Sociology of Sport Unit VI Compare & Contrast Assignment
Shaun Webbs
Policypoliticsandevents-acasestudyofSouthAfricas2010FIFAWorldCup-managinginternationalsportseventsinsustainablepolitical.pdf
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World Health Organisation (2004) Global Status report On alcohol 2004 available via www.who. �nt
world Health Organ�sat�on (2002) world Health Report Reduc�ng R�sks – Promot�ng Healthy L�ves Ava�lable v�a www.who.�nt
POLICY, POLITICS AND EVENTS: A CASE STUDY OF SOUTH AFRICA’S
2010 FIFA wORLD CUP™: MANAGING INTERNATIONAL SPORTS EVENTS IN SUSTAINABLE POLITICAL CONTEXT
jO-aNSie VaN Wyk UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA (UNISA), PRETORIA, SOUTH AFRICA
DIMITRI TASSIOPOULOS wALTER SISULU UNIVERSITY, BUFFALO CITY, SOUTH AFRICA
Abstract
Governments, according to Mason (2008) and Tassiopoulos (2005) are frequently referred to as the public sector of the events industry. The role of the public sector however in many countries has what seems, at face value, to be contradictory. Governments not only try to regulate events but also have a role in the marketing of events.
On 15 May 2004, South Africa was announced as the winner of the bid to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup™, a decade after the country’s first democratic elections. During the bidding process leading up this announcement, the benefits of hosting such a mega event were argued. Apart from branding it as an ‘African Cup’, in line with the then South African President, Thabo Mbeki’s notion of an ‘Africa Renaissance’ and pan-African solidarity and integration. A second argument focused on the economic benefits of hosting the event.
The vision of the 2010 FIFA World Cup™, according to 2010 FIFA World Cup South Africa (2008): “will seek to strengthen the African and South African image, promote new partnