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Ppt1.pptxWhat is Public Administration?
Publicness: Defined as a characteristic of an organization which reflects the extent to which the organization is influenced by political authority.
Discussion: Public and Private: Boundaries, Similarities and Differences
What are Ethics?
A set of normative guidelines directed at resolving conflicts of interest so as to enhance societal well-being.
What cause unethical behaviors: individual and organization factors
Machiavellianism: The Prince
“End justifies the means” philosophy
Discussion: The Trolly Problem and Two Experiments
How do ethics relate to PA?
The nature of public service
Cooper’s Four Questions
Last Week
Organizational Theory and Management
PAD 3003 Public Administration in American Society
Week 4
Before starting, let’s review pervious
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What are components of organization?
People (employees, managers, executives, clients, etc.)
Rules, regulations, policies (hiring, rewards and punishments, salary, benefits, job tasks, divisions of labor, chains of commands, etc.)
Boundary, internal/external dynamics
Management and leadership
Goals, targets, how to achieve them
What Is Organization?
Political bodies: political parties, the Senate, a city council, regulatory bodies
Economic bodies: firms, trade unions, family farms, cooperatives
Social bodies: churches, clubs, athletic associations
Educational bodies: schools, universities, vocational training centers
What Is Organization?
Definition: the study of social organizations and their interrelationship with the environment in which they operate
It examines and seeks to explain ideas and behaviors associated with management, leadership, organizational development, human resources, etc.
Over time, organizations have been examined from several different schools of thought.
Organizational theories emphasize the goals of management, the needs of workers, and the relationships of organizations to their environment.
What Is Organizational Theory?
Organizational Theory, Design and Change
FSU, UM, and UF football team
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Organizational Structure: the formal system of task and authority relationships that control how people coordinate their actions and use resources to achieve organizational goals.
Organizational Culture: the set of shared values and norms that controls organizational members interactions with each other and with suppliers, customers, and other people outside the organizations.
Organizational Design and Change: the process by which mangers select and manage aspects of structure and culture so that an organization can control the activities necessary to achieve goals.
Organizational Theory, Design and Change
FSU, UM, and UF football team
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Organizational Structure: the formal system of task and authority relationships that control how people coordinate their actions and use resources to achieve organizational goals.
Organizational Theory, Design and Change
FSU, UM, and UF football team
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Organizational Culture: the set of shared values and norms that controls organizational members interactions with each other and with suppliers, customers, and other people outside the organizations.
Organizational Theory, Design and Change
FSU, UM, and UF football team
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Organizational Design and Change: the process by which mangers select and manage aspects of structure and culture so that an organization can control the activities necessary to achieve goals.
Organizational behavioral theories provides perspectives on how to get the most production out of workers while achieving consistency.
These serves as the inspiration for management styles and structures that are applied in government and private organizations.
“It is the object of administrative study to discover, first……, and secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or of energy”(Wilson 1887).
How Does This Week Relate to PA? Why Does It Matter?
Counties in Florida
who is responsible for implementing policy
separate roles for making policy and implementing policy (executive)
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Counties in Florida
Counties in Florida
Counties in Florida
Classical management movement (late 19th century)
Neo-classical school (early 20th century)
Human relations school (1920s - 1950s)
Modern organizational theory (1960s - present)
Outline
Classical or “scientific” management:
Late 19th century and became widespread in American industry by the mid-20th century
Primarily concerned with improving efficiency and productivity;
Characterized by hierarchy, specialization of labor, monetary incentives, and autocratic leadership
Classical management endeavored to advance general “principles” of management applicable to industry and government work
Frederick Taylor (1856-1915): The father of scientific management
Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick (1937): POSDCORB
Henri Fayol’s “14 Principles of Management” (1916)
Max Weber: Bureaucracy
The Classical School
The Classical School
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Frederick Taylor
The Classical School
Mechanical engineer and management consultant
Factories were springing up everywhere and standardized ways did not yet exist to manage large groups of people and handle increasingly complex work.
Taylor wanted to make organizations more standardized, efficient and productive by studying their work process closely.
Four principles of scientific management:
Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.
Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather than passively leaving them to train themselves.
Co-operate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically developed methods are being followed.
Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.
