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Physiology of Behavior

Twelfth Edition

Chapter 1

Introduction to Neoroscience

1-2

Introduction

Foundations of Behavioral Neuroscience

Natural Selection and Evolution

Ethical Issues in Research with Humans and Other Animals

The Future of Neuroscience: Careers and Strategies for Learning

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Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

1.1 Explain the importance of generalization and reduction in behavioral neuroscience research.

1.2 Summarize contributions to the modern field of behavioral neuroscience made by individuals involved in philosophy, physiology, or other disciplines.

1.3 Describe the role of natural selection in the evolution of behavioral traits.

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Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

1.4 Identify factors involved in the evolution of large brains in humans.

1.5 Outline reasons for the use of animals in behavioral neuroscience research.

1.6 Discuss ethical considerations in research with human participants.

1.7 Identify careers in behavioral neuroscience.

1.8 Describe effective learning strategies for studying behavioral neuroscience.

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Foundations of Behavioral Neuroscience

Historical Perspective

Brain does not change in adulthood

Today

Neurons

Neurogenesis

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The Nature of Behavioral Neuroscience (1 of 3)

The Goals of Research

Explain behavior by studying physiological processes

Use generalization to deduce general laws from specific events

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The Nature of Behavioral Neuroscience (2 of 3)

Employ deduction to explain a phenomenon in terms of more basic elements

Recognize that a behavior (e.g. nest building) can occur for different reason

Understand underlying physiology can help us understand the behavior (e.g. phonetic vs. whole-word reading).

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The Nature of Behavioral Neuroscience (3 of 3)

Goals of Research:

Generalization AND reduction

A behavioral neuroscientist:

Expert of the study of behavior

Expert of the study of physiology

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The Nature of Behavioral Neuroscience Biological Roots (1 of 2)

Dualism

Belief that body is physical but mind (or soul) is not

Monism

Belief that world consists only of matter and energy and that mind is phenomenon produced by workings of nervous system

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The Nature of Behavioral Neuroscience Biological Roots (2 of 2)

Model

Mathematical or physical analogy for physiological process

In science, model is relatively simple system that works on known principles

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Biological Roots of Behavioral Neuroscience (1 of 4)

Hippocrates (460–370 B.C.)

Considered the brain to be the center of thoughts and emotions

Rene Descartes

Father of Modern Philosophy

Reflexes: automatic, stereotyped movement that is produced as a direct results of a stimulus

Dualism

Pineal Body and ventricles

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Biological Roots of Behavioral Neuroscience (2 of 4)

Liugi Galvani

Electrical stimulation of the nerve in a frog’s leg produced contraction of the leg muscle

Johannes Muller

Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies

Pierre Flourens

Experimental ablation

One of the most important figures in the development of experimental physiology was Johannes Müller, a nineteenth-century German physiologist.

Müller’s most important contribution to the study of the physiology of behavior was his doctrine of specific nerve energies. Müller observed that although all nerves carry the same basic message—an electrical impulse—we perceive the messages of different nerves in different ways.

Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies

Müller’s conclusion that because all nerve fibers carry the same type of message, sensory information must be specified by the particular nerve fibers that are active

Pierre Flourens, a nineteenth-century French physiologist, removed various parts of animals’ brains and observed their behavior. By seeing what the animal could no longer do, he could infer the function of the missing portion of the brain.

This method is called experimental ablation (from the Latin ablatus, “carried away”). Flourens claimed to have discovered the regions of the brain that control heart rate and breathing, purposeful movements, and visual and auditory reflexes.

Experimental Ablation

the research method in which the function of a part of the brain is inferred by observing the behaviors an animal can no longer perform after that part is damaged

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Biological Roots of Behavioral Neuroscience (3 of 4)

Paul Broca

Extended the concept of experimental ablation to the human brain.

Broca’s area

Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig

Used electrical stimulation of the brain to understand function

Jan Purkinje

Purkinje fibers

In 1861, Broca performed an autopsy on the brain of a man who had had a stroke that resulted in the loss of the ability to speak.

Broca’s observations led him to conclude that a portion of the cerebral cortex on the front part of the left side of the brain performs functions that are necessary for speech.

In 1870, German physiologists Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig used electrical stimulation as a tool for understanding the physiology of the brain.

Helmholtz was also the first scientist to attempt to measure the speed of conduction through nerves.

Jan Purkinje: Czech physiologist

Studied central and peripheral nervous system

Purkinje fibers: neurons terminating on cardiac cells responsible for controlling contractions of the heart

Also first to describe individuality of finger prints

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Biological Roots of Behavioral Neuroscience (4 of 4)

Hermann von Helmholtz

Responsible for developing the law of conservation of energy and blindness, and the first measurements of the speed of nerve conduction

Ramon Santiago y Cajal

Used Golgi stain to describe individual neurons

1906 Nobel Prize

Herman von Helmholtz

Responsible for developing the law of conservation of energy, the ophthalmoscope, a theory of color vision and blindness, and the first measurements of the speed of nerve conduction

Ramon Santiago y Cajal

Spanish anatomist of late 19th century

Used golgi staining technique to examine individual neurons, made drawings under magnification to depict these detailed structures for the first time

Won 1906 Nobel Prize for his work describing structure of nervous system

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Figure 1.2 Descartes’ Model

Descartes believed that the “soul” (what we now call the mind ) controls the movements of the muscles through its influence on the pineal body. According to his theory, the eyes sent visual information to the brain, where it could be examined by the soul. When the soul decided to act, it would tilt the pineal body (labeled H in the diagram), which would divert pressurized fluid through nerves to the appropriate muscles.

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Figure 1.3 Broca’s Area

This region of the brain is named for French surgeon Paul Broca, who discovered that damage to a part of the left side of the brain disrupted a person’s ability to speak.

