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Chapter 7

Lifespan Development

Infancy

Gender Differences in Infant Behavior

Similarities

Physical activity

Girls better

Boys catch up

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Male and female infants display equal amounts of sociability, shyness, soothability, and adaptability and do not differ. Boys and girls also do not differ in how intense their moods are or how easy or difficult they are to care for.

Small but consistent gender difference with more physically active male infants.

Girls display better inhibitory control, regulation of their attention, show greater perceptual sensitivity and awareness of subtle changes in the environment.

Boys eventually catch up to girls and the differences become negligible.

Infancy

Adults’ Treatment of Infants

Different expectations

Physical activity

Girls better

Boys catch up

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Small but consistent gender difference with more physically active male infants.

Girls display better inhibitory control, regulation of their attention, show greater perceptual sensitivity and awareness of subtle changes in the environment.

Boys eventually catch up to girls and the differences become negligible.

Infancy

Gender Learning in Infancy

Gender categories learned early

Habituation paradigm

Preferential looking paradigm

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Infancy

Research by Anne Fausto-Sterling and her colleagues (2015) indicates that mothers touch their infant sons more than their infant daughters and in different ways.

Childhood

Gender Differences in Child Behavior

Gender differences

Gender-typed toys

Same-gender playmates

Aggressive

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Boys are more aggressive than girls, persists throughout the school years.

Childhood

Gender Learning in Childhood

Gender constancy

Gender identity

Gender stability

Appearance rigidity

Gender consistency

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Gender constancy—the understanding that gender is a stable and consistent part of oneself. Develops in three stages (Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental).

Childhood

Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Child Development

Gender dysphoria

Social conflicts

Trans-affirmative practice

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Trans-affirmative practice (also called gender-affirming care) is care that is respectful, aware, and supportive of the identities and life experiences of transgender and gender nonconforming people.

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Childhood

Much more research with gender nonconforming children is needed in order to support their

development and well-being.

Studies suggests:

Transgender children were indistinguishable from two groups of cisgender children when matched on gender identity.

Not all gender nonconforming children will go on developing with a gender identity that doesn’t match their gender assigned at birth.

Childhood

From Gender Identity to Gender Roles: Self-Socialization

Gender self-socialization model

Stereotype emulation

Identity construction

Culture

Gender discrimination

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Gender self-socialization model--children’s gender identity, their gender stereotypes and their gender self-perceptions all influence each other.

Stereotype emulation; the more that children identify with their gender, the more they view themselves as having the qualities specified by stereotypes about their gender.

Identity construction; the more children engage in gender-stereotyped activities, the more identified with their own gender they become.

Childhood

Gender Role Socialization

Parents

Channeling

Differential treatment

Direct instruction

Modeling

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Channeling parents create a gendered world for their child.

Differential treatment, parents behave differently toward sons compared with daughters.

Direct instruction--parents telling children how they should behave.

Modeling behaviors for their children.

Childhood

Gender Role Socialization

Talk and play

Ethnic variation

School

Media

Stereotype-inconsistent behavior

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Parents talk and play differently with their daughters compared with their sons.

Stereotype-inconsistent behavior is far less tolerated for boys than it is for girls.

Childhood

Peers and the Gender Segregation Effect

Boy’s play

Girl’s play

Gender segregation

When children play alone

Sexual attraction

Mixed-gender groups

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Boy’s play: Rough and involves risk, confrontation, striving for dominance, seeking autonomy, testing the limits

Girl’s play: Conflict-reducing strategies, more self-disclosure and maintain communication with adults

Much of the gender segregation of results from forces within the child.

When children play alone, gender differences in behavior are minimal.

Sexual attraction bring the sexes together in adulthood.

Schools could take steps to ensure that children have multiple experiences of working cooperatively in mixed-gender groups in the classroom.

Childhood

The Sexualization of Girls

Culture

Family, friends, teachers, or adults

Reduce self-esteem

Cognitive performance

Career aspirations

Media literacy training programs

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Adolescence

Puberty for Cisgender and Transgender Youth

Pubertal changes

Boys

Masculine ideal

Girls

Feminine ideal

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Adolescence

In early adolescence, gender intensification occurs and girls learn that their status will be determined by their attractiveness, not their achievements.

Adolescence

Identity Development

Gender differences

Identity crisis (boys)

Identity suspension (girls)

Interpersonal identity

Autonomous identity

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Girls and women define their identities more in interpersonal terms.

Adolescent girls develop both an interpersonal and an autonomous identity, boys’ development focuses mainly on autonomous identity.

Adolescence

Friendship and Dating

Girls

Talk and self disclose

Boys

Sports and leisure activities

Dating

Appearance and athleticism

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Boys and girls are similar in honesty, straightforwardness, mutual activities, and loyalty.

Adolescence

Peer Sexual Harassment in the Schools

Gender differences

School climate

Gender nonconforming

Sexual minority adolescents

Development and well-being

Unreported incidents

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Girls report more harassment and being negatively affected by harassment.

Gender nonconforming and sexual minority adolescents experience especially high rates of peer sexual harassment.

Peer sexual harassment is a threat to adolescent development and well-being.

Majority of incidents went unreported to the schools.

Adolescence

Body Dissatisfaction

Body esteem

Normative discontent

Unhealthy behaviors

Media

Ethnic differences

Trans and nonbinary women

Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.

White, Latina, and Asian American women generally express more weight concern compared with Black women, who express less.

Trans and nonbinary women experience pressure to adhere to the feminine beauty standard and experiencing cisgenderist harassment and discrimination.

Emerging Adulthood

U.S. and Western nations

Late teens through early 20s

Marriage is delayed

Self-focused exploration of career or work

Intimate relationships

Financial independence

Adulthood

Gender and Work

Romantic Relationships and Marriage

Heterosexual marriage

Health benefits

Quality of marriage

Decision making

Adulthood

Divorce

Psychological and physical well-being

Ethnic differences

Beneficial end

Economic consequences

Role strain and overload

Adulthood

Single Women

Ethnic variations

Freedom, self-sufficiency, and competence

When satisfied

Satisfying employment

Connections

Strong network

Women who are satisfied by long-term single status tend to have

a) Satisfying employment that provides economic independence.

b) Connections to the next generation through extended family or by mentoring younger people.

c) A strong network of family and friends who provide support.

Adulthood

Motherhood

Delayed childbearing

Motherhood mandate

Mother wars

Child-free or voluntary childlessness

Infertility

Empty nest

Motherhood mandate--Motherhood is so basic an assumption of the female role that it is easy to forget that society pressures women to be mothers.

Adulthood

Intersectional analysis of fertility issues indicates that White women’s childbearing is more highly valued and promoted than the childbearing of women of color.

Later Adulthood

Ageism

Double standard of aging

Grandmotherhood

Grandmother effect

Gender and Cognitive Aging

Widowhood and Gender Ratios

Grandmother effect--older women who are healthy and active enhance their own fitness by providing care for their grandchildren enhancing the survival of offspring.

Gender ratios become more and more lopsided with advancing age.

Chapter Summary

Gender differences

Transgender children

Parents

Gender-appropriate behavior

Sexualization

Chapter Summary

Puberty

Peer Harassment

Marriage and romantic relationships

Motherhood

Older adulthood