Scientific Management
The Classical School
Division of labor: each step or two as performed by a different person
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Taylor’s Note: Time-and-motion Studies
The Classical School
Method: Time and Motion Studies
The Classical School
Time = What is the least amount of time, on average, it took to perform each task and even each part of each task?
Motion = What where the fewest number of motions required for each small task?
Four principles of scientific management:
Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.
Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather than passively leaving them to train themselves.
Co-operate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically developed methods are being followed.
Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.
Scientific Management
The Classical School
Division of labor: each step or two as performed by a different person
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Selection, Training, and Development
The Classical School
Four principles of scientific management:
Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.
Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather than passively leaving them to train themselves.
Co-operate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically developed methods are being followed.
Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.
Scientific Management
The Classical School
Division of labor: each step or two as performed by a different person
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Scientific Management
The Classical School
Scientific Management: Ford Assembly Line
The Classical School
Frederick Taylor (1911); Scientific management is influenced by industry and assembly line processes.
Adheres to the view of workers as economic men, who will be motivated by monetary incentives only.
Each job can be analyzed, and its most efficient process can be determined. Seeks to find “one-best-way” to work.
Organizations were finely tuned machines and workers were interchangeable cogs in the machine.
Efficiency in work is the primary goal of management and leads to high output in the organization (effectiveness).
Scientific Management
The Classical School
Applying science to work – studying tasks carefully and systematically at the micro level to speed up work
Wanted to break away from the common sense “rules of thumb” that he saw as unproven and inefficient
Taylorism
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Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick (1937)
POSDCORB (Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, and Budgeting)
A set of organizational processes that offer executives a tangible understanding of administration.
All ‘POSDCORB’ are functional responsibilities of a chief executive.
POSDCORB
The Classical School
Planning: working out in broad outline the things that need to be done and the methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose.
Organizing: the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined, and coordinated for the defined objective.
Staffing: personnel function of bringing in and training the staff and maintaining favorable conditions of work.
Directing: the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and general orders and instructions and serving as the leader.
Coordinating: all important duty of interrelating the various parts of the work.
Reporting: keeping those to whom the executive is responsible informed as to what is going on, which thus includes keeping himself and his subordinates informed through records, research, and inspection.
Budgeting: with all that goes with budgeting in the form of planning, accounting and control.
POSDCORB (cont.)
The Classical School
Criticisms in mid 1940’s from scholars Waldo, Simon and Dahl.
Chief among them: Administration is simply not that easy to breakdown.
There is a counterpoint to each of the elements in the POSDCORB.
One cannot simply be that efficient with every single process.
Criticisms of POSDCORB
The Classical School
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Discussion:
Is there a POSDCORB equivalent set of tasks that replaces the standard planning, organizing, and so forth?
POSDCORB
The Classical School
Communicating? Learning? Activating? Synthesizing? Framing?
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Max Weber (1864-1920)
According to Weber, the bureaucracy is an “ideal type” of organization characterized by:
Stringent hierarchal components—“machine-like” structure
Centralized authority
Control and empowerment of the top of the organization
Formal lines of communication
Administration based on written documents
Technical expertise
Weberian Bureaucracy
The Classical School
Max Weber: the Process of Rationalization
The Classical School
Two basic types of rationality: value rationality (Wert Rationalität) and purpose rationality (Zweck Rationalität).
Value rationality focuses on intrinsic value only and is oriented on the inner demands; it will consider the meaning of action only.
Purpose rationality is focused on consequences or results of action.
Both value and purpose rationality are subjective by nature—that is, in the eye of the beholder.
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Tall vs. Flat Hierarchies
The Classical School
Tall vs. Flat Hierarchies (cont.)
A tall hierarchy assumes a distinct vertical chain of command through which tasks are coordinated
Problems include one-way communication, distorted communication, and a one-dimensional perspective
A flat hierarchy assumes tasks are coordinated through an exchange process among hierarchical equals in a collegial, collaborative fashion
Problems include lack of buffers and too many leaders
The Classical School
Apple organization: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f60dheI4ARg
Centralization vs. Decentralization
The Classical School
Centralization vs. Decentralization (cont.)
