAU Club

should cooperate with the athlete and his parents to strike an appropriate balance

among academic, social and athletic activities. (AAU, 2023a, p. 16)

For high-level competition AAU teams, traveling to weekend tournaments out of

their local area is common. I researched several AAU basketball sites and found

tournaments being held prior to the end of the school year. These tournaments had

preliminary games starting as early at 10 am on a Friday. Although regulations state that

there are not to be any practices or games during a student-athlete’s school season, it does

not regulate those things before or after their school season (AAU, 2023a). Again, this

practice is not uncommon, as participation in these tournaments not only helps

supplement skill development, but also increases access and exposure to postsecondary

recruitment opportunities.

It is important to note that participation in AAU-sponsored events, is not free. In

order to compete in AAU events, participants must first be eligible members of the AAU

organization. Membership fees are applied to both the athletes, as well as coaches (AAU,

2023c). Fees for participating individual athletes and non-participating athletes (i.e.

coaches, managers, officials, etc.) range from $14-$39/year, depending on the role and

age of participants (AAU, 2023c). If a group of AAU individuals wants to compete as a

club or team, there is an additional club membership fee. This amount of this yearly

membership is predicated on the type of access a particular club is looking for, ranging

from $30-$300 (AAU, 2023c). Membership prices do not include entry fees associated

with AAU sponsored events. For example, the entry fee for one of the boys’ divisions of

the 2023 AAU World Championships held July 13-16 is $495 per team (AAU, 2023d).

None of these fees go towards the cost associated with applicable team travel, hotel

accommodations, food, or other miscellaneous items.

NCAA Division I Recruitment and Initial Eligibility

A familiar tagline used by the NCAA is that “there are nearly 500,000 NCAA

student-athletes, and less than 2% will go pro in their sport” (NCAA, 2022, p. 8). What is

not as often advertised is the probability of high school student-athletes becoming

collegiate student-athletes. Receiving an athletic scholarship to participate in college

sports, much like becoming a professional in sports, is no easy feat. Not only do

prospective college student athletes need to compete for scholarships based on their

athletic abilities in the respective sport, but also prepare themselves academically for

admission requirements of college campuses.

As mentioned earlier, before a student-athlete becomes eligible for participation at

a higher education institution, certain academic requirements must be met. Colleges are

tasked with filtering future prospects based on grades and standardized college

admissions exams (Lombardi et al., 2012). The specific academic requirements differ,

depending on the NCAA level (e.g., Division I, Division II, or Division III) for high

school student-athletes, therefore, possessing a thorough knowledge of those academic

requirements is critical. This statement is especially true when considering how their 4-

year plans and grade point average can impact NCAA opportunities.

For high school student-athletes who are being recruited (or have the potential to

be recruited) for an opportunity to participate in NCAA athletic programs (e.g., practices,

games, receiving scholarship monies), he or she must first create a profile on the NCAA

Eligibility Center website. According to the NCAA Eligibility Center, there are three

types of these profiles that a secondary student-athlete can register for: (a) a free profile

page account, which is an account for secondary student-athletes who are potentially

college bound student-athletes wanting to increase their overall knowledge of NCAA

athletics; (b) a fee-required amateurism-only certification account, which is geared

towards international students who are college-bound and want to compete at the

Division III level of the NCAA; and (c) a fee-required academic and amateurism

certification account, which is for potential college-bound student-athletes who want to

compete at the Division I or Division II level of the NCAA, who plan on taking an

official visit to a higher education institution, and plan on signing a National Letter of

Intention to play a sport at an NCAA higher education institution (NCAA, n.d.).

Upon a student-athlete’s high school graduation, the NCAA Eligibility Center

completes an academic certification for that student-athlete. Once this certification

occurs, the student-athlete is deemed one of the following: (a) an “Early Academic

Qualifier”; (b) a “Qualifier”; (c) an “Academic Redshirt”; or (d) a “Nonqualifier”

(NCAA, 2022, p. 21). Early Academic Qualifiers are high school student-athletes who

have met academic criteria after six semesters of high school and are eligible to

participate in games, practices, and receive athletic scholarships in the first year of

college enrollment (NCAA, 2022). For this group of student-athletes, the minimum GPA

is 3.0 or higher in at least 14 core courses that must include three years of English, two

years of math, two years of science, an additional two years of English, math, or science

classes, and finally, five more core classes of choice (NCAA, 2022). In addition to those

core class requirements, Early Academic Qualifiers must also receive a minimum

combined score of 980 on their SAT or a minimum ACT score of 75 (NCAA, 2022).

Typically, these student-athletes have plans of graduating early and will need to submit

their final transcript to the NCAA Eligibility Center.

For student-athletes who do not take the path of an Early Academic Qualifier, to

be deemed academically eligible and achieve Qualifier status, they can follow the NCAA

“4x4=16” framework (NCAA, 2022, p. 11). Under this plan, college-bound student

athletes must complete four years of English, Math, Science, Social Science, and/or

additional approved core classes (NCAA, 2022). An important note within this

requirement is that 10 of those core classes must be complete by the student-athlete’s

seventh semester in high school. After this time, none of those 10 core classes can be

repeated or replaced towards improving the student-athlete’s overall GPA (NCAA, 2022,

p. 20). Unlike Early Academic Qualifiers, the minimum GPA required for a Qualifier is a

2.3 for NCAA approved core classes (NCAA, 2022, p. 20).

Student-athletes who experience academic achievement deficits upon graduation

time will either be classified as Academic Redshirts or Nonqualifiers. During the first

semester of initial enrollment, Academic Redshirts are able to receive an athletic

scholarship and practice with their teams, with the caveat however, that they must pass at

least nine hours in the semester to maintain the ability to practice. At no time during that

first year will they be able to compete (NCAA, 2022). To receive an Academic Redshirt,

a student-athlete must complete the required amount of 16 NCAA approved core courses

and have at least a 2.0 in those courses (NCAA, 2022).

Finally, student-athletes who are unable to meet all NCAA Division I initial-

eligibility requirements will be considered a Nonqualifier. Student-athletes under this

classification will not be able to receive an athletic scholarship during their first year

(NCAA, 2022). Moreover, student-athletes under this classification will not be able to

practice or compete at a NCAA Division I institution (NCAA, 2022).

Student-athletes who fall under the designation of a NCAA Nonqualifier or are

not immediately able to attend a 4-year institution out of high school due to low

recruitment opportunities or other personal factors, may attempt to reach their goal of

becoming a NCAA Division I student-athlete by attending a 2-year community or junior

college (White, 2011). In addition to providing an alternate route to NCAA student-

athlete qualifier status, benefits of going to 2-year colleges provide an opportunity for the

student to ease into the challenging expectations of a being a college student with a

smaller student-body and more personalized academic support (White, 2011). Although

this path offers student-athletes another way to reaching NCAA Division I student-athlete

status, it is not without its own issues. In addition to meeting general community college

student requirements for transferring, student-athletes who transfer from community

colleges to 4-year institutions must also meet NCAA requirements (White, 2011).

Results of a study done by researchers Brecht and Burnett (2019) indicate that one

of the best predictors for academic success in college is high school GPA. Interesting

enough, the results of this same study did not align with previous research that indicated

standardized aptitude tests were a predictor of academic success in college (Brecht &

Burnett, 2019). If future studies reflect the same outcome, admission requirements

involving certain scores on exams such as the SAT and ACT may need to be revisited

(Brecht & Burnett, 2019).

Brecht and Burnett (2019) analyzed the influence of cognitive and non-cognitive

factors in predicting the academic success of first-year Division I college student-athletes.

Cognitive factors included high school GPA, SAT scores, and ACT scores. Non-

cognitive factors were included based on previous research (e.g., Comeaux & Harrison,

2011; Cunningham, 1993; Sedlacek, 2004) which indicated that noncognitive factors

were more applicable indicators of academic success for special populations of students,

such as student-athletes (Brecht & Burnett, 2019). The Transition to College Inventory

(TCI) mentioned in this study is an example of surveys used by students moving into the

postsecondary world. The TCI, created by researchers Pickering, Calliotte, and

McAuliffe, captured various noncognitive variables like study and time management

skills, motivation, and self-esteem to support finding foreboding cognitive variables

impacting academic success (Brecht & Burnett, 2019). These noncognitive variables,

particularly motivation, are essential to include in understanding college readiness in

student athletes due to its potential transferability from the playing fields to the classroom

setting.

Accountability for Athletes in Postsecondary Education

At the high school level in Texas, academic accountability specifically for

student-athletes with respect to tracking is handled at his or her campus, monitored by

their coaches, counselors, and assigned principal. As long as student-athletes maintain at

least a grade of 70 or above, they will continue to be academically eligible to participate

in athletics (UIL, 2022a). Foregoing losing credit due to excessive absences, they will

also receive credits towards graduation. In the state of Texas, specific graduation data

with respect to student-athletes is not available. This situation is a far cry from other

detailed reports found on the TEA website (e.g., Discipline Data, TAPR Reports,

Accountability Ratings, etc.). When considering the number of students who participate

in athletics and other extra-curricular activities, this number may be both a factor both for

and against collecting that information.

In comparison, academic accountability at the postsecondary level is similar in

some ways but more detailed in others. Like secondary athletes, NCAA collegiate

athletes must maintain at least a minimum grade average to be eligible to compete in

sports (Yukhymenko-Lescroart, 2018). Thus, like at the secondary level, competing with

academically ineligible players can result in penalties for the student-athlete, the team,

and institution. However, unlike the secondary level, graduation data for collegiate

athletes are also tracked for each sport and postsecondary institution. The Student Right-

To-Know Act, a division of the Campus Security Act of 1990, established that

institutions that received federal funding, were required to report graduation information

to the Department of Education (Bradley, 1992). Earlier that year, however, members of

the NCAA had already passed its own legislation that required colleges to report

disaggregated graduation rates according to student-athlete race, gender, and sport of

participation (NCAA, 2014b).

The Federal Graduation Rate (FGR) was created to calculate and track the

graduation rates for all institutions whose student-athletes receive scholarships to

compete for their athletic programs (NCAA, 2021). Under the FGR method, student-

athletes are tracked by cohort. Cohorts can only include freshmen who enter during a fall

semester, are enrolled for the first time, and are receiving financial aid tied to their

athletic status.

Although the FGR was a necessary tool in regard to institutional accountability, it

did have gaps. As illustrated in the introduction, not all athletes remain at their initial

campus of enrollment. In fact, it was found in a 2019 graduation rates report done by the

NCAA research department that one half of Division III football student-athletes do not

graduate from the college initially enrolled in (NCAA, 2019). Under the FGR, student-

athletes who transfer penalize their campus of origin and do not reward the campus they

end up graduating from (NCAA, 2022). Another gap in the FGR was that it only tracks

student-athletes up to six years from their initial entrance to college (NCAA, 2022). Any

student-athlete who experiences circumstances that may extend their graduation beyond

the six-year window is counted as an academic failure, even if they eventually graduate.

To demonstrate the calculation of the FGR, I will use the following hypothetical

example: Sportsville University’s men’s basketball team enrolls a cohort of 10 qualified

freshmen in the fall semester. During the following spring semester, they get three

transfer student-athletes. Out of the original cohort, five student-athletes graduate from

Sportsville University within the six-year window and five leave in poor academic

standing. Out of the three transfers, two student-athletes graduate from Sportsville

University. One transfers again in good standing to Newtown University and

subsequently graduates. Under the FGR, student-athletes who transfer into a university

are not included in a cohort, regardless of academic standing. The only student-athletes

considered for accountability purposes in this example are the seven members of the

cohort. Five out of the 10 graduated, so the FGR for Sportsville University is five divided

by 10 or 50%.

The counterpart to the FGR is the Graduation Success Rate (GSR). Due to the

negative rate impact on campuses regarding student-athletes who transfer and those who

start outside of the fall, university administrators who were under the regulation of the

NCAA felt that there should be a more accurate calculation, which included these

student-athletes (NCAA, 2014a). As a response, the NCAA created the GSR in 2002.

With the GSR, a student-athlete’s transfer from his or her original campus is not

considered an academic failure if they are academically eligible at the time they transfer;

therefore, there is no penalty given to the original campus (NCAA, 2014b). When that

student-athlete arrives to the next campus, he or she is added to the proper cohort. The

school is then subsequently rewarded if and when that student-athlete graduates, provided

it is still in the six-year window (NCAA, 2014b).

To illustrate the difference in arriving at the GSR, I will use the example from

earlier. Sportsville University’s men’s basketball team enrolls a cohort of 10 qualified

freshmen in the fall semester. During the following spring semester, they get three

transfer student-athletes. Out of the original cohort, five student-athletes graduate from

Sportsville University within the six-year window and five leave in poor academic

standing. Out of the three transfers, two student-athletes graduate from Sportsville

University. One student-athlete transfers again, in good academic standing to Newtown

University and subsequently graduates. Due to the fact that the GSR includes student-

athletes who transfer in the calculation, the cohort grows from 10 to 12 student-athletes.

The student-athlete who transferred to Newtown University in good academic standing

and graduated, will only count for Newtown University. With seven out of 12 student-

athletes graduating, Sportsville University’s GSR is 58%.

For universities with student-athletes competing in NCAA Division II and

Division III, the FGR is calculated in the same manner. However, instead of the GSR,

graduation rates for NCAA Division II and Division III are calculated using the

Academic Success Rate (ASR). The ASR was created by the NCAA in 2006 to serve a

similar purpose to the GSR, which is to include more student-athletes (NCAA, 2014).

The process for calculation is similar to the GSR, however, for the ASR, student-athletes

who do not receive financial aid are considered in the equation. This factor increases the

number of student-athletes on those campuses that affect graduation rate, that would

otherwise be left out in the FGR (NCAA, 2021). In fact, according to a 2021 NCAA

research study, about 50% more student-athletes are counted in the ASR than the FGR

(NCAA, 2021).

