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PP1.pptxChapter 1
Introduction
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Introduction
“What are you having?”
Social world and gender
Power and status
Gender is complex.
Cisgender men
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Why Study the Psychology of Women and Gender?
Essential to Psychology
Social identity
Sexism and gender bias
Hormones
Privilege
“The personal is political”
Societal norms, policies and laws
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“The personal is political”--discuss the personal relevance of understanding gender
Societal norms, policies, and laws--gendered experiences go beyond personal experiences. Gender is relevant in many aspects of our lives.
Woman?--What does it mean to be a woman?
Sexism/gender bias--exists not only in our everyday experiences (e.g., how people treat us), but also in the science of psychology.
Hormones--What roles do our hormones or brain play in our gender?
Gender privilege--In some circumstances, our gender may offer unearned privileges or disadvantages.
Social identity--Race, ethnicity, class and sexual orientation all influence gender.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sex, Gender, Transgender, and Cisgender
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Language and terminology about gender are constantly evolving.
Sex is often used ambiguously (intercourse, physical or physiological characteristics, or reproductive functions) and conflated with gender.
The gender binary is evident in phrases such as “the opposite sex” and in assuming that all people must fit squarely into one of these two groups.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sex, Gender, Transgender, and Cisgender
Cisgenderism
Gender differences
Sex differences
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Cisgenderism refers to prejudice against people who are outside the gender binary or bias that recognizes a person’s birth-assigned gender but not their gender identity.
In psychological research, gender differences have generally been used to refer to differences between men and women. Thus, gender differences research is rooted in the gender binary.
Some researchers use sex differences to refer to innate or biologically produced differences between men and women and gender differences to refer to male–female differences that result from learning and the social roles of men and women .
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sexism and Feminism
Sexism
Old-fashioned sexism
Modern sexism
Hostile sexism
Benevolent sexism
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Old-fashioned sexism was prevalent in the 1950s and earlier and was characterized by open or overt prejudice against women.
Modern sexism or neosexism refers to covert or subtle prejudiced beliefs about women.
Hostile sexism refers to negative, hostile attitudes toward women and adversarial beliefs about gender relations in which women are thought to spend most of their time trying to control men, whether through sexuality or feminism.
Benevolent sexism, in contrast, consists of beliefs about women that seem to the perpetrator to be kind or benevolent--in which women are honored and put on the proverbial pedestal. Although this view may seem harmless, it is still a form of sexism because it stereotypes women as weak and dependent on men.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sexism and Feminism
Feminism
First-wave feminism
Second-wave feminism
Third-wave feminism
Fourth-wave feminism
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A feminist is a person who favors political, economic, and social equality of all people, regardless of gender, and therefore favors the legal and social changes necessary to achieve gender equality.
First-wave feminism occurred in the late 1800s and early 1900s in Britain, Canada, and the United States. In the United States, women’s right to vote was won when the
Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified in 1920.
Second-wave feminism began in the 1960s and extended into the 1990s. Second-wave feminists could build on the successes of their predecessors and take on a much wider range of issues: sexual freedom; reproductive rights, especially contraception and abortion; pay equity; equal opportunity in education; and gender-based violence.
Third-wave feminism emphasized intersectionality--an approach originating in Black feminism--and diversity among women rather than universality of female experience. In addition, it favors the individual’s right to define feminism, instead of everyone accepting a uniform ideology.
Fourth-wave feminism has been fueled by recent advances in online technology, including user-generated content, such as blogs, and social media, like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Gender Equality Around the World and Transnational Feminism
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action
Gender equality
Educational, political, economical, and health
Gender-based violence
Transnational feminism
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In 1995, at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China, 17,000 participants and 30,000 activists met and created the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. The Platform for Action affirmed a commitment to gender equality and described specific steps that needed to be taken in order to improve the lives of girls and women and achieve gender equity.
Transnational feminism advocates for gender equality across countries and points out that we need to carefully consider women’s and girls’ experiences not only across countries, but also within them Gender equality has several aspects, such as education, politics, economics, health, and gender-based violence.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Gender Equality Around the World and Transnational Feminism
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The United States (U.S.) ranks 55th
The United Nations now regularly publishes data on how women are doing in all nations of the world, and these data are used to monitor progress toward gender equality.