The Classical School
Centralization: an organizational pattern focused on concentrating power at the top of an organization
Accountability may be less complicated
Organizations may deviate less from top-management goals
Less flexibility and adaptability
Decentralization: an organizational pattern focused on distributing power broadly within an organization
As the scope and complexity of organizations have increased, it has become necessary to delegate operating authority to line and lower level managers
Often results in greater complexity
Greater opportunity for employee/client participation
Complicates accountability and monitoring
Discussion: Problems of the Classical School
The Classical School
Example: Chaplin, 1936, Modern Times: Factory Scene (video)
What are problems of the theories of the classical school?
From Taylor’s scientific management
What kind of problems might occur in the organizations?
Weber’s Bureaucracy
Over-conformity to rules and procedures
Trained incapacity: Dehumanization
Red-tape
The principles of management
Not so realistic
What’s missing? For example, human needs.
The Neoclassical School
The Neoclassical School
The neoclassical school (1920s-1950s) rejected the notion that the classical principles of management were “scientific.”
Some in this school argued that scientific management needed to be grounded in scientific research.
Others stressed the importance of democratic values, informal organizations, and non-monetary incentives in management.
Herbert Simon
The Neoclassical School
Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 – February 9, 2001) was an American economist, political scientist and cognitive psychologist, whose primary research interest was decision-making within organizations.
1978 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
1975 Turing Award
“decision-making is the heart of administration, and that the vocabulary of administrative theory must be derived from the logic and psychology of human choice."
Decision-making
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The Neoclassical School
The Neoclassical School
Simon (1946) criticized POSDCORB as “proverbs” for its inconsistent, conflicting, and inapplicable explanation of management situations.
The concept of satisfying man
Bounded rationality
Limited computational abilities to achieve comprehensive instrumental rationality
Limitations of time and material resources
Thus, people tend to be satisfied rather than maximize our ends
Satisfice (satisfy + suffice)
Dwight Waldo (1948) was skeptical to politics/administration dichotomy, because the administration influences and interacts with the politics and the policymaking process.
Value-free research undermines ethics and morality
Simon and Waldo Debate
The Neoclassical School
Debate: Is public Administration (PA) science or art?
Simon (1946): PA is science. PA need to differeiate facts and values
Fact-value dichotomy: Fact is scientifically verifiable whereas value is not
PA is about fact-based decision making (politics = value-based decision making)
PA should be a science-driven discipline
Waldo (1948): PA is art. He emphasized the importance of values in PA.
Public administration is a response to social needs.
Need more democratic mode of administration, one consistent with the ideals of democratic society.
Distinctions between fact/value and policy/administration are philosophical myopia. He insists that politics and administration cannot be separated.
Value and Fact in Decision-making
The Neoclassical School
Value: the selection of a correct choice is related to the individual’s preference
Value is the expression of a preference
Facts: choice also depends upon the information available at a given point of time
Fact on the other hand is a statement of reality
Decision involves both fact and values. They clarify the criteria in analyzing the factual and ethical elements involved.
Other Neoclassical Theorists
The Neoclassical School
Chester Barnard (1938)
Executives should offer monetary and non-monetary incentives
Organizations as Systems of Exchange
Phillip Selznick (1949)
Organizational co-optation: Bring outside elements into an organization’s decision making
Introduced informal organizations existing within formal organizational structures.
Cliques, politics, etc.
Robert Merton (1957)
Weberian bureaucracy conflicts with democracy and compromises administrative capacity; Weberian bureaucracy leads to “trained incapacity” (unable to adapt to changing conditions)
Embeddedness, social capital, bridging
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In the 1920s with the Hawthorne experiments
lasted until about the end of the 1950s
This movement placed emphasis on affective and socio-psychological aspects (e.g., motivation) of human behavior in organizations
Generally suggested that social and psychological factors matter in organizations; and managers must be “human” (Follett 1926)
Elton Mayo: Hawthorne experiments
Mary Parker Follet: The giving of orders (1926)
Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of needs (1943)
Douglas McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y (1960)
The Human Relations School
The Human Relations School
Mary Parker Follet
"Mother of Modern Management”
Social conflict: domination, compromise, and integration
Group process: interpenetration
The “law of the situation” (authority based on
Personal imposition)
Horizontal flows of communications (vs. follow
the formal chain of command)
The Human Relations School
Hawthorne Experiments (1924-1932)
Elton Mayo and colleagues conducted a study with Western Electric Company to determine the effects of lighting amplification on productivity.