With these accountability measures in mind, it is important to be cognizant of the

method of calculation used in the dataset. Because each method has its own process,

results will vary. When analyzing student-athlete graduation rates in relation to

independent variables (e.g., race, gender, athletic status, sport of participation),

comparisons should be made within the same method (e.g., FGR to FGR) and not across

methods (e.g., FGR to GSR).

According to the Division I Graduation Rates Database (NCAA, 2021), the 2018-

2021 overall FGR for student-athlete cohorts entering from 2011-2014, was 69% and

included 94,184 student-athletes. This percentage includes both men’s and women’s

sports. The 2018-2021 FGR for Men’s Basketball, Football Bowl Subdivision, and

Football Championship Subdivision was 48%, 63%, and 62%, respectively (NCAA,

2021). Overall GSR for the 2018-2021 student-athlete cohort was 89% and included

98,532 student-athletes (NCAA, 2021). Men’s Basketball, Football Bowl Subdivision,

and Football Championship Subdivision reported a GSR of 84%, 81%, and 79%,

respectively (NCAA, 2021).

When the graduation rates are disaggregated by race, a couple of trends emerge.

Although the participation numbers of African-American male student-athletes are higher

in both football and basketball postsecondary teams than participation numbers of other

ethnic groups or races, graduation rates for African-American male student-athletes are

significantly lower. The NCAA (2021) reported that the 2018-2021 GSR for African-

American Men’s Basketball (n = 621) was 81% compared to White Men’s Basketball (n

= 200), which was 94% (NCAA, 2021).

A 2022 study conducted by Lapchick et al. (2022) and The Institute for Diversity

and Ethics in Sport (TIDES) titled “Keeping Score When It Counts”, reported graduation

rates of both men’s and women’s basketball teams predicted to participate in the 2023

NCAA Basketball Tournament Championships. This annually released study takes an in-

depth look at the academic achievement of those teams through graduation rates, using

the GSR and the APR reported to the NCAA (Lapchick et al., 2022). In addition to

overall graduation rates, the researchers examine differences in graduation rates by race

(e.g. White student-athletes and Black student athletes), as well as gender (e.g., Male

student-athletes and female student-athletes). According to this study, the overall GSR

for projected NCAA Men’s Basketball teams participating in the 2023 tournament was

84.9%, a 2.3% decrease from 87.2%, the GSR for men’s teams participating in the 2022

tournament (Lapchick et al., 2022). This decrease is a shift from the previous year, which

reflected positive growth. Men’s teams projected to participate in the 2022 tournament

was 87.2%, which was a 4.8% increase from the GSR for the teams in the 2021 NCAA

Men’s Basketball Tournament (Lapchick et al., 2022).

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, an important factor to consider when

researching relationships between academic achievement and participation in athletics is

the length of the season with respect to the academic calendar. For example, my Alma

Mater, San Diego State University, made it to the Final Four Championships held in

Houston, Tx, April 1st through April 3rd, 2023. Considering the beginning of the men’s

basketball season started in early November, that is a substantial amount of time these

college athletes missed in class. Although some athletic programs have academic

advisors who travel with the team, those advisors do not take the place of professors and

classroom instruction.

In an effort to amend and improve already established academic standards, NCAA

officials added another layer to its academic accountability. In 2003, a year after the

implementation of the GSR, the Academic Progress Rate, or APR, was created as a more

accessible and real-time means to track the academic progress of NCAA Division I

athletes (NCAA, 2013b). After its official adoption in 2004 (NCAA, 2015b), the APR

began tracking academic progress annually for all NCAA Division I teams and released

results of that data analyses towards the end of the academic school year (NCAA, 2013b).

With the APR, yearly rates of accountability are determined using a specific set of

guidelines. Teams can earn a total of two points for each member of the team who

receives any type of financial aid connected to their athletic status (NCAA, 2015b).

However, in order to get these points, the student-athlete must be both enrolled at the

current institution the following term and have a high enough GPA to maintain eligibility

(NCAA, 2015b). If a student-athlete meets only one of those stipulations, only one point

is awarded and if a student does not meet either of the stipulations, no points are awarded

(NCAA, 2015b). Once the eligible points are determined, that number is then divided by

the number of possible points the team could have earned (NCAA, 2015b). The result of

that calculation is then finally multiplied by 1,000 to get the teams’ yearly APR (NCAA,

2015b).

To illustrate the APR, I will use the following hypothetical example. During the

2022-2023 Sportsville University’s men’s basketball team has 15 members. Of those 15

team members, 10 are both academically eligible and enrolled for the spring semester for

a total of 20 points. Two of those members remained enrolled in the spring semester but

did not meet academic eligibility requirements, thus only receiving at total of two points

since both requirements were not met. One member of the team unenrolled from

Sportsville University but still maintained academic requirements, thus receiving one

point for meeting one of the requirements. The final two members were ineligible when

they unenrolled from Sportsville University and did not earn any points due to neither

requirement being met. After all awarded points are calculated, Sportsville University’s

men’s basketball team received a total of 23 points. Because they had 15 members on the

team, they could have potentially received a total of 30 points. According to APR

calculation procedures (NCAA, 2015b), 23 points divided by 30 points equals .767.

When that number is multiplied by 1,000, the result is an APR of 767 for Sportsville

University’s men’s basketball team.

According to NCAA (2015b) expectations, championship participation eligibility

is predicated on that team averaging at least a 930 APR over the course of four years. If

Sportsville University’s men’s basketball team continued the current trend, it would face

additional penalties, including being ineligible to compete in championships. For teams

who do not meet the minimum APR of 930, limits are placed on the amount of time

allowed for weekly athletic events, such as practice and strength and conditioning, from

20 hours down to 16 hours (NCAA, 2015b). If improvements are not met, the next level

of penalties will include further limits on athletic events, this time, including potential

competitions in addition to practices and other athletic events (NCAA, 2015b).

Identity

Playing dual roles is part of simultaneously being a student and an athlete (Lu et

al., 2018) These two powerful identities influence and evolve the behavior, success, and

levels of inspiration for student-athletes (Yukhymenko, 2018). Therefore, gaining insight

on the ramifications of emphasizing one identity over the other and the resulting clash at

crossroads, is essential (Lu et al., 2018) For many student-athletes, their recruitment to

NCAA Division I schools, especially student-athletes participating in revenue-producing

sports, is predicated on their athletic ability (Simons et al., 1999). This level of athletic

prowess has been cultivated and celebrated by various stakeholders in that student-

athlete’s life, therefore creating a heightened connection between the student-athlete and

their athletic dedication (Simons et al., 1999).

Theoretically, identity can be seen as how someone presents or defines

themselves in a certain social circumstance or place and a hierarchy of identity

importance is subsequently developed based on responses and interactions from others

(Burke & Tully, 1977). Lally (2007) notes that one’s identity is a multifaceted

perspective of self that is consistently evolving and the priority identity is guided by both

social and situational components. Moreover, identity is a piece of a broader

conceptualization one uses to describe themselves in comparison to others in society

(Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Caza et al., 2018; Steele et al., 2020). As children grow and

evolve into young adults, the foremost developmental goal is to ascertain an idea of who

they are as a person (Brewer & Petitpas, 2017). In the realm of organized sports, the

number of children involved in sports is growing and the age of entry into sports is

getting younger (Logan et al., 2019). This occurrence, however, is not just limited to

revenue-producing sports. Advertisements for youth sports are found in many suburban

neighborhoods, as well as in quick searches on the internet. Because of this prevalence,

many children’s developmental ages are spent being exposed to athletic influences.

Brewer and Petitpas (2017) noted that the most advantageous development happens when

people delve into an array of activities and connect with other individuals from diverse

backgrounds. Participation in sports can offer these opportunities.

Brewer et al. (1993) define athletic identity as the extent in which a person

identifies with themselves being an athlete. Not only is it a mindset, but also how

someone perceives themselves in societal sense (Brewer et al.,1993; Love & Rufer,

2021). Young student-athletes who are heavily involved in sports and have received

persistent extrinsic and intrinsic awards due to that participation are more likely to grasp

a self-identity centered around athletics (Nyland & Pyle, 2022). Expectations of

successful performances and reaching the highest levels of competition are consistently

communicated to student-athletes by their coaches, their school staff, their friends, and

other members of their teams (Yukhymenko, 2018). In an effort to fulfill these

expectations and affirm their athletic identity, some student-athletes may alter their

behaviors within their fields of play and/or the classroom. Furthermore, Yukhymenko

(2018) proposed that how student-athletes identify with respect to them being student-

focused or athlete-focused, could place significant influence on their engagement in the

classroom and in athletics (Kaplan & Flum, 2010). In his description of the development

of ego-identity in youths, Marcia (1966) proposed that a person who chooses to engage in

a socially acceptable role in order to avoid conflict or disapproval is in identity

foreclosure. Despite a short-term relief from immediate conflict or rejection, long-term

effects can include missed chances for various levels of growth (Brewer & Petitpas,

2017). And as illustrated, athletes spend a vast amount of time and resources in their

respective sports; so much so that there is little time to traverse into other areas of identity

formation (Brewer & Petitpas, 2017).

Although the benefits of being a student-athlete have been researched and

documented, it is important to note the potential dangers associated with over-

identification, specifically with respect to athletic identity. While a strong athletic identity

positively influences athletic performance, research has also shown that the strong focus

on athletic identity has a causal relationship with the creation of transitional academic

deficits and post-athletics life adjustments (Brewer et al., 2010; Brown & Davis, 2001;

Lally, 2005; Love & Rufer, 2021).

When athletic identity is at risk, either from serious injury or an unexpected

ending of one’s athletic career, the ramifications can be severe and adjustment to post-

athletics life can be difficult (Brewer et al., 2010). Regarding mental health, positive

correlations are found between injury and depression in collegiate student-athletes whose

positive vision of self is encased in their identity as an athlete (Armstrong et al., 2015).

For those collegiate student-athletes who participate in revenue-producing sports and do

not continue playing professionally, athletic identity foreclosure may impact future career

opportunities. Choosing or not choosing a graduation major in college due to athletic

commitment is a viable factor to consider. I recently had a conversation with an academic

advisor for a West coast NCAA Division I institution and she mentioned that there are

occasions where student-athletes enter their first year of college with one major but due

to the rigor and time demands, they change that major by the end of that first year in

order to maintain expectations in the classroom and remain eligible. A study on athletic

retirement referenced a student-athlete participant who entered into college in one major

and then switched to a more difficult major in Year 3 of college (Lally, 2007). In an

effort to devote more time to his sport, he subsequently switched back to his original

major to increase his chances of qualifying to represent the school in athletic

competitions (Lally, 2007). When looking at degrees attained by all Division I student-

athletes in the 2019-2020 graduating class, the top three degrees attained by football

players were (a) Business (24%), (b) Social Science (20%), and (c) Communication &

Liberal Arts, General Studies, and Humanities (11%) (NCAA, 2018). For men’s

basketball, the top three degrees were (a) Business (22%), (b) Social Science and

Communication (17%), and (c) Liberal Arts, General Studies and Humanities (13%)

(NCAA, 2018).

Another point to consider with respect to athletic identity foreclosure and future

career opportunities is race. The top three degrees for Black football players in the 2019-

2020 class were (a) Social Science (20%), (b) Business (17%), and (c) Liberal Arts,

General Studies and Humanities (14%) (NCAA, 2018). In comparison, the top three

degrees for White football players were: (a) Business (34%), (b) Social Science (17%)

and (c) STEM (15%). For men’s basketball, the top three degrees for Black basketball

players were: (a) Communication (20%), (b) Social Science (19%), and (c) Liberal Arts,

General Studies, and Humanities (17%) (NCAA, 2018). And in comparison, the top three

degrees for White men’s basketball players were (a) Business (43%), (b) Social Science

(12%), and (c) Communication (11%) (NCAA, 2018). These data indicate a potential

need to further research the correlations between sports, race/ethnicity, and cultural

expectations on identity, postsecondary expectations, and for the long-term correlation on

career readiness.

At some point, student-athletes will no longer be athletes and the effects of

identity on life post-athletics, whether by choice or by force, becomes palpable. Results

from previous studies (Blinde & Stratta, 1992; Lally, 2007) have indicated that for some,

life after the conclusion of athletics has led to various mental, emotional, and cognitive

difficulties. Blinde and Stratta (1992) carried out in-depth interviews with 20 student-

athletes who had been abruptly removed from their respective sports teams. In this study,

the researchers wanted to explore the mental processes of athletes experiencing

uncontrolled dismissals from athletics. A major finding of this study was that student-

athletes who experience this type of ending to athletic careers equate the emotional

process to that of “death and dying” (Blinde & Stratta, 1992, p. 1). Blinde and Stratta

(1992) described answers given in the interviews as similar to those of a person

experiencing stages of grief, including being stunned, being irate, being sad, and finally,

being hesitant to accept the reality of the situation.

Lally (2007) conducted a longitudinal study that included three separate one-on-

one interviews with six college level student-athletes, three females and three males. The

purpose of this study was to investigate the correlation between identity and athletic

retirement (Lally, 2007). These interviews were done at the beginning of their final

season, about a month after completion of their final season, and then finally, about a

year after completing their final season (Lally, 2007). When participants discussed their

adolescent years and span of time prior to athletic retirement, they described them as

being committed to athletic activities and having dreams of reaching various levels of

professionalism in their respective sports (Lally, 2007). Participants also admitted that

once they reached collegiate status, they often focused more on athletic preparedness as

opposed to academic or social development (Lally, 2007). Once participants realized that

reaching professional status was not attainable, five out of the six reported accepting this

reality and therefore began to prepare themselves for life after sports around their final

two years of college (Lally, 2007). A major theme documented from interviews was that

of “anticipated loss” by participants (Lally, 2007, p. 91).