The U.S. does not fare so well because of our high teen pregnancy rate (31.0, compared with 1.9 in Switzerland) and our persistent underrepresentation of women in Congress.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Themes in the Psychology of Women and Gender
Feminine evil
Male as normative
Androcentrism
Gender Differences and Similarities
Critiquing the Gender Binary
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One of the clearest images of women in mythology is their portrayal as the source of evil. Judeo-Christian tradition, Eve disobeyed God’s orders and ate from the fruit of the tree of knowledge.
Throughout mythology the male is seen as normative, the female as a variant or deviation.
Androcentrism--male-centeredness, or the belief that males are the standard or norm.
Both scientific and nonscientific views of women have concentrated on how they differ from men; this lopsided emphasis on gender differences has led to a distorted understanding of the psychology of women and gender.
The gender binary also assumes that everyone is cisgender. Because of these faulty assumptions, the most glaring problems with the binary are that it excludes anyone who is transgender, intersex, or genderqueer
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Themes in the Psychology of Women and Gender
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Themes in the Psychology of Women and Gender
Intersectionality of gender
The social construction of gender
Two spirit
Person variable
Stimulus variable
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Intersectionality can be defined as an approach or perspective that simultaneously considers the meaning and consequences of multiple categories of identity, difference, and disadvantage.
Intersectionality of gender--Some groups experience multiple disadvantages, such as poor Black women or lesbian women of color. Others may be part of a disadvantaged group but also part of a privileged group, such as White women with disabilities.
Social constructionism is that people--including scientists--do not discover reality; rather, they construct or invent it.
Among many American Indian tribes, including the Cherokee, Shoshone, Navajo, Lakota, and Zuni, there is another category of gender, known generally as Two Spirit (however, each tribe has a unique name for this category).
Feminist psychologists have noted that gender is not only a person variable (as traditional psychology has maintained) but also a stimulus variable.
person variable is a characteristic of the individual.
stimulus variable asserts that a person’s gender has a profound impact on the way others react to that person.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Themes in the Psychology of Women and Gender
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Themes in the Psychology of Women and Gender
Continuing Topics in Psychology
Theories of women’s behavior
Empirical evidence
Critical thinkers
Internal and external determinants
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sources of Bias in Psychological Research
Research is progressing at a rapid pace
Attain skills to evaluate future studies
Research
Gender Bias
Problems
Critical thinking skills
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Know how psychologists go about doing research.
Be aware of ways in which gender bias may affect research.
Be aware of problems that may exist in research on gender roles or the psychology of women.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sources of Bias in Psychological Research
How psychologists do research
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sources of Bias in Psychological Research
Bias in Theory
Biased theoretical model
Gender bias
Community input
Overcoming biases and stereotypes
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Gender bias may enter if the scientist begins with a biased theoretical model (e.g., psychoanalytic orientation and penis envy).
Feminist scholars advocate going to the community of people to be studied and asking them about their lives and what the significant questions are.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sources of Bias in Psychological Research
Bias in Research Design
Laboratory experiments
Naturalistic observation
Distinction not clear-cut
Quasi-experimental designs
Operational definitions
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Laboratory experiments in which the research participant is brought into the psychologist’s laboratory, and their behavior is manipulated in some way in order to study the phenomenon in question.
Naturalistic observations in which researchers observe people’s behavior as it occurs in naturalistic settings, and they do not attempt to manipulate the behavior.
In practice, the distinction between these categories is not so clear-cut. Thus, quasi-experimental designs (quasi meaning “not quite”) refer to designs that don’t meet these three criteria.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sources of Bias in Psychological Research
Bias in Data Collection
Sampling
Overgeneralization
Experimenter effects
Observer effects
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Experimenter effects occur when some characteristic of the experimenter (e.g., gender) affects the way respondents behave and thus affects the outcome of the experiment. The situation can be handled by having several experimenters--for example, half of them female; half of them male--collect the data.