Results: employees in both high and low lighting groups increased production. Why?
Because attention was being paid to the workers.
Implications: Worker needs extend beyond monetary considerations; organizations are “social” institutions; Taylorism remedies, such as increasing wages, would not be an effective means to higher productivity.
The Human Relations School
Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow (1943) argued that there is a hierarchy of needs; that is, lower-level needs (e.g., physiological and safety) must be satisfied in order to achieve higher-level needs (e.g., esteem and self-actualization)
The Human Relations School
Hierarchy of Needs in A Work Setting
The Human Relations School
Criticisms of Hierarchy of Needs
The Human Relations School
Geert Hofstede: Cultural dimensions theory. Maslow’s needs are ethnocentric and not generalizable to other cultures.
Clayton P. Alderfer(1969): Needs can be achieved simultaneously and in no specific order.
Theory X and Theory Y
The Human Relations School
Douglas McGregor’s (1960) was interested in what motivates people to work
Theory X and Theory Y: Divergent managerial beliefs about what motivates employees.
Theory X and Theory Y (cont.)
The Human Relations School
Theory X: Workers dislike work, avoid it whenever possible; lazy; lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility; inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs
Makes supervision necessary; workers are motivated only by economic sanctions, threats, and punishments
Theory X and Theory Y (cont.)
The Human Relations School
Theory Y: Workers enjoy working and embrace responsibility; can exercise self-direction and self control;
Rewards associated with their achievement
Contemporary Organizational Theories
Structural theory (Burns and Stalker 1961): assumes there is a “best structure”
Mechanistic structures work in stable environments, while organic structures are best for unstable, changing environments
Systems theory (Katz and Kahn 1966)
Organizations consist of inputs, processes, outputs, and feedback mechanisms
Contingency theory (Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967)
No universal principles. No one best way of organizing
Transaction cost approach (Williamson, 1975)
Self-interested economic man forms organization to minimize transaction costs
Population ecology theory (Hannan and Freeman, 1977)
Organization survival dependent on environment’s selection
Organization Isomorphism (Dimaggio and Powell, 1983)
Organizations follow the most ‘appropriate’ form of organization
Contemporary Theories
Structural Theory
Classical principles of efficiency, effectiveness and productivity
Organizations are rational and function to achieve goals and objectives
Every organization has a “best structure”
Mechanistic systems – work best in stable environments with clearly defined worker roles and formal hierarchical structure
Organic systems – work best in changing environments with fluid worker roles and relationships
Contemporary Theories
Structural Theory
Contemporary Theories
Systems Theory
Contemporary Theories
Based on the premise that the organization is comprised of several interconnected parts, each of which is designed to achieve broader organizational goals and objectives.
Input: an organization’s resources
System (process): what an organization does with its resources
Feedback: the means by which an organization collects and analyzes data regarding the impact of its outputs
Organizational Economic Theory
Contemporary Theories
Works to ensure that workers’ interests are in line with organizational interests
Principal-agent theory
Principals have both organizational(program) and personal interests, but is at a disadvantage of information
Agents have only personal interests
Both are self-interested
To reconcile conflict between the principal and agents, and also address principal’s disadvantage of information:
Monetary incentive
Oversight mechanism
Contingency Theory
There is no one-best-way to form or lead an organization
The types and attributes of organizations are diverse for their unique environmental conditions (contingent upon environmental factors)
There are no general principles in uncertain and abruptly changeable organizational situation
Different requirements are needed to adapt to different environmental needs of organizations
The theory highlights the interaction between the form of the organization and the demands of the environment
Contemporary Theories
Population Ecology Theory
Focusing on organizational mortality
Why do some organizations emerge?
Why do other organizations die?
The organizational survival and change depend on external environmental mechanisms
Organization does not select or decide its survival or environmental change, but it is selected or decided by super-organizational factors.
Contemporary Theories
Mastering in Public Administration
Compare and contrast different schools of thoughts in organization studies (e.g., classical, neoclassical, human relations, and contemporary);
Understand the importance of both formal and informal organizations;
Understand how to ethically manage and treat employees.
After this class, you should
Next session
Human Resource Management in the Public Sector
Required readings:
Textbook, Chapter 6 Managing human resources
Perry and Wise, 1990, The motivation bases of public service (posted on Canvas)
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