Discussions during the time period right after athletic retirement illustrated a great

deal of emotional difficulty when participants reflected on their final events, however, the

expected void of no longer being an athlete was not manifested in the reporting (Lally,

2007). Five out of the six participants shared that as reality became more clear and closer,

they began to explore other aspects of their collegiate experience and reinvent who they

were going to be after athletics (Lally, 2007). This preparatory shift in mindset allowed

participants to develop a different sense of self on their own terms. By the final interview,

which occurred about a year after athletic retirement, all but one of the participants had

completed or nearly completed various levels of degree programs and had also expressed

not feeling negative emotions around no longer competing in sports (Lally, 2007). The

student-athlete who did not prepare for life after sports had a much tougher time adjusting

to athletic retirement and leaving his athletic identity behind (Lally, 2007). What Lally

(2007) found in this study was that when the student-athlete participants began to

acknowledge and address the potential shift in their athletic identities prior to its

occurrence, they were able to avoid instances of large-scale identity crises when it

happened.

Although participants in Lally’s (2007) study were at the college level and of

small number, I have seen a significant number of student-athletes who could identify

with the lone participant who did not prepare for the shift in athletic identity, as well as

those who did prepare, thus adding transferability and validity to its findings. Something

to consider with respect to this study is that in addition to the participants being in

college, the circumstances around their sport allowed them to predict the end of their

athletic careers. The choice for them then was whether to begin preparation for that end,

or not. At the secondary level, that predicted end is not so clear or finite, particularly

when the athlete is finding success socially or athletically. Being part of a sports team can

be of paramount importance during their time in both junior high and high school,

particularly due to the social capital it provided, as well as the hopes of potential

possibilities to compete beyond graduation. When the time came for them to no longer be

active in those sports, regardless of reason, I saw significant declines in moods, their

engagement in school, and overall experience in school for those student-athletes who

were not prepared for the transition.

The impact of social capital on identity warrants attention. Research has revealed

increases in the self-worth in student-athletes in addition to an increase in social capital

(Garcia & Subia, 2019). Previous authors (Anheier et al., 1995; Bourdieu, 1986; Brown

& Davis, 2001; Carter-Francique et at., 2015; Coleman,1988) describe social capital as an

individual’s existing and possible future group membership, in addition to that

individual’s access to means of success in various social settings. In my experience as an

athlete, coach, and administrator, I have seen that there is a lot of social capital connected

with being an athlete especially one who participates in revenue-producing sports. And

being a member of a successful team adds an extra boost of that social capital. Examples

of this capital can be seen at the professional level, college level, and secondary level. I

can remember one of the first times I experienced having social capital. I was a

sophomore in high school and a member of a very successful basketball program.

Because of my individual successes on the team, my name and picture regularly appeared

in the area newspapers. While shopping with my mother at a local store, an elderly man

walked over, called me by name, and complimented my performance in a recent game.

By all accounts, that individual would not know who I was and most likely would not

have approached me had it not been for my position as a successful athlete. I can vividly

remember processing the event and concluding that my identity as an athlete was valued.

This type of influence on the formation of identity is not unique and according to Henry

and Renaud (1972), can cause a person, particularly a young person, to abstain from

seeking other behaviors due to the benefits linked to a role.

Social capital carries a lot of weight and sometimes brings privilege to

marginalized groups of people typically described as having minority positions in society

(Carter-Francique et al., 2015). For example, my referenced experience between myself

then (a young Black female) and the elderly man (a White person) was during a time

when the community that I participated in and for, was coming out of its own historical

proximity to racial injustices and events (Blakinger, 2018; Hurd, 2017). This is not to say

that the elderly man was racist by any means, however, his interaction with me provided

a sense of social safety found in my athletic-identity that had not been found at that time

in any other identity.

Furthermore, with respect to social capital, the influence of social media adds

another layer of complexity to identity. Social capital increases the number of people who

follow a particular social media account and a large number of followers can lead to

lucrative opportunities. In a day and age when social media serves as a crucial building

block in the formation of social capital, exposure, and status for kids and young adults

(Thomas et al., 2017), studies around its use among student-athletes have grown over the

last decade.

One of the biggest applications of social capital recently became approved at the

collegiate level. On June 30, 2021, NCAA officials agreed to allow NCAA student-

athletes the opportunity to be compensated for the use of their Name, Image, and

Likeness; more commonly referred to as NIL (Hosick, 2021). This is a significant shift

from original NCAA ideologies holding steadfast to the concept of student-athlete

amateurism and vowing to shield young athletes from exploitation (Miller, 2012).

NCAA student-athletes are now able to be paid for various things such signatures,

clothing brands they promote or create, guest appearances, and product advertisements

without penalty (NCSA College Recruiting, n.d.) Specifics as to what is allowed or not is

left up to the states. According to Texas Senate Bill 1385 regarding student-athlete

compensation, restrictions include uses of NIL involving athletic performance (as

opposed to athletic status), alcohol or tobacco products of any kind, and payments

directly from the school (Texas Senate Bill 1385, 2021).

Although the ability for NCAA student-athletes to be able to get compensation for

their name, image, and likeness is new, the battle to gain that ability is not. Prior to its

approval, student-athletes who were caught benefiting from the use of their NIL would be

penalized according to NCAA bylaws (Miller, 2012). One the more notorious incidents

reflecting such penalties happened in 2010 with Reggie Bush, former collegiate and

professional football player (Miller, 2012). During his time as a running back at the

University of Southern California, it was reported by NCAA investigators that Reggie

Bush allegedly accepted financial gifts from outside agencies, a clear violation according

to NCAA bylaws (Miller, 2012). Due to this violation, his 2005 Heisman Trophy win, a

prestigious award given to football’s best player of the year, was forfeited (Miller, 2012).

With the NIL becoming an evolving fixture in NCAA sports, an extra layer of

complexity is added to the connections associated with athletic identity and academic

achievement for secondary student-athletes who now see a much quicker pathway to

financial earnings without immediately going professional. Its impact has not gone

unnoticed by those outside of sports. Most recently, during the 2023 ESPYs (Excellence

in Sports Performance Yearly) Awards, which recognizes some of the best professional

and collegiate athletes in the world of sports, a remixed version of his song “A Milli” was

performed by rapper, Lil Wayne. In the second verse, he switched original lyrics and said

“I want my NIL so I’m going back to college” (Rap Alert, 2023).

Because NIL earnings for student-athletes cannot be based on athletic

performance (Steinbach, 2021), their existing and potential social capital is a crucial

component that draws businesses in. Some of the nations’ top NIL earners also have a

massive social media following and future earning potential. For example, basketball

player Bronny James, son of NBA basketball player Lebron James, will be a freshman at

the University of Southern California during the 2023-2024 school year and currently

holds the top spot, earning around $5.9 million in NIL (Evans, 2023). According to one

of his social media accounts, Bronny James has 7.4 million followers on Instagram

(James, n.d.). Caleb Williams, quarterback for the University of Southern California, has

just under 200,000 social media followers on Instagram (Williams, n.d.) but is projected

to possibly be a first pick in the NFL draft in 2024 (Evans, 2023). Recruitment of

prospective student-athletes will see shifts in how college coaches present their programs.

Not only do college coaches need to sell their athletic program, but also convince

prospective student-athletes that their NIL program is established enough to produce

lucrative opportunities for that student-athlete.

Depending on the draw of the student-athlete, there is a substantial amount of

money that could be made at the collegiate level. In some states however, student-athletes

do not need to wait that long. In the fall of 2021, California became the first state in the

United States to allow students at the high school level to be compensated for the name,

image, and likeness (Fields, 2023). Since then, the list of schools has grown. As of July 1,

2023, 28 states and the District of Columbia will have some variation of policies in place

or on the way that allow high school student-athletes to receive NIL compensation (BCS,

n.d.). Currently, Texas is not one of those states.

Motivation

As stated earlier, motivation is a “process governing choices made by

persons…among alternative forms of voluntary activity” (Vroom, 1964, p. 7). With this

motivation theory, four key assumptions are made. One assumption is that individuals

enter into relationships with expectations on what that relationship should look like,

based on previous interactions and personal needs. These expectations then guide the

individual’s behaviors within the organization (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). For

example, Chris, a high school student-athlete with a stronger athletic identity who wants

to continue to play basketball at the collegiate level may join an AAU basketball team

because he knows that exposure outside of his high school team may increase the

likelihood of being noticed by recruiters. Once Chris joins an AAU team, the

understanding is that others on the team have the same aspirations, and therefore Chris

understands that his performance will dictate his amount of playing time and impact his

exposure.

The next assumption is that within an organization and depending on the

individual’s expectations, any actions by the individual are intentional (Lunenburg &

Ornstein, 2008). Based on this assumption, Chris joins a particular summer traveling

team because he knows that this team needs point guards, which is the position Chris

plays. He will expect to have more of an opportunity; however, Chris understands that he

must still compete against other point guards on the team.

For the third assumption, Vroom stated that individuals have different needs

within an organization (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). Within this assumption, Chris

joined this particular summer traveling team because this specific team will bring

exposure, which may lead to increased scholarship opportunities. His coach, however, is

a part of this traveling team because he gets paid well and gets to interact with collegiate

coaches which is where Chris’s coach wants to end up professionally; thus, Chris and his

coach have different motivations.

The fourth and last assumption states that individuals will seek other opportunities

that will aid them in reaching their goals (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). Based on this

assumption, if Chris finds that despite his efforts, his level of exposure is not what he

expected or needs to be while playing on this particular AAU team, he may decide to join

another team.

In summary, according to Vroom’s theory, an individual will be motivated to act

accordingly when those actions could possibly result in something that the individual

wants to achieve (Parijat & Bagga, 2014). Regardless of identity level, student-athletes

are aware that to remain eligible for athletic participation they must at least meet

minimum academic requirements. This expectation provides a necessary motivation to at

least minimally engage in the classroom. That engagement, however, does not necessarily

require the student-athlete to go beyond that, therefore, implicating a potential causal

relation to levels of academic engagement.

Using descriptive methodology, researchers Garcia and Subia (2019) conducted a

study that chronicled the levels of personal accountability, academic perseverance,

academic achievement, and motivation of high schoolers in the Philippines. A total of 83

student-athletes were included in this study, all of them selected via “purposive

sampling” (Garcia & Subia, 2019, p. 87) that fit the following criteria: (a) they had to be

student-athletes at the time of study, (b) they had to have competed in the most recent

contest, and (c) they had to be registered in public schools in the selected district for this

study (Garcia & Subia, 2019).

With respect to motivation, Garcia and Subia (2019) found that participants

strongly agreed that their membership on sports teams served as a strong motivator to be

successful. According to the study, student-athletes were “driven to prepare, train hard,

and make personal sacrifices to achieve excellence and to get in the winner’s circle”

(Garcia & Subia, 2019, p. 86). Although there was no directly stated recipient of the drive

mentioned in the previous statement, one can infer that the use of winner’s circle meant

student-athletes were motivated to do their best in athletics. This assumption is supported

in further analysis of data collected by the researchers. The majority of the participants in

this study, 64 student-athletes, had a GPA average in the range of what Garcia and Subia

described as “Developing” and “Approaching Proficiency” (Garcia & Subia, 2019, p.

87). Furthermore, in the area of study habits, student-athletes only averaged weighted

means consistent with “agree” for all descriptors. Examples of descriptors included

statements like “I complete my assignments and work on time” and “I set priorities and

goals to manage my learning and development” (Garcia & Subia, 2019, p. 88) thus

implying that student-athletes did struggle with getting assignments in on time and

needed improvement in some academic areas (Garcia & Subia, 2019). Additionally,

student-athletes also needed help in skills necessary for life after athletics, specifically,

establishing a career path (Garcia & Subia, 2019).

Despite the aforementioned findings, conclusions of this study indicated that

overall academic achievement levels of the student-athletes were adequate and that there

were multiple benefits of athletic participation. Among those benefits were an increase

sense of accountability for their actions and their time management (Garcia & Subia,

2019). A vital correlational finding in this study was that there existed a significant

connection between the academic achievement of the participant and their participation in

athletics (Garcia & Subia, 2019). What Garcia and Subia (2019) found was that higher

academic performance was linked to higher athletic participation in school. Garcia and

Subia (2019) offered recommendations such as continued progress monitoring both

academically and athletically for student-athletes, specialized learning centers for

student-athletes, school faculty trainings on how to increase student-athlete capacity

schoolwide, and student-athlete trainings on how to increase their own capacity

schoolwide.

When looking at motivation from the aspect of nonrevenue sports versus revenue

sports, Simons et al. (1999) discovered significant differences between the two groups.

What they hypothesized was that motivation to succeed in the classroom was somehow

influenced by a student-athletes’ identity relationship with athletics and their concern

about becoming ineligible due to academic failure (Simons et al., 1999). Using the self-

worth theory as a framework, researchers investigated the levels of performance

motivation in NCAA Division I athletes (Simons et al., 1999). According to the theory,

four types of motivation are present in which individuals exist: (a) Success-Oriented, (b)

Failure-Avoiders, (c) Overstrivers, and (d) Failure-Acceptors (Simons et al., 1999, pp.

152-154). In essence, those students who are Success-Oriented are very sure of

themselves and are not afraid of failure; if failure does occur, they are able to adequately

apply rationale to the why they failed and make necessary changes in order to correct

themselves. For those students who are Failure-Avoiders, they, in contrast, are unsure of

themselves due to previous academic setbacks and put more effort into avoiding

opportunities for failures than taking risks (Simons et al., 1999). These Failure-Avoiders

will often take part in activities that would be considered self-sabotage such as not

completing assignments on time and prolonging the start of necessary tasks in order to

create scapegoats for their shortcomings as opposed to taking responsibility for their lack

of effort. Individuals in the Overstriver group are incredibly determined to do what is

necessary to succeed, however they also are very much afraid of failure, therefore their

view of worth is predicated on being successful so unlike Success-Oriented individuals,

failures can be detrimental (Simons et al., 1999). The last group, the Failure-Acceptors,

put forth minimal effort to succeed academically and minimal effort to avoid any type of

failure in the classroom (Simons, et al., 1999). Individuals who fall under this category

are used to historical underachievement therefore have very low levels of motivation to

improve (Simons, et al., 1999).