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Contemporary Research (1 of 2)

20th Century

Electrical and chemical messages

Circuits and brain structures

Brain-based treatments

21st Century

Pathways and circuits

2014 Nobel Prize

BRAIN initiative in the United States

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Contemporary Research (2 of 2)

Diversity

Society for Neuroscience

Goal of inclusivity of women and underrepresented groups

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Natural Selection and Evolution-Functionalism and Inheritance of Traits

Functionalism

Best way to understand biological phenomenon is to try to understand its useful functions for organism

Natural Selection

Inherited traits that confer selective advantage become more prevalent in population

Functionalism

Best way to understand biological phenomenon (a behavior or a physiological structure) is to try to understand its useful functions for organism

Natural Selection

Inherited traits that confer selective advantage (increase an animal’s likelihood to live and reproduce) become more prevalent in population

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Figure 1.4 Charles Darwin (1809–1882)

Darwin’s theory of evolution revolutionized biology and strongly influenced early psychologists.

Following the tradition of Müller and von Helmholtz, other biologists continued to observe, classify, and think about what they saw, and some of them arrived at valuable conclusions.

The most important of these scientists was Charles Darwin.

Darwin formulated the principles of natural selection and evolution, which revolutionized biology.

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Figure 1.5 Bones of the Forelimb

The figure shows the bones of (a) human, (b) bat, (c) whale, (d) dog. Through the process of natural selection, these bones have been adapted to suit many different functions.

Homologous structures

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Natural Selection and Evolution (1 of 5)

Functionalism and the Inheritance of Traits

Mutation

Selective Advantage

Evolution

Functionalism and the Inheritance of Traits

Mutation

a change in the genetic information contained in the chromosomes of sperms or eggs which can be passed on to an organism’s offspring; provides genetic variability

Selective Advantage

a characteristic of an organism that permits it to produce more than the average number of offspring of its species

Evolution

a gradual change in the structure and physiology of plant and animal species—generally producing

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Natural Selection and Evolution (2 of 5)

Evolution

Gradual change in the structure and physiology of plant and animal species

Generally producing more complex organisms

Result of natural selection

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Natural Selection and Evolution (3 of 5)

Absolute size

Human brain is very small compared to other animals such as the elephant and whale

Proportionality

Human brain makes up 2.3% of total body weight

Elephant brain is only 0.2% of total body weight

Shrew brain is 3.3% of total body weight

Because a baby’s brain is not large or complex enough to perform the physical and intellectual abilities of an adult, the brain must continue to grow after the baby is born.

In fact, all mammals (and all birds, for that matter) require parental care for a period of time while the nervous system develops.

The human brain makes up 2.3 percent of our total body weight, while the elephant brain makes up only 0.2 percent of the animal’s total body weight, which makes our brains seem very large in comparison.

The prenatal period of cell division in the brain is prolonged in humans, which results in a brain that weighs an average of 350 g and contains approximately 100 billion neurons. After birth, the brain continues to grow.

Production of new neurons almost ceases, but those that are already present grow and establish connections with each other; other brain cells, which protect and support neurons, begin to proliferate.

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Natural Selection and Evolution (4 of 5)

Human characteristics that rely on a large brain

Tool use

Color vision

Fire

Upright posture

Language

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Natural Selection and Evolution (5 of 5)

Neoteny

slowing of process of maturation, allowing more time for growth

important factor in development of large brains

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Figure 1.6 Evolution of Primate Species

(Redrawn from Lewin, R. Human Evolution: An Illustrated Introduction, 3rd ed. Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publications,

1993. Reprinted with permission by Blackwell Science Ltd.)

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Figure 1.8 Comparison of Mammalian Brains

Species with more complex behaviors have brains with more neurons that are available for behavior, learning, remembering, reasoning, and making plans. Primate brains—especially large ones—contain many more neurons per gram than rodent brains and many more neurons in the cortex.

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Ethical Issues in Research with Animals (1 of 2)

Humane Treatment

Appropriate animal care

Reduction/elimination of discomfort (e.g., anesthetics)

Prevent infection (e.g., antibiotics)

Required approval for research (e.g., Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee)

Benefits

Treatments and potential cures for many medical and psychiatric diseases/disorders

Where do the facts in this book arise from? Result of carefully designed experiments and other empirical studies

There is no excuse for mistreating animals in our care.

In fact, the vast majority of laboratory animals are treated humanely.

Pet ownership causes much more suffering among animals than scientific research does.

Fifty times more dogs and cats are killed by humane societies each year because they have been abandoned by former pet owners than are used in scientific research.

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Ethical Issues in Research with Animals (2 of 2)

Humane Treatment

Humane care

Voluntary with informed consent

Protecting identity: confidentiality of research information

Required approval for research (e.g., Institutional Review Board)

Benefits

Essential in advancing our knowledge of brain

Health and disease

Describe neuroethics: interdisciplinary field dedicated to understanding implications of and best practices for ethical neuro research with human participants.

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Careers in Neuroscience

Behavioral Neuroscience

Study all behavioral phenomena that can be observed in humans and animals

Attempt to understand the physiology of behavior

Analogous Terms

Physiological Psychology

Biological Psychology

Biopsychology

Psychobiology

Behavioral Neuroscientist

A scientist who studies the physiology of behavior, primarily by performing physiological and behavioral experiments with laboratory animals

Behavioral neuroscientists study all behavioral phenomena that can be observed in nonhuman animals.

Some study humans as well, using noninvasive physiological research methods. They attempt to understand the physiology of behavior: the role of the nervous system, interacting with the rest of the body (especially the endocrine system, which secretes hormones), in controlling behavior.

review one

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