Observer effects (sometimes also called rater bias) occur when the researcher’s expectations for the outcome of the research influence their observations and recording of the data.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sources of Bias in Psychological Research
Bias in Interpretation of Results
Female deficit model
Estimation of scores
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A persistent tendency has existed in psychology to make interpretations that are favorable to men; these interpretations are essentially based on a Female deficit model.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sources of Bias in Psychological Research
Bias in Publishing Findings
Significant results
Gender similarities
Gender differences
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There is a strong tendency in psychological research to publish significant results only. It means that there is a tendency to report statistically significant gender differences and to omit mention of gender similarities and nonsignificant gender differences. Thus, there would be a bias toward emphasizing gender differences and ignoring gender similarities.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Sources of Bias in Psychological Research
Against Female Scientists and Other Biases
Authoritative
Representation
Dominate biases
Cisgenderism
Fringe topic
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If there is a tendency for reports by female scientists to be considered less authoritative than reports by male scientists, this would introduce bias. Evidence of such a gender bias might include the underrepresentation of women as lead authors of scientific journal articles and conference presentations.
Gender bias and cisgenderism in the language used in reports of psychological research are also a concern.
Research on women has long been considered a specialty or fringe topic, a perception that reflects the male as normative theme. This bias has shifted such that mainstream research includes psychology of women
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Feminist Alternatives to Biased Research
Gender-fair research
Single-gender research
Theoretical models
Diverse research teams
Data interpretations
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Gender-fair research is research that is not guilty of any of the gender biases discussed in the previous sections. Goal is to minimize gender bias.
Theoretical models, underlying assumptions, and the kinds of questions asked should always be examined for gender fairness.
Research teams should be diverse with regard to gender--as well as other social characteristics such as race or ethnicity--to limit experimenter effects.
Interpretations of data should always be examined carefully for gender fairness, and possibly several interpretations should be offered.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Feminist Alternatives to Biased Research
Feminist research
Do not manipulate people
“Subjects” versus “Participants”
Two-step method
Women and marginalized groups
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Feminist research has no single, comprehensive, definitive statement of its principles, but many scholars have made contributions.
Do not manipulate people, but rather observe them in their natural environments and try to determine how they experience their natural lives and worlds.
Do not call the people who are studied “subjects,” but rather “participants.” This reaffirms their personhood and agency
When determining the gender of research participants, it is best to follow this two-step method.
1. Ask participants what gender they were assigned at birth.
2. Ask them to designate their gender identity using their own words.
Devote specific research attention to the special concerns of women and members of marginalized groups.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Feminist Alternatives to Biased Research
Feminist research
Interactive relationships
Critical research
Diverse and innovative methods
Scientific research and political activism
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Do not think in simple terms of variable A causing effects on variable B, but rather in terms of complex, interactive relationships in which A and B mutually influence each other.
Conduct critical research. That is, conduct research aimed at empowering members of marginalized or oppressed groups (such as women and transgender persons) and eliminating power inequities.
Consider diverse and innovative methods for studying human behavior
Keep in mind that scientific research and political activism are not necessarily contradictory activities
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Feminist Alternatives to Biased Research
Qualitative research methods
Mixed methods
Traditional psychology research
Complex mutual influences
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Qualitative research methods or the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, known as mixed methods is considered an innovative research method. With qualitative methods, the data are often text, talk, or images.
Traditional psychological research has largely relied on quantitative
While the traditional psychological experiment needs reform, we shouldn’t throw it out entirely. It is most effective when it is combined with naturalistic research examining complex mutual influences
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Feminist Alternatives to Biased Research
Are We Making Progress?
Positive influences
Substantial shifts
Other forms of bias
transgender
the gender binary
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Substantial shifts have been made toward nonsexist methods in psychological research. There are more women researchers and more equal representation of women among participants.
Other forms of bias--such as bias against transgender persons and those outside the gender binary--remain.
It is critical that we continue monitoring our methods and commit to reducing all forms of bias in our discipline.
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Else-Quest and Hyde, The Psychology of Women and Gender 9e. ©SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Summary
Exciting and constantly evolving field
Sexism
Definition of feminist
Pervasive themes
Gender bias
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