A total of 361 student-athletes were tasked with rating various descriptors related

to motivation, performance in the classroom, and identity using a Likert-Scale in the

essential portion of the study (Simons et al., 1999). Responses to the indicators ranged

from 1, which indicated “not very true of me” to 5, indicating “very true to me” (Simons

et al., 1999, p. 154). And additional component to the study was a collection of

demographic data via survey that was aimed at gaining insight on the student-athletes’

feelings towards both academics and sports, in addition to thoughts on motivation

(Simons, et al., 1999).

What Simons et al. (1999) found was that those student-athletes who were

determined to be Failure-Avoiders and Failure- Acceptors had a higher obligation to their

athletic status their Success-Oriented and Overstriver counterparts. Furthermore, it was

found with respect to academic achievement, Failure-Avoiders and Failure-Acceptors

possessed a lower level of self-motivation and value in the classroom (Simons et al.,

1999). An important thing to note that researchers found a negative correlation in all

groups existing between student-athlete identity and their GPA at the university,

essentially, the more the student-athlete committed to their athlete role, the lower their

GPA (Simons et al., 1999). In the end, Simons et al. (1999) discovered that male student-

athletes competing in revenue-producing sports had a higher percentage in their group of

Failure-Acceptors and Avoiders than nonrevenue student-athletes, along with a lower

percentage of Success-Oriented. Further analysis revealed no significant difference in

regard to gender between male and female student-athletes who competed in nonrevenue-

sports (Simons et al., 1999).

Conclusion

In summary, the experience of being a student-athlete is unique. Athletic

participation creates opportunities for thousands of student-athletes to compete for their

schools and communities. Various examples in the literature illustrate some of the

benefits of athletic participation including higher graduation rates from high school and

access to postsecondary educational and athletic opportunities. Currently, however,

revenue sports have some of the lowest graduation rates of collegiate student-athletes.

Prior to reaching the college level, student-athletes at the high school level must

learn to navigate the demands of being both a student and an athlete simultaneously.

Research has shown (e.g., Love & Rufer, 2021; Sedlacek, 2004) that critical predictors of

student-athlete success at the postsecondary level stretch further than conventional

cognitive measurements such as those reported through standardized testing. At the

postsecondary level, noncognitive factors such as identity and motivation, as described

by Sedlacek (2004) are important to explore when investigations academic performance

of student-athletes.

Regardless of future athletic aspirations, there is a significant amount of

sanctioned time and money invested in secondary athletic participation throughout the

academic and calendar year for student-athletes. Governing bodies at the secondary level

set broad academic and accountability requirements with respect to maintaining academic

eligibility in comparison to postsecondary level institutions. Furthermore, the impact of

social media and the increasing social capital value associated with athletic participation,

particularly in revenue-producing sports, adds another layer of complexity in cultivating

an atmosphere that produces college ready student-athletes.

Secondary teachers have a first-hand account of how athletic identity may influence

academic engagement, performance, and motivation in the classroom. Imbalances in

student-athlete identity can potentially cause conflicts in gaining the necessary skills

needed to be academically successful in the classroom thus, impacting their long-term

future. Investigating those experiences is crucial in not only understanding the

phenomenon to create solutions, but also in addressing current gaps in research

surrounding this topic at the secondary level.

CHAPTER III

Method

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to provide insight about the

experiences of secondary educators who teach male student-athletes participating in

revenue-producing sports. Using the method of “transcendental phenomenology,”

educator experiences were documented, analyzed, and placed in themes (Creswell &

Poth, 2018, p. 78). By adopting this particular approach, the results of the study may be

utilized to prepare current and future educators who teach these athletes for the

postsecondary level. In this chapter I have described the following: (a) the research

questions, (b) the research design, (c) the context of the study, (d) selection of

participants, (e) data collection, (f) role of the researcher, (g) instrumentation, (h) data

analysis, (i) trustworthiness, and (j) summary.

Research Questions

The research questions used to guide this study are: (a) How do secondary

educators perceive the influence of identity on academic engagement and performance of

male student-athletes who play football or basketball in their core content-focused

classroom?; and (b) How do secondary educators describe their experiences in supporting

the academic success of male student-athletes who play football or basketball?

Research Design

The qualitative approach utilized in this investigation was through a

phenomenological study. According to Creswell and Poth (2018), in a phenomenological

study, researchers are able to gather input from individuals who experience a

phenomenon and curate a collective description of that experience for all the individuals

in the study. The lens of phenomenology provides a means to unveil a particular

phenomenon through other individuals who have lived through it (Cibangu & Hepworth,

2016). This study will follow the framework of a phenomenological study to collect the

experiences of core teachers of male student-athletes who participate in revenue-

producing sports in an attempt to gain insight on how athletic identity influences student-

athlete academic growth in the classroom. Having an opportunity to gather information

from the experiences of educators was an important step in developing ways to ensure

equitable learning experiences for all students.

Context of the Study

This study took place in a suburban public school district in the Greater Houston

area of Texas. The school district services approximately 64,500 students from grades K-

12. Demographically, the ethnic/racially breakdown of students in this school district is

comprised of approximately 9.1% African American, 38.5% Hispanic, 43.3% White,

0.4% American Indian, 4.9% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, and 3.6% Two or More

Races. Of those students, approximately 48.9% are female and 51.1% are male. Students

who are economically disadvantaged make up approximately 40.5% of the student

population and 41.2% of students in this district are considered At-Risk. The educators’

demographic breakdown consists of approximately 6.4% African American, 16.2%

Hispanic, 74.7% White, 0.4 % American Indian, 1.2% Pacific Islander, and 1.1% Two or

More Races. With respect to educator experience, 4.9% are beginning teachers, 26.1%

have 1-5 years of experience, 22.1% have 6-10 years of experience, and 32.4% have 11-

20 years of experience. In addition, this school district offers close to 20 varsity-level

sports as a part of a comprehensive athletic program governed by the University

Interscholastic League (UIL) and locally managed by district and campus administration.

Selection of Participants

The sampling approach that I will use for this study was criterion sampling

(Creswell & Poth, 2018). Because college readiness scores are not captured until students

reach high school, indicators of student progress are collected through assessments such

as Common Formal Assessments (CFA) at the district level throughout the academic year

and End of Course (EOC) exams at the state level in the Spring. Scores for the two tests

are determined through a battery of questions that assess student skill levels in English

Language Arts and Writing (ELA), mathematics, social studies, and science. Because

these results from these assessments are only collected and analyzed for these courses,

only educators of athletes in the areas of ELA, mathematics, social studies, and science

were interviewed.

Furthermore, only educators at the high school level who educate athletes

participating in football and boys’ basketball were interviewed. Although recent changes

to UIL rules have allowed for females to participate in historically male-only teams when

no female-only team equivalent (e.g., football) exists, most team rosters are still

predominantly male oriented. This criterion is critical in arriving at the goal of this study,

which is to gain insight on the teaching experiences of educators of male student-athletes.

For this study, I plan to interview between four to eight educator participants.

Using this number may increase the likelihood of variation in educator grade levels and

content areas. Additionally, the number of participants may grant time to delve deeper

into educator experiences through one-on-one interviews, which subsequently adds to the

richness of this study. Recruitment for participants began with known educators at the

high school level and then I will use snowball sampling to recruit additional participants

by asking initial participants to reach out to other potential participants in their area who

may be interested and fit the necessary requirements

Data Collection

Once approval is granted to proceed with this study, I will conduct a series of one-

on-one interviews with participants. Interviews were conducted virtually with each

participant in the study to allow for flexibility in scheduling. Questions in the interview

were created to gain insight on an educators’ perception of how identity influences

academic engagement of male student-athletes who participate in revenue-producing

sports in their core content classes. In addition to the above questions, participants will

also be asked a series of questions that will measure their existing knowledge of

postsecondary athletic requirements. Each participant interview will last about one hour.

Upon participant consent, virtual interviews were recorded and transcribed through the

software program. A reflexive journal was maintained throughout the interview and data

collection process.

Role of Researcher

The importance and impact of athletics in the lives of young people can be

important. I believe this statement to be true from both a place of admiration and

reflection of the effects of participation in sports both personally and professionally. I

grew up playing sports. It was a pastime then, as we did not have the access or the ability

to participate in organized sports at the time. My first experience playing organized sports

was my 7th grade year of junior high school. Up until then, my only focus in school was

academics. I come from a family of educators, my mother being my most direct

connection. Academic achievement was an expectation for me from my family.

Education was something that had been instilled and cultivated throughout elementary

and intermediate school. As a matter of fact, I remember being completely shattered

when I received my first “B” in intermediate school after making the A honor roll for all

the previous years.

This sole dedication to my academic identity shifted however, once I began

playing sports for my junior high. Although academically I was in advanced classes and

maintained high grades, it did not take long for me to realize the increased social value

associated with being an athlete. I was celebrated more as an athlete than I was as a

student. As I progressed through high school, I maintained my academic success but

began to focus more on my athletic success. This athletic success opened the door for me

to receive an athletic scholarship and continue to play sports in college, but I had been

given the foundation early that my academic effort was the anchor to my success.

After graduating from college, I entered into education as a teacher and coach at

the same junior high school I attended. This full circle moment began a professional

ripple of roles from being a teacher and coach to an athletic coordinator and currently a

school administrator. Throughout this evolution of roles, I have also seen an evolution in

sports in the school setting. Students are becoming serious athletes at younger ages and

parents are making more decisions based on athletic opportunities for their children. The

investment in creating successful high school athletic programs (e.g., financial resources,

human resources, school resources, time) has grown exponentially in my observation. As

documented in the literature, athletic participation adds value to the secondary experience

(McNeal, 1995; Pyle et al., 2003; Silliker & Quirk, 1997). The disconnect, however, is

the research available when one delves into the long-term impact with respect to college

readiness and college graduation.

From personal and professional experiences, I have seen both the opportunities

for student-athletes provided through sports and the pitfalls waiting when there is an

imbalance of priorities. I have spoken in various arenas on this topic, so my passion for

raising awareness and creating a solution is known by many. It is central to the validity of

this study however, that the focus remains on gathering the perceptions of the participants

without the influences of my own experiences. To accomplish this goal, the concept of

epoche, also known as bracketing, was used in my role as the researcher. This concept

charges the researcher to temporarily disengage from their own experiences and biases to

the best of their abilities so as to see a particular phenomenon in a new light (Creswell &

Poth, 2018; Moustakas, 1994). Through this bracketing, my role as the researcher was to

collect experiences from participants and use those experiences to compose a

comprehensive narrative of this phenomenon (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Instrumentation

For this study, I will facilitate a series of one-on-one interviews with participants.

According to Seidman (2019), interviews are a means of learning other peoples’ stories

from beginning to end. By doing so, we, as the researchers, are able to “gain access to the

most complicated social and educational issues because social and educational issues are

abstractions based on the concrete experience of people” (Seidman, 2019, p. 7).

Interviews were done virtually to allow for scheduling interviews during times conducive

for participants, an atmosphere of full engagement between parties during the interview,

and access to recording and transcribing features in the virtual software.

Questions used in the interview portion of this study were adapted from a

previous study that I created for an independent study in a previous doctoral course. From

this pilot study, I found that the original line of questioning did not warrant answers

addressing the crux of my research questions but rather were more broadly inclusive of

educator perceptions about coaches of student-athletes versus just the athletes. For this

study, however, the line of open-ended questions will focus mainly on the perceptions of

identity, motivation, and engagement of male student-athletes participating in revenue-

producing sports. The anticipated result in these question changes from an earlier pilot

was that more accurate perceptions of educator participant experiences are gathered. In

addition to the above questions, participants will also be asked a series of questions that

will measure their existing knowledge of postsecondary athletic requirements. See

Appendix A for the consent process, Appendix B for the interview protocol, and

Appendix C for IRB approval.

Data Analysis

Randomly assigned pseudonyms were given to participants to protect

confidentiality and aid in organization of data. Transcripts of interviews were reviewed

by me to ensure clarity, noteworthy statements pertaining to the purpose of the study

were highlighted and organized in manner that creates themes, and descriptions of those

themes will then be developed (Colaizzi, 1978). Emergent themes were generated and

assigned names through several cycles of coding. A codebook was created for

organization purposes of themes, descriptions, and specific examples of codes produced

from interviews (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Finally, once the phenomenon is adequately

illustrated, results were shared with participants to confirm the researcher’s interpretation

(Colaizzi, 1978). A reflexive journal was used to record miscellaneous data not presented

verbally in the interviews such as body language and facial expressions.

Trustworthiness

Albeit my strongest intention, I, as the researcher, recognize and acknowledge

that my close proximity to this phenomenon may create pause in acceptance of the

findings in this study, as I am tasked with interpreting data through unbiased filters. This

position however, is not unique in qualitative studies due to the human interactions

involved in data collection, processing, and interpretation (Seidman, 2019). Therefore, it

is imperative that various methods are used to ensure and increase trustworthiness.

One strategy that was used to increased trustworthiness in this study is

triangulation, specifically, data triangulation (Denzin, 2009). The triangulation process

itself causes the researcher to have to view phenomenon data from different perspectives

which aids in validity (Denzin, 1970). Within data triangulation, data points include

people, space, and time (Denzin, 2009). For this study, that will include perspectives of

teachers, in their classroom, over the courses of past and present school years of male

student-athletes who participate in revenue-producing sports. Because these interactions

are consistent and connected, it increases the validity of results (Fusch et al., 2018).

Thoroughly analyzing questionnaires and coding multiple educator interviews

(e.g., 4-8 participants), I will ensure that saturation of the data is reached. With this

strategy, many cycles of coding were used to identify recurring themes in this study until

no new themes become evident. Once this point is reached, I will know that input from

all participants has been honored.

As stated, due to the personal proximity to the phenomenon, reflexivity was

another strategy used to increase trustworthiness of the study. By being forthcoming and

transparent about my own assumptions and views, I was able to check myself throughout

the study and calibrate my interpretation of the data through the use of a journal. The

importance of this step is that the study reflects the experiences of the participants, not

mine.

Summary

In summary, the purpose of Chapter III is to inform readers of the method used

for this study. In this chapter I have described the research questions guiding this

phenomenological study. Immediately following the research questions was the research

design followed by the context of the study and how participants were selected. The

method data collection described the interview process, followed by the role of the

researcher. The last portion of Chapter III included instrumentation, data analysis, and

lastly, trustworthiness.

CHAPTER IV

Findings

Overview

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe experiences of high

school educators who have direct, daily influences on the academic foundations of male

student-athletes. Thorough interviews were conducted with a group of qualified

participants. Their described experiences with male student-athletes in revenue-producing

sports manifested several themes and subthemes. Found in this chapter is demographic

information about the participants, along with the resulting themes and subthemes from

analysis of the gathered interview data.

Participants

Individuals who were contacted for participation in this study were chosen based

on meeting the following requirements: (a) currently teaching or have taught male-

student athletes participating in revenue-producing sports, (b) currently teaching or have

taught at the high school level, and (c) currently teaching or have taught English

Language Arts, Mathematics, Social Studies, or Science. Five individuals responded to

the recruitment email. Upon collection of consent forms, participants were assigned

pseudonyms to ensure confidentiality and maintain proper organization. At the time of

this study, three of the five participants taught a Math course, one participant taught a

Social Studies course, and one participant taught English. Additionally, three of the

participants taught a mix of both on grade level and advanced courses in their respective

teaching schedule, one participant taught only advanced courses in their respective

teaching schedule, and one participant taught only on grade level courses in their

respective teaching schedule. Years of experience for participants ranged from 10 to 20

years. Found in Table 1 are demographic data of the educator participants in this study.

Table 1

Participant Demographic Data

Participant Course Course Level Years of

Experience

Betty Math Advanced 20

Jane Social Studies Level 17

Keith Math Mixed (Level/Advanced) 10

Angel Math Mixed (Level/Advanced) 18

Terry English Mixed (Level/Advanced) 15

Emergent Themes

Through the application of descriptive coding techniques (Saldana, 2016), five

major themes developed from careful analysis of shared experiences of being educators

of male student-athletes who participate in revenue producing sports. Those themes were

Connections, On the Campus, In the Classroom, Off the Field, and Undercurrents. For

four major themes (e.g. On the Campus, In the Classroom, Outliers, and Undercurrents),

subthemes within them create further insight on the experiences of those educators. In

this section are descriptions of both major themes, along with descriptions of their

accompanying subthemes. Contained in Table 2 are the operational definitions of major

themes.

Table 2

Operational Definitions of Emergent Themes

Theme Operational Definition

Connections Relationships and interactions between Athletics and various

stakeholders.

On the Campus The overall campus experiences of educators with student-athletes.

In the Classroom Overall experiences of educators of male student-athletes who play

football and/or basketball in their classroom.

Outliers How educators describe implications of participation in revenue-

producing sports for male student-athletes on academic readiness.

Undercurrents Below the surface topics unveiled through interviews.

Connections

Educator participants described support of the athletic program by several groups.

After analysis, the theme of Connections surfaced. For all five participants, it was evident

that the amount of support was predicated on the existence of a connection to the

program. With respect to the student body, Betty shared that “even though they (student-

athletes) may leave the team, they stay involved” by cheering at games. This type of

connection reflects longevity in peer relationships even after one may be done competing.

According to John, student body support for the Athletic program is “kind of one or the

other” based on the non-student athlete’s connection to the school itself. From his

perspective, non-student athletes were either quite invested because “they love high

school, and they love pep rallies, and…love getting involved” or there were non-student

athletes who were “like, could you please shut up about pep rallies?”

When discussing athletic program support by the faculty and staff, Angel felt that

support was “low” considering the size of the staff. From her experience, although they

were a faithful group, “many of the same people” came to sporting events. Betty offered

that much of her experience in relation to faculty and staff support was based witnessing

a group of “tried and true supporters” who supported students who were in their class, be

it to just be present at the game or know who to be mindful of “especially when it comes

to the 9 weeks or the 6 weeks.” Terry’s experience was similar to Betty’s, in that she saw

that “faculty and staff who support the athletic program are usually ones who have them

in class” but also added that those faculty members had “their own kids involved,” thus

strengthening their connection to the athletic program.

Community support was also heavily dependent on connections. John, who lived

in a smaller community prior to arriving at his current campus, thought that the

community support of his current campus should have been higher due to its location and

size. Angel’s experience added a historical aspect to community support. She stated that

“many of the student-athletes had parents and their grandparents who played sports” for

her campus, so their support for athletic programs was connected to family. From Jane’s

perspective, she felt that there was “tremendous support for football programs,”

specifically. She mentioned that in her community, it started from “Pee-Wee football and

those kids were followed all the way through high school.”

On the Campus

When discussing educators’ experiences with student-athletes, the theme of On

the Campus emerged. This theme emerged through analysis of a holistic viewpoint of all

student-athletes on campus, regardless of gender or sport of participation. The theme On

the Campus was then further divided into two subthemes: (a) Academic Perceptions and

(b) Behavior Perceptions. Table 3 contains descriptions of these subthemes.

Table 3

Description of Subthemes of On the Campus

On the Campus Description Significant Statement Example

Academic

Perceptions

How educators describe

their overall campus

perceptions of academic

expectations.

“I think that academically, we don't

hold our student athletes to a higher

standard. I think we actually sometimes

lower the standard to make sure they

can keep playing you know”

Behavior

Perceptions

How educators describe

their overall perception

of behavior.

“They are extremely impactful. I am on

a campus where their presence, be it for

the good or the bad, is felt from wall to

wall. The football team is kind of like

the thermostat for the start of the school

year.”

Academic Perceptions. In the emergence of subthemes, responses from

participants were somewhat mixed but most seemed to inadvertently default to

experiences with male student-athletes. The only deviation from this finding in the

educator interviews was in a conversation with Angel, who in discussing academic

perceptions, mentioned the difference in academic expectations between male athletes

and female athletes. In her experience, she mentioned that female athletes “They kind of

raise the bar themselves” but with respect to male student-athletes, she shared that in her

experience, “with our male student athletes, I feel like sometimes it's, you know, that gift

of ‘I'm gonna give you this because I know playing sports is important to you.’” For

John, he shared reticently that he “can tell how valuable a kid is to the team based on how

frequently the coach reaches out to me when they're failing.” From Terry’s experiences

he felt the following:

Academically, they are expected to remain eligible so my impression is that they

are going to do whatever it takes to stay that way. Although it sounds good to say

they are expected to do more, I think sometimes they get a pass to pass, if that

makes sense.

Jane’s academic perception of student-athletes differed. She felt that “student

athletes tend to be held to a higher standard behaviorally and academically.” In her

opinion, this difference may be due to the additional support. More specifically, when it

came to student-athletes:

They tend to have more support from coaches and their systems at home, so they

tend to do better then, your average student, because they have. you know, 5 or 6

coaches, several teachers, lots of fans, administrative staff, everybody that's

rooting for them and supporting them.”

Behavior Perceptions. All participants acknowledged the impact of student-

athletes, again, defaulting to male student-athletes. For Terry, those student-athletes were

the “climate drivers of the school.” For her, student-athletes could “be your more

disciplined kids but can also take advantage of their status and be disruptive at times.”

Betty spoke of how they are “accountable for change” which added to another one of

Terry’s comments that “others seem to follow their lead.” John spoke specifically about

football players when asked about student-athletes on campus. He shared “that some of

the guys kind of get like a pass. They can kind of get away with things behaviors because

they play football.” He referenced an on-going situation where two football players who

he’d had in class would continually come into class late, with food not available on

campus. A scenario like that hinted at a lack of accountability with them leaving campus

without permission and then returning, which is in most instances, prohibited by schools.

In the Classroom

As educators began to describe experiences with male student-athletes

participating in revenue producing sports in their classes, the major theme In the

Classroom emerged. This theme is presented in five subthemes: (a) In-Season versus Off-

Season Academic Engagement, (b) In-Season versus Off-Season Behavior, (c)

Classmates, (d) Identity, and (e) Motivation. Table 4 contains descriptions of each

subtheme.

Table 4

Description of Subthemes of In the Classroom

In the Classroom Description Significant Statement Example

In-Season vs Off-

season Academic

Engagement

How educators perceive

academic engagement during the

season versus the off-season of

male student-athletes

participating in revenue sports.

“I want to say you had more engagement during than

after you know, at the end of their year. And some,

that engagement stayed all the way through.”

In-Season vs Off-

season Behavior

How educators perceive behavior

during their season versus the off-

season of male student-athletes

participating in revenue sports.

“You can tell the minute football season is over.”

Classmates

How educators perceive the

relationship in class between non-

athletes and male student-athletes

participating in revenue sports.

“I think inside the classroom, they may feel like there

are certain privileges granted to those athletes but at

the same time, I think they may be relieved that they

don't have all the pressures of those student-athletes.”

Identity Who do educators see more often

the classroom?

“I would say that their athletic identity shows up first

and then we find out pretty quickly after meeting that

student and establishing their athletic identity.”

Motivation

Strategies educators use to

increase academic engagement of

male student-athletes

participating in revenue sports in

their classroom.

“trying to make the lessons as relevant as possible to

sports or to things that young men in general,

certainly, young athletes would be interested in…”

In-Season versus Off-Season Academic Engagement. Educators described very

similar experiences with respect to differences between In-Season and Off-Season

academic engagement. All educator participants mentioned a downward shift of some

sort in academic engagement at the conclusion of the respective seasons. Terry explained

that for her class, during the season, it was “hit or miss,” in that “the ones who are

already academically inclined are going to be steady throughout the season. The ones

who aren't, they do their best to keep up and stay eligible.” She added that when she

taught underclassmen (i.e. Freshmen or Sophomores), it would be “crystal clear when

season was over because the engagement would drop off significantly.” In John’s classes,

he shared that academic engagement was “definitely higher” during In-Season. In Jane’s

classes, she felt that “they're much more concerned about passing grades,” adding that

those student-athletes who are not typically academically successful also tend to be more

concerned with grades because of the check-ins by the coaching staff. She said that in her

experiences, she has seen anywhere between “Three and 10 coaches looking at or

checking their grades at any given point in time during the season.” Along those lines and

in the off-season, however, she stated that student-athletes are “not checked as much

during the off season as they are during the season.” Angel added that in her experiences,

“they're obviously more engaged during the football season. They're more engaged at the

beginning of the football season.” Betty described a similar disengagement once the

season was over however, “they would still make it through.”

In-Season Versus Off-Season Behavior. Educators also described similar

experiences with respect to differences between In-Season and Off-Season behavior of

male student-athletes participating in revenue-producing sports. Betty shared a situation

where a member of the boys basketball team continuously disrupted her class and she had

to enlist the help of a coach who just happened to be in the vicinity of her classroom to

redirect him. Jane found in her experiences that her male student-athletes seemed to be

less disruptive during the season because they “don't really have the opportunity to, you

know, cause disruptions, or anything like that during the week, because a coach will be in

that classroom within minutes.” She added that in the off-season however, that support

from coaches is not always available. Due to many coaches coaching more than one

sport, “they're focused on other athletes, and they cannot be at the beck and call of a

teacher that is having an issue with a student. If that student is not in their (current)

sport.” According to Angel, male student-athletes “get a little more rowdy” in the off-

season. Like Jane, she also mentioned the difference in response from coaches once the

season is over. Terry shared that in her experience, “behavior seemed to be a lot more

manageable because the accountability was close.” She stated appreciation for coaches

who would respond to emails regarding discipline issues and “could tell the level of

follow through based on the kid's reaction when the threat (of contacting a coach) was

given.”

Classmates. Educator experiences regarding the relationship in their classes

between non-athletes and male student-athletes of revenue sports varied. In Betty’s class,

the presence of male revenue sports athletes brought a sense of competition to the class.

In regard to grades, she observed that “The others want to do as well. They don't like that.

the football players are getting a higher score, and they're (non-athletes) not.” Her class

also added another dimension in that a competition-like atmosphere was created between

genders. She added, “when it's boys and girls they’re really like, Oh, no! I got the higher

score this time. Oh, no, I got the higher score now. They all want the star that goes on the

wall, but they're trying to outdo each other.” Angel’s experiences also mirrored Betty’s

with respect to gender but specifically with female athletes. According to her, she

observed the following:

Female athletes feel like the male athletes get more, you know, like that there are

help, that they're held to a different standard academically than the male athletes

are. So I think if anybody really has any thoughts on it (perceptions of male

student-athletes in class), it's gonna be your female athlete.

In John’s class, he felt that there were students in class who were very supportive

but there were also students in class who felt “kinda annoyed” at times, especially when

the topic of conversation in class became centered around a recent game. In Terry’s class,

she felt that her other students “may feel like there are certain privileges granted to those

athletes.”

Identity. When discussing what a student-athlete meant to them, educator

participants all acknowledged at the base level that student-athletes were students who

participated in extra-curricular sports. Some, however, expounded their definitions in

varying ways. From Betty’s point of view, she acknowledged her past opinions about

student-athletes being “just a jock” evolving into recognizing that “they go through so

much more…and sometimes they just need a little bit of leeway, or a little bit of

understanding.” Jane saw student-athletes as young people “who have a lot on their plate”

with the “expectation…that they put their studies before their athletic obligation.” Terry

also acknowledged the expectation that they are “expected to handle duties in the

classroom, as well as on their teams.” John added to his definition of a student-athlete

that he first thinks of students who play sports because “it might be their only motivation

to go to school.” He went further to say that “they’re much more passionate about what

they play rather than academics.”

When discussing who shows up in their classrooms, Betty and Angel shared that

they felt a combination of both the academic side and the athlete side of the male student-

athlete was present in their respective classes. For Betty, she shared that student-athletes

in her class realized that they had a lot riding on their efforts, whether it be an athletic or

academic scholarship. Jane, John, and Terry all shared that the athlete side of the student

showed up first and most frequent in their classes. Jane added however, that once that

athletic identity is established, you find out “if that person is excited about being a

student and has been pushed academically by their parents in their community.”

When discussing the possible differences between male football and basketball

players who were just members of the team as opposed to elite members of the team, four

of the five educator participants confirmed those differences with anecdotal evidence and

past experience summarizations. In Terry’s experience, she experienced that her student-

athletes who had potential to play at the collegiate level “seemed to want to put more

effort into their sport than the classroom.” She added that in her opinion, “they are so set

on passing classes that they inadvertently just stop there. It may be that after all the

athletic expectations, that’s all they have left.” For Jane, she shared that those elite

members of the team have had a different experience than just team members for the

majority of their lives. She stated that early recognition of athletic talent has placed elite

athletes on a pathway of extra support that other student-athletes are not likely to receive

as early.

Betty gave an account of a football player she once had who did not hold that elite

status on the team. She shared that he did not have the drive that his football counterparts

of higher athletic status had in class. According to her, he did not “push himself” or

compete with the other football players. This sort of sentiment was also shared by John.

In his experience, he has seen football players who were “just kinda like doing it” and not

“super invested” so if they were removed from the team, it was not a big deal and there

was no academic shift. He offered a cautionary tale about a Senior he once had who

played football and subsequently failed at one of the last grading periods in football

season. He said that once that student lost eligibility due to grades, his grades continued

to tank. On the other hand, John also shared an account of having an elite status male

student-athlete in his class. This student-athlete held major status on the high school team

and had the talent to receive an athletic scholarship to play at the college level. For him,

his academic engagement was not an individual endeavor. According to John, he could

tell how valuable the athlete was based on “how much the coaches interact with me.”

Angel was the only educator participant who did not see a difference between the two

types of team members.

Three of the five educator participants shared experience with male student-

athletes in revenue sports who had injuries during their season. Betty spoke of two of her

past student-athletes. With one, he was an upperclassman who was hurt both physically

and emotionally. He, however, was also academically driven and according to her, the

injury “didn’t take him out of the academics. He did what he needed to do the whole

time’. She shared that she also had students who once they got an injury, “it changed

everything.” One particular athlete she spoke of had an injury and she said that it took a

long time to return to class. When he did return, it was very much like he did not want to

finish the school year. Terry offered that in her experience, injuries were worse when it

happened to upperclassmen, particularly “for those who were planning on or wanted to

go on to college and play.” Emotionally, it would “dampen their spirits a bit.” And

although “they may still participate in class…it’s like the breath is knocked out of them.”

For Jane, the change after injury was not just reserved for the student-athlete. There was a

shift in the behavior of those around them. In her experience, depending on the type of

injury, the length that the student-athlete was going to be out, and in some cases, their

“star power,” you “see a lot, less emphasis on their grades, a lot less emphasis on their

behavior, a lot less emphasis of paid attention paid to that student athlete.”

Motivation. With respect to motivating male student athletes participating in

revenue sports to be academically engaged in class, Jane shared that she tries to make

lessons that are relevant to them. John also pointed out that he tries to talk about things

they care about. Betty said that she likes to tap into their competitiveness because “then

they push each other.” For Angel and Terry, building relationships was key. Angel stated

that she is a “huge proponent of relationships” so she works really hard to build them and

build them early. Terry added further by offering that she felt it important to not only

build a relationship with the student-athlete, but also his “coaches, parents, and even their

peer group.”

Outliers

The theme of Outliers emerged as educators described their perceptions of how

participation in revenue-producing sports for male student-athletes on academic

readiness. This theme is presented in two subthemes: (a) Present State and (b)

Recommendations. Table 5 contains descriptions of each subtheme.

Table 5

Description of Subthemes of Outliers

Outliers Description Significant Statement Example

Present State How educators perceive

current academic

implications of athletic

participation.

“Basketball and football are at a greater

disadvantage because the majority of their

life has been dedicated to a sport that they

will no longer play”

Recommendations What educators suggest

for decisions-decision

making stakeholders

with respect to academic

engagement and

readiness for male

student-athletes who

participate in revenue-

producing sports.

“…the biggest thing is making sure

that there is time somewhere to allow

them to have focused academic

intervention or supplementary

instruction.”

Present State. With respect to academic readiness, educators shared some

experiences about systems that are currently in place on their campus to aid in support

male student-athletes in revenue producing sports and the overall impact on male student-

athletes in revenue producing sports. When discussing educator participants their

thoughts on whether making up missed assignments or missed instruction was more

important, the answers from participants appeared to be dependent on the subject they

taught. For educators who taught Math (e.g. Betty, John, and Angel), making up missed

instruction was more important. From Betty’s perspective, she felt that “anybody can

copy an assignment…they take a picture. They are on the group chat.” Angel shared that

“they can’t do an assignment if they don’t know what they are doing.” John’s outlook on

it was that it was not just about the subject, but also the specific course within the subject.

Although he taught Math, he stated that there are some classes within the subject that all

you needed to do was “just keep up with the work and you’d be alright.” He ended by

saying that there were some more advanced courses within the subject where if you

missed time in class, you would be in a tough spot, especially if your campus followed a

block schedule. Terry and Jane, who taught English and Social Studies, respectively, they

both felt that a properly constructed assignment could handle missed instruction. In

Jane’s opinion, grades were the primary focus so in her role as a teacher, “hopefully the

assignment is so intertwined with the instruction that by making up the assignment, you

will receive quite a bit of the instruction.”

With respect to the utilization of on campus resources such as tutorials, educator

participants felt like some male student-athletes only used them out of compliance rather

than academic enhancement. John stated that he only saw them during their season.

Terry’s experience was similar, in that she felt they were only utilized during season but

it was not by choice. She also felt that after the season was over, “not very many of them

voluntarily seek those services out” unless there were “outside forces such as parents,

peer groups, our future aspirations that give them a reason to go.” Jane and Angel had a

shared sentiment in that they felt it was forced and that tutorials were not used for the

right reason. To Jane, the focus was “just passing or creating enough of a cushion” to

compensate for a bad grade. Tutorials, in her opinion, were not about “academic

excellence” but rather them “keeping their eligibility for that sporting contest.” Betty’s

experience was different than the other four educator participants. She felt that because

she had student-athletes in advanced classes, academic resources were better utilized on

campus.

From an overall campus responsibility standpoint, some educator participants felt

like male student-athletes in revenue producing sports were not being prepared for

postsecondary life with respect to academics. In Angel’s opinion, she felt that when her

campus had students who were “physically college ready and talent wise college ready,

they get to college…and realize that “they are not academically ready.” She went further

to say that she felt that “we don’t do enough to make sure that these kids are ready to go

to college.” This opinion was shared by Jane who felt that she did not think that these

students were being prepared to take on expectations for college.

Recommendations. This subtheme emerged from educator participants

expressing what they would like to see in regard to the current state of academic

readiness and use of resources on campus for male student-athletes in revenue producing

sports. From discussions with the educator participants, the most commonly mentioned

influence on the quality of academic resources is the presence of the coaches of those

male-student athletes. It was mentioned that at times, Angel felt that communication was

only one-way in that teachers would reach out to coaches without a response. According

to Angel, she feels like “more coach support in the behavioral and the academic

participation would probably change stuff for some teachers.” Terry also expressed a

need for the presence of coaches, specifically in tutorials. This sentiment was coupled

with her suggestion of allowing time for “targeted academic intervention and

supplementary instruction.”

Jane delved deeper in what was needed for academic resources and instruction

time. It had to be more than just a “study hall.” In her opinion, there needed to be a “real

person that understands the topic and understands the subject to help those kids” during

that focused time. With that said, she also suggested trainings for teachers who have these

student-athletes in class so that they have an opportunity to learn about all the nuances of

being a student-athlete and how it impacts not only the student-athlete, but the teachers as

well.

Undercurrents

The final emergent theme of Undercurrents emerged from a combination of

discussion with educator participants about their experiences with male student-athletes

of revenue sports and observations of the researcher. This theme was then divided into

three subthemes: (a) Academic Identity, (b) Football is King, and (c) Teacher Mindset.

Table 6 contains descriptions of each subtheme.

Table 6

Description of Subthemes of Undercurrents

Undercurrents Description Significant Statement Example

Academic Identity Differences in experiences

between On Level and

Advanced Courses

“Academically, it depends on the class

period. I teach a mix of honors and level

classes. My honors football players tend to

take things a little more serious and follow

through on academic expectations more

consistently.”

Football is King Educator expressions

regarding differences

between football and other

sports on campus.

“The expectations for male basketball

players just aren't quite as high as they are

for football players, depending on the

popularity of the sport at that particular

school.”

Teacher Mindset Mental and emotional

experiences of educators

“a lot of teachers won't admit the amount of

pressure that they're under to make sure

that those kids pass and or excel, depending

on the expectation”

Academic Identity. This subtheme surfaced when differences between educator

experiences were analyzed. For example, when discussing student-athlete identity, Betty,

who taught solely advanced classes, mentioned that her student-athletes in her class were

either more focused or evenly focused on academics. This was different from Jane, who

taught on-level courses. Impressions of male football players in Angel’s advanced level

classroom was that “they do their work…keep up with their stuff.” She said that when

they start to slack a little bit, they held themselves accountable and would initiate

correcting themselves. This was different from her overall impression of other student-

athletes on campus that the standard is lowered for them. Experiences from educator

participants who taught level classes instead of or in addition to advanced courses

appeared to mention more issues with behavior and academic engagement.

“Football is King.” The title assigned to this subtheme originated in a discussion

with one educator participant but became move evident, albeit unspoken, with the other

educator participants. According to educator participants, the football programs on their

campuses set the standard in various ways, including support for the athletic program,

campus culture, and classroom climate. Most answers, even when the questions were

clarified to be applicable to all student-athletes or both football and basketball programs,

defaulted to football. For example, when discussing support for the athletic program by

the student body, four out of five educator participants mentioned football. Basketball

program responses indicated that expectations for those student-athletes and the weight of

their interactions were second to that of the football program. For example, when

discussing the overall impression of male basketball players, Terry shared that

“basketball isn’t as in-your-face as football is so those players tend to be a little more

camouflaged in the student-population.”

Teacher Mindset. This subtheme emerged from four out of five educators’

comments, subtle leaks within discussion and researcher observations during interviews.

One of the things that was apparent was that conversations about male student-athletes in

revenue sports happen often but seem to stay only within trusted circles. When discussing

topics regarding behavior and academic engagement, the statement “when I talk about

this with other teachers…” would be said often. Not only were the educator participants

speaking for themselves, but for other educators as well. Another thing that became

apparent was the existence of pressure put on the teacher to keep these male student-

athletes of revenue sports eligible. According to educator participants, the expectation

was that they do whatever is necessary to help student-athletes pass with varying levels of

support from administration, parents, and coaches. All of the educator participants

acknowledge and understand the importance of the athletic program however, it appears

that they feel caught between a rock and a hard place with respect to keeping those

student-athletes eligible while getting them academically ready for their next levels.

Description of Phenomenon

Core academic educators at the high school level share a very unique experience.

Not only are they expected to educate every student who walks into their classroom, they

are also simultaneously tasked with educating a specific set of students who participate in

activities that require time, energy, and focus away from academics. These educators

recognized the juggernaut that is revenue-producing sports on high school campuses and

want to be supportive of those athletes who participate in those sports. This outside

commitment creates, at times, a very stressful environment for the educator. As stated,

many of those student-athletes are in their teachers’ classes and the educators have

developed relationships with the student-athletes. The success of those student athletes is

important to the educators but not just for the short term and not just due to participation

in sports. Most educators have some knowledge of the nuances of being a student-athlete

but feel like further training and improved communication between all stakeholders may

improve long term results with respect to academic success while the student-athletes are

in high school and college readiness for those student-athletes moving on to compete at

the next level.

Summary

In Chapter IV, five emergent themes were discovered through the application of

descriptive coding techniques (Saldana, 2016) on five semi-structed interviews of

educator responses on their shared experiences of being educators of male student-

athletes who participate in revenue producing sports. Four of the five emergent themes

were further broken down into subthemes to provide a more detailed account of educator

experiences.

In Chapter V, the two research questions were addressed and analyzed findings

were applied to topics uncovered in the literature review and this study’s conceptual

frameworks. In addition, Chapter V will contain implications for practice for decision-

making stakeholders. These stakeholders include members of the athletic department,

school administration, and educators.

CHAPTER V

Discussion, Implications, and Recommendations

Overview

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe experiences of high

school educators who teach male student-athletes in core academic classes. By

conducting this study, the goal was to gain insight on how the effects of identity and

motivation influence college readiness for male high school student-athletes participating

in revenue producing sports as experienced through the perspective of the educator. As

the researcher, I used semi-structured interviews to gather information from high school

educator participant who teach or have taught core academic courses in math, English

language arts, social studies. Through the educators’ common experiences, the following

five emergent themes were revealed: Connections, On the Campus, In the Classroom,

Outliers, and Undercurrents.

My evolution from secondary student-athlete to collegiate athlete to classroom

educator and coach, and to now secondary administrator, served as the catalyst for the

topic of this study. Throughout my journey in those various roles, I was able to witness

the many ebbs and flows of the student-athlete experience. My goal for this research

study was to gather the experiences of educators who taught male student-athletes in a

core academic classes in an attempt to uncover possible ways to decrease existing gaps in

college readiness for male student athletes participating in revenue sports.

Discussions of Findings in Relation to the Research Questions

There were two guiding research questions for this study. The first question,

“How do secondary educators perceive the role identity has on college readiness levels

for male student-athletes who play football or basketball with respect to academic

engagement, performance, and motivation in their core content-focused classroom?” was

created to investigate the everyday experiences of math, science, social studies, and

English language arts teachers who taught male student-athletes of revenue producing

sports in their respective classrooms. The purpose of this question was to discover how

educators perceived the duality of being a student and an athlete affected, if at all, the

student-athlete’s academic engagement in core high school classes.

The second research question, “How do secondary educators describe their

experiences in supporting the academic success of male student-athletes who play

football or basketball?” was created to explore the role that educators felt they played in

preparing and supporting those male student-athletes both academically and socially at

the high school level and beyond. The purpose of this question was to investigate how

those educators in core classes saw their role from a more systemic perspective in the

overall high school experience of male student-athletes participating in football and

basketball.

Interview analyses produced five major themes. The first major theme was

Connections. The second major theme was On the Campus. Within the theme of On the

Campus, two subthemes materialized: (a) Academic Perceptions and (b) Behavior

Perceptions. The third major theme was In the Classroom. Embedded in this theme were

five subthemes: (a) In-Season versus Off-Season Academic Engagement, (b) In-Season

versus Off-Season Behavior, (c) Classmates, (d) Identity, and (e) Motivation. The fourth

major theme was Outliers. Found in this theme were two subthemes: (a) Present State

and (b) Recommendations. And the fifth major theme produced was Undercurrents.

Inside this theme, three subthemes: (a) Academic Identity, (b) Football is King, and (c)

Teacher Mindset, surfaced during analysis.

Research Question 1

With respect to the first research question, “How do secondary educators perceive

the role identity has on college readiness levels for male student-athletes who play

football or basketball with respect to academic engagement, performance, and motivation

in their core content-focused classroom?”, the emergent themes In the Classroom and the

subtheme of Academic Identity (found in the major theme Undercurrents) were obtained

from participant experiences. Most of the participants felt as though athletic identity was

the overarching presence in their on-level core classes. Due to this finding, educator

participants felt as though in order to reach and motivate the academic identity of on-

level male revenue student-athletes, a common strategy was to find some relatability to

or access through the athletic identity first. Participants acknowledged that male student-

athletes participating in football and basketball were “much more concerned about

passing grades” during the season and that there were shifts, albeit sometimes subtle, in

behavior and academic engagement once the season concluded. When injuries to male

student-athletes in football and basketball occurred, educators noted changes in academic

engagement and emotional well-being from the athlete. Moreover, depending on the

athlete, participants also noted changes in interactions with other pertinent stakeholders.

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Although this overarching presence of athletic identity in on-level core classes

was reported, educators who taught advanced core classes experienced the presence of

male student-athletes with more balanced athletic and student identities or stronger

academic identities. These educators were able to utilize the competitive nature of those

male student-athletes to enhance the learning environment not only for themselves, but

also their classmates. As one participant stated, she liked “when they are

competitive…because then they push each other.” Ultimately, however, participants felt

like that in the long run, most male student-athletes participating in revenue sports may

be physically ready to compete at the next level but are far from ready academically to be

successful.

Research Question 2

With respect to the second research question, “How do secondary educators

describe their experiences in supporting the academic success of male student-athletes

who play football or basketball?”, the themes Connections and Undercurrents were the

primary themes derived from participant experiences. Educator participants felt as though

the level of support for male student-athletes as a part and the athletic program as a

whole, was dependent on the existence and extent of the relationships built with various

stakeholders surrounding the athletes and the program. Being present at events and

discussing sports-related topics in class were ways that educators shared as methods of

building relationships between themselves and their male student-athletes. One of the

highlighted relationships in participant interviews was between the revenue sports

coaches and the staff. Educator participants noted that not only were the male student-

athlete “climate drivers” and changes in the “dynamic of the classroom” but the impact of

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the head coach’s expectations, communication, and actions fueled changing the culture of

the campus.

According to educator participants, support for male student-athletes participating

in football was “more involved” in comparison to male student-athletes participating in

basketball or other sports programs. This increase in involvement, in addition to varying

expectations from parents, coaches, and other invested stakeholders, created levels of

pressure among educators to address the constant needs of their male student-athletes on

a consistent basis. Consequently, educators expressed concerns about their own mental

health. In regard to academic success, both short term and long term, most of the educator

participants questioned if enough is done “to make sure that these kids are (academically)

ready to go to college” or prepare them for life after sports.

Discussion of the Findings in the Context of the Literature Review

Currently, there is a void in the literature with respect to the impact identity has

on college readiness for high school male student-athletes participating in revenue sports.

However, the findings of this study did reveal connections between educator experiences

and topics discussed in the literature review. These topics include (a) identity and (b)

motivation.

Regarding identity, educator participants of on-level courses acknowledged the

presence of a dominant athletic identity in their male student athletes of revenue sports.

On the other hand, interviews with educator participants of advanced academic courses

revealed the presence of more dominant academic identities and more balanced student-

athlete identities in their male student-athletes of revenue sports. The presence of these

identities was determined by the educator participants, through the educators’ interactions

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with male student-athletes on a day to day basis. All educator participants of on-level

courses saw changes in academic engagement at the conclusion of the season and at

times, after injuries. Educator participants of advanced courses did not notice a

significant change in academic engagement in most male student-athletes, however, one

did note an example of academic disengagement after a major injury (Brewer et al.,

2010). How these male student-athletes identified appeared to influence their engagement

in the classroom (Yukhymenko, 2018).

With respect to motivation, educator participants, particularly those who taught

on-level courses, felt that male student-athletes in revenue producing sports were more

motivated to maintain academic eligibility during their sport’s season than after the

season’s conclusion (or if the student-athlete no longer participated on a team).

Moreover, educator participants also noted that the student-athletes were more motivated

to behave and respond to redirection during their sport season as well. This finding is

consistent with Garcia and Subia’s (2019) who revealed membership on sports teams

served as strong motivators to be successful. Recommendations from educator

participants also reflected suggestions found in literature. In order to increase academic

readiness for those student-athletes, participants in this study suggested continuous

monitoring and faculty trainings on how to use the competitive nature found in student-

athletes as a bridge to increase engagement (Garcia & Subia, 2019).

Discussions of the Findings in Relation to the Conceptual Framework

There were two conceptual frameworks used to conduct this study. Athletic

identity theory (Chen et al., 2010; Turkeli, 2020) was used as guide to explore the

experiences of educators of core academic courses on their campuses and in their

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classrooms with male student-athletes participating in revenue sports. Victor Vroom’s

(1964) motivation theory was used to investigate educator perceptions of what the

educator felt drove the level of academic engagement and success of male student-

athletes participating in revenue sports in the classroom.

Athletic Identity Theory

The utilization of athletic identity theory provided a lens for examining how the

extent of the student-athletes’ prioritization of their athletic role influenced their

academic engagement in the student-athletes’ core academic classes. According to the

athletic identity theory, student-athletes who exhibit a more powerful association with

their athletic identity are more likely to display laxities in their responsibilities in other

areas (Chen et al., 2010; Turkeli, 2020). Furthermore, the level of importance a sport is

given has been shown to have an influence on the student-athlete’s identity balance

(Chen et al., 2010).

When asked about the support of the athletic program as a whole by the student

body, school staff, and community, educator participants referenced support in regards to

football without prompting or prefacing. This same general default occurred when

participants were asked about overall impressions of student-athletes in the participants’

schools. It was even mentioned that most of one particular campus’s pep rallies were

centered around football season. This intended or unintended default lends itself to the

assumption that the sport of football is highly valued on campuses in this study’s research

area.

In accordance with athletic identity theory, this high value placed on football

coincides with the educator participants’ experiences with male student-athletes

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participating in football with respect to the identity more present in the majority of the

core academic classes. Educators of on-level core classes expressed that there was a

much stronger athletic identity present in their classrooms, particularly during the season

of play. Those student-athletes who were in advanced academic core classes were less

likely to display a stronger athletic identity, regardless of being in season or not.

Educators of those advanced academic core classes revealed that those student-athletes

knew how to stay focused on the academic requirements and took initiative to fill in

academic gaps if and when necessary. Educator participants in this study reported that

one of their main concerns for their male student-athletes of revenue sports was that due

to the myriad expectations placed on those student-athletes to remain eligible and

compete, the majority of male student-athletes who participated in football and basketball

were not academically ready for college nor were those student-athletes prepared for the

post-athletic participation transition.

Motivation Theory

Victor Vroom’s (1964) motivation theory was used as an extra layer to the

athletic identity theory with the purpose of investigating educator participant perceptions

of how much of an influence athletic identity had on the daily academic engagement of

male student-athletes playing football and basketball. According the motivation theory,

four key assumptions are made with respect to an individual’s motivation to act: (a)

relationships are entered into with expectations of what it should look like, (b) depending

on the expectations of the individual, actions by that individual are intentional, (c)

individuals have different needs within an organization, and (d) individuals will seek

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opportunities that promote them being able to reach their goals (Lunenburg & Ornstein,

2008; Vroom, 1964).

In regard to motivation in the classroom, educator participant responses brought

to light how the presence of athletic identity influenced academic engagement from two

different perspectives. Those perspectives were that of educators who taught on-level

core academic classes and educators who taught advanced academic core classes. Thus,

the four assumptions applied to the motivation theory materialized and subsequently

evolved based on the strength of the identity of the student-athlete.

With respect to responses from teachers of advanced academic courses, male

student-athletes participating in football or basketball understood that the subject matter

presented in their core class was going to be academically challenging. Therefore, not

only were these student athletes reported to be engaged academically to maintain

eligibility to compete but also were engaged academically in a manner that allowed them

to be successful during their season of play and in the off-season as well. The needs of

these student-athletes were the same as their student-athlete peers in on-level core classes

regarding seeking academic support, however, these student-athletes were more likely to

seek that support without outside direction from coaches or parents.

In comparison, responses from teachers of on-level core classes exposed a

different experience in regard to student-athlete identity and its influence on motivation

in their classrooms. Like their student-athlete peers in advanced academic core classes,

educators reported that these student-athletes also engaged academically to maintain

eligibility to compete. Nevertheless, due to described presence of a stronger athletic

identity in their classes, educators shared that once the respective competition season was

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over, there was a significant drop in academic engagement of their male student-athletes

in on-level core classes. In addition, educators reported significant changes in other areas

such as behavior of those student-athletes and the interactions with other stakeholders

who appeared to be more invested in the academic success of particular student-athletes

during competition season.

Recommendations for Practitioners

Research (e.g., Gard, 2017) has reported an existing gap between what is

necessary for first-time college students to possess to be academically prepared when

they arrive to college campus and what is taught at the high school level. In addition to

this research, it is important to discuss the implications of the already existing gap

referenced for first-time college students with respect to college students who also belong

to a subset of individuals who enter into college after spending their high school

preparatory years as student-athletes. Particularly those competing in revenue producing

sports is important, as research has shown that those student-athletes have statistically

significantly poorer performance academically than non-revenue sports athletes and non-

athletes (Pellegrini & Helsa, 2018). This study’s findings lead to recommendations for

classroom educators, campus and district administration, and athletic departments.

Implications for Classroom Educators

When educator participants were asked about how they motivated their male

student-athletes who participated in revenue sports, educators reported the importance of

building relationships, making lessons relevant, and also tapping into their competitive

nature as the most reliable ways of increasing engagement in classroom settings. Building

relationships can be easier said than done. Two participants noted that attending games

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and being proactive in conversations with their student-athletes would aid in starting that

process.

As noted in this study, male student-athletes participating in revenue sports are

seen by educators as “climate drivers” for the school and the classroom. By building

relationships and being able to speak intentionally about the athletes’ goals, educator

participants felt that it would translate into positive behaviors by the student-athletes. The

positive behaviors could then translate into creating a classroom climate conducive to

effective and consistent academic engagement.

Also, educators increasing their awareness of the processes involved in attaining

postsecondary athletic scholarships could add depth to conversations with student-

athletes in their core classes. When asked, all of the educator participants had some

working knowledge of what it takes to be recruited but admitted that they were not well-

versed on the subject. From an educator perspective, a deeper understanding of how

grade point expectations and college entrance exams affect postsecondary opportunities

with respect to athletic scholarships may also aid in academic engagement by adding

value to the teacher and student-athlete relationship.

Implications for Campus and District Level Administration

As described in the literature review, there is a lot of time dedicated to

participation in revenue-sports at the secondary level. For those student-athletes who

aspire to compete at the postsecondary level, this dedicated time and other investments

increase. Regardless of future aspirations, however, the needs of this group of students on

campus is different than those who are non-athletes. In this light, the following

recommendations were discussed.

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Due to the specialized needs of student-athletes in relation to academic needs in

high school and their postsecondary goals, campus and district administrators could

consider creating or assigning appropriate personnel who are educated in this area on a

campus and district level. For example, at the district level, in addition to the district

athletic director who oversees and orchestrates athletics from a wholistic perspective for

all schools, having assistant athletic directors who are assigned to specific secondary

campuses might be beneficial. The primary role of these additional support staff would be

to visit those campuses in order to meet with campus athletic directors, head coaches,

school counselors, and administrators regarding academic and athletic needs of their

campus’s athletes and programs. The purpose of these meetings would be not only to

educate those stakeholders, but also to gather information to bring back to district level

administration in an effort to increase effective, data-driven decisions for student-athletes.

At the campus level, an example of appropriate staff member would be campus

administration dedicated specifically to student-athletes. The main role of this campus

administrator would be to work alongside the campus athletic director, campus principal,

and assistant athletic directors. Another example of appropriate staff at the campus level

would be a campus-level counselor for student-athletes. Not only would this person need

to be knowledgeable in state-specific graduation requirements for high school, but also

requirements related to eligibility for postsecondary athletic participation. In centralizing

student-athletes to a focused group on campus, it may create an increased consistency in

discipline, communication, and positive outcomes, both academic and athletic, for

student-athletes.

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Currently, there are varying types of extensive trainings for teachers to increase

positive outcomes for different student groups. These groups include students serviced

under Special Education and 504 programs, students who are Emergent Bilingual, and

students who are at-risk. To this point, one of the suggestions from two of the educator

participants was to have specialized trainings at the campus and/or district level for

teachers of secondary student-athletes. This training could include topics such as how to

relate sports to academic lessons or how to bring competition into the classroom. The

goal of these trainings would be to increase teacher capacity and confidence in educating

not just male student-athletes of revenue sports, but any student-athlete who enters the

classroom.

Another implication for campus and district-level administrators would be to

begin educating parents and guardians as early and often as possible on how to help their

student-athlete be successful at the secondary level and how to prepare for postsecondary

participation. This form of education could mean hosting informational nights prior to

schedule building for the school year, having an education center on campus that houses

pertinent information on recruiting and admissions, or creating a user-friendly webpage

that contains interactive trainings for parents and student-athletes that are campus

specific. By keeping this educational process local, it allows for campuses to build

capacity within their community, as well as strengthen connections.

Finally, teacher descriptions of feelings of pressure, frustration, and mental health

issues in respect to keeping student-athletes eligible, warrant immediate attention from

stakeholders. With the current state of teacher shortages, not addressing the influence of

this specific area of contributors to teacher burnout could prove even more damaging,

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especially as incentives such as Name, Image, Likeness deals get closer to the high

school level and the potential for immediate financial gain becomes more important than

academic readiness. Before this issue can be addressed, a better understanding of the

stress is necessary. The first step would be to attempt to gather input from a larger section

of educators on this stress as it relates to student-athletes. If time does not allow for

interviews, a survey may be more conducive. Focus groups could be created by areas, as

teachers in rural areas may be impacted differently than teachers in urban areas. Results

from those surveys and focus groups could create starting points for mitigation of stress

for current teachers. It could also provide a framework for future teachers in preparatory

programs.

Implications for Campus Athletic Departments

One participant indicated that prior to the current coach’s arrival, campus athletic

energy for the coach’s sport was essentially stale but that changed once he arrived on

campus. For another, the coach’s dedication to his athlete’s academic success waned after

the season concluded. Regardless of experience, all educator participants in this study

acknowledge the importance of the athletic coach in the interviews. From those

interviews, the following recommendations were created.

For educators, whether it was about them specifically or from talking with other

teachers, a common need for year-round presence and open communication from the

coaches was discussed. Particularly with the teachers of students in on-level course, it

appeared that coaches did their best communicating during the season. Once the season

concluded or depending on the athlete, emails regarding academics or behavior would

sometimes go unanswered. In addition, the visual presence of athletic coaches in common

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areas and classroom visits decreased. In an effort to address this concern, a suggestion

would be that coaches are assigned their own group of teachers in the school. Typically, a

coach would be assigned a specific group of athletes to monitor throughout the season.

This assigned group could be the coach’s direct team (i.e. freshman basketball team,

junior varsity basketball team, etc.) or a coach’s team position (i.e. the running backs, the

defensive line, etc.) The assigning of teachers would take this a step further. The purpose

of that action would be to create a more reliable communication pathway between

athletic coaches and the teaching staff, as well as strengthen the relationship between the

two groups for the entire school year. By interacting with their assigned monitoring

group, it would also increase and maintain visibility throughout the campus. These

interactions could take the form of attending department meetings, planned classroom

walkthroughs, and check-in emails.

In order to assist in informing data-driven decisions, a strong recommendation

would be for the campus athletic department to create a year-round monitoring system

that tracks critical information. As discussed in the literature review, in comparison to

postsecondary athletics, there is no formal tracking of student-athlete data at the state

level. Understanding that time will pass before the availability of this tracking is allowed

or available, creating one at the campus level could be an important step. This system of

tracking could include points such as participation numbers, season reports, grades,

attendance, highlights, and discipline data. Information gathered in these reports could

help determine future staffing, equipment needs, academic support, and areas needing

more information.

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In educator interviews, teachers discussed how frustrated they would be during

mandatory tutorials during the season because the teachers felt that it was more of a

compliance behavior than one of academic necessity on the student-athlete’s part.

Because of this mindset displayed by the athletes, they were often off task or would just

copy assignments for the grade. The difference maker in this situation was the presence

of the athletic coach. With that said, a consideration that could aid in addressing any

potential gaps created throughout the school year would be to tie in core academic skill-

building into summer athletic workouts. Because UIL now allows for coaches to conduct

summer strength and conditioning, coaches have access to their student-athletes

essentially year-round. Using data from current or the aforementioned tracking system,

summer workouts could be constructed around both athletic and academic needs of the

student-athlete. The presence of the coach would aid in behavior during focused

academic time, as participants mentioned that off-task behavior was typically less

frequent or quickly redirected when coaches were present or contacted. Moreover,

student-athlete grouping, be it through academic or sports-related grouping, could add

opportunities for student-athletes to increase their own capacity for self-accountability

and team-accountability in a classroom setting. This academic addition to summer time

athletic workouts would require coordination with campus administration, teachers, and

coaches regarding logistics and funding and could prove to be beneficial in a multitude of

ways.

The last suggestion for the athletic program would be to give graduating senior

student-athletes an athletic program specific exit survey. Questions could cover an array

of topics and range from the student-athletes’ freshman to senior year. This survey would

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give campus athletic departments vital information from the perspective of the student-

athlete. These data could inform program improvements and services for student athletes.

Recommendations for Future Research

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe experiences of high

school core academic teachers with the intent of exploring how the effects of identity and

motivation influence college readiness for male high school student-athletes participating

in revenue producing sports. Five educators from a Houston area suburban school district

participated in semi-structured interviews for this study. Findings from this study, along

with addressing delimitations and limitations, provide areas of focus for future research.

A key delimitation of this study was that it was centered around male student-

athletes at the high school level. According to Brewer and Petitpas (2017), as children

evolve into young adults, a major developmental goal is to determine who they are. With

the increasing number of children participating in sports at earlier ages (Logan et al.,

2019), future research on the topic of identity with respect to male athletes participating

in revenue sports could be conducted at the junior high school level. This research could

add to the literature regarding the influence of athletic identity in secondary academic

classes, as the junior high school level is the first time the two identities intersect.

One limitation of this study was the context of the study. Five high school

educators participated in this study. By increasing the number of participants, findings

from the study may introduce different themes or confirm current themes. In addition to

increasing the number of participants, future research could include a larger area to

expand the context of the study. Currently, this study was limited to the Houston area.

Conducting a similar study in other areas may also introduce different information.

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A final recommendation for future research would be to conduct a similar study

through the lens of other stakeholders involved with the athletic program and campus

experience. These stakeholders could include non-student athletes, coaches, school

administration, and parents. By conducting these similar studies, a more in-depth and

complete picture of the influence of identity on academic engagement may be found.

Conclusion

For high school student-athletes, athletic participation has its benefits, including

increased academic performance and graduation rates (Garcia & Subia, 2019).

Participation in athletics is not only a vehicle for building social status (Carter-Francique

et al., 2015; Garcia & Subia, 2019) but also a pathway for some to postsecondary athletic

opportunities. With the introduction of academic requirements at the high school level

(e.g., No Pass No Play) for athletic participation in Texas and increased academic

standards for collegiate athletic eligibility (Chen et al., 2013), success in the classroom is

critical. Thus, as Yukhymenko-Lescroart (2021) found, it is import to explore how

motivation is affected when identities such as athletic identity and academic identity

cross. For male student-athletes who participate in revenue sports, this is especially

critical, as these student-athletes typically display lower occurrences of academic success

in comparison with non-revenue sports athletes and non-athletes (Pellegrini & Helsa,

2018).

A student-athlete’s perception of their academic ability was a strong indicator of

their academic success in college (Brecht & Burnett, 2019) and a crucial piece of creating

this perception is the student-athlete’s classroom teacher. The purpose of this study was

to gain an understanding of the high school core academic classroom teachers’

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experiences of educating male student-athletes who participate in revenue sports. In

essence, educators are supportive of these athletes and want them to be successful not

only as athletes but as students as well. This sentiment is reflective in the teachers’

support for the athletic program and desire to build effective relationships with their

student-athletes. Help is needed in areas of consistent support and communication but

overall, educators are committed to the process of improving both areas.

Generalization of these experiences is not applicable for all high school core

academic teachers of male student-athletes participating in revenue-producing sports. The

findings however, provide topics for future research. Furthermore, results from this study

may possibly pave a pathway for similar school districts to begin conversations that

address areas of improvement for their campuses and athletic programs. Ultimately, by

gaining an understanding of educator experiences in regard to male student-athletes in

revenue-producing sports, one gains a better understanding of the influence of identity in

the classroom. This understanding may give decision-making stakeholders an opportunity

to address the needs of those student-athletes, thus increasing their academic readiness

for high school and beyond.

116

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APPENDIX A

INFORMED CONSENT

Sam Houston State University Consent for Participation in Research

KEY INFORMATION FOR PREPARING THE COLLEGE STUDENT

INSIDE THE HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETE: THE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES OF HOW IDENTITY INFLUENCES ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT OF MALE STUDENT-ATHLETES OF REVENUE PRODUCING SPORTS IN CORE ACADEMIC CLASSES

You are being asked to be a participant in a research study about the experiences of

secondary teachers who teach male student-athletes of revenue sports in core academic

classes with respect to the influence of identity on academic engagement. You have been

asked to participate in the research because you have or are currently teaching a core

academic class with male student-athletes and may be eligible to participate.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE, PROCEDURES, AND DURATION OF THE STUDY?

The purpose of this phenomenological study will be to describe your experiences as an

educator of male student-athletes who participate in revenue producing sports and how

you perceive the influence of identity on their academic engagement in your classroom.

By doing this study, I hope to learn about the presence and influence of identity in your

classroom and how that influences academic engagement. Your participation in this

research will last about 45 minutes to an hour, depending on your responses.

WHAT ARE REASONS YOU MIGHT CHOOSE TO VOLUNTEER FOR THIS

STUDY?

Your responses will be crucial to the development of systems within the school

community that curate an environment of balanced academic and athletic growth

student-athletes in preparation for postsecondary institutions.

For a complete description of benefits, refer to the Detailed Consent.

WHAT ARE REASONS YOU MIGHT CHOOSE NOT TO VOLUNTEER FOR THIS

STUDY?

Reasons why you may choose to not volunteer include the amount of time for the

interview and any follow-up questions associated with the interview.

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For a complete description of risks, refer to the Detailed Consent.

DO YOU HAVE TO TAKE PART IN THE STUDY?

If you decide to take part in the study, it should be because you really want to volunteer.

You will not lose any services, benefits, or rights you would normally have if you choose

not to volunteer.

WHAT OTHER OPTIONS ARE THERE?

For this research study, using the interview process for data collection is required. As

such, the only alternative is to not participate in this study.

WHAT IF YOU HAVE QUESTIONS, SUGGESTIONS OR CONCERNS?

The person in charge of this study is Anita Bundage of the Sam Houston State University

Department of Educational Leadership who is working under the supervision of Dr. Julie

Combs. If you have questions, suggestions, or concerns regarding this study or you want

to withdraw from the study their contact information is: Anita Bundage or Dr. Julie

Combs. If you have any questions, suggestions or concerns about your rights as a

volunteer in this research, contact the Office of Research and Sponsored Programs –

Sharla Miles at 936-294-4875 or e-mail ORSP at [email protected].

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Sam Houston State University

Consent for Participation in Research

DETAILED CONSENT PREPARING THE COLLEGE STUDENT INSIDE THE HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETE: THE SECONDARY

TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES OF HOW IDENTITY INFLUENCES

ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT OF MALE STUDENT-ATHLETES OF REVENUE PRODUCING SPORTS IN CORE ACADEMIC CLASSES

Informed Consent

My name is Anita Bundage, and I am student of the Educational Leadership

Department at Sam Houston State University. I would like to take this opportunity to

invite you to participate in a research study of Secondary Teachers’ perspective of how

identity influences academic engagement of male student-athletes of revenue producing

sports in core academic classes. I hope that data from this research will provide insight

on the presence and influence of identity on academic engagement of male student-

athletes in your core academic content class. You have been asked to participate in this

research because you have been identified as a core academic content educator who has

taught or currently teaches male student-athletes who participate in revenue-producing

sports of football and basketball.

The research is relatively straightforward, and we do not expect the research to pose

any risk to any of the volunteer participants. If you consent to participate in this research,

you will be asked to participate in a one-on-one interview lasting approximately 45

minutes to an hour. Any data obtained from you will only be used for the purpose of

describing how identity influences academic engagement of male student-athletes who

participate in revenue-producing sports in core academic classes. Under no circumstances

will you or any other participants who participated in this research be identified. In

addition, your data will remain confidential.

This research will require about 45 minutes to an hour of your time. Participants will

not be paid or otherwise compensated for their participation in this project. Interviews

will be recorded via audio/video. I will be the only one with access to these recordings.

All participants will be assigned a pseudonym upon consent for confidentiality. The

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audio recording will be destroyed upon completion of transcribing. Once the recording

has been transcribed, you will have an opportunity to review the transcript for accuracy.

Any changes you deem necessary can be addressed at that time. All Zoom recordings will

be done in a password-protected forum. All forms of data collection will be kept in a

password-protected computer. Transcripts will be subsequently destroyed after a period

of 3 years.

Your participation in this research is voluntary. Your decision whether or not to

participate will involve no penalty or loss of benefits to which the subject is otherwise

entitled, and the subject may discontinue participation at any time without penalty or loss

of benefits to which the subject is otherwise entitled. If you have any questions, please

feel free to ask me using the contact information below. If you are interested, the results

of this study will be available at the conclusion of the project.

If you have any questions about this research, please feel free to contact me, Anita

Bundage or Dr. Julie Combs. If you have questions or concerns about your rights as

research participants, please contact Sharla Miles, Office of Research and Sponsored

Programs, using her contact information below.

I understand the above and consent to participate.

I do not wish to participate in the current study.

AUDIO/VIDEO RECORDING RELEASE CONSENT

As part of this project, an audio/video recording will be made of you during your participation

in this research project for transcription purposes only. This is completely voluntary. In any use

of the audio/video recording, your name will not be identified. As a participant, you can request

to view the recording after the interview. After interviews are transcribed, recordings will be

deleted. You may request to stop the recording at any time or to erase any portion of your

recording.

I consent to participate in the audio/video recording activities.

Anita Bundage

SHSU Department of

Educational Leadership

Sam Houston State

University

Huntsville, TX 77341

E-mail:

Dr. Julie Combs

SHSU Department of

Educational Leadership

Sam Houston State

University

Huntsville, TX 77341

Phone:

E-mail:

Sharla Miles

Office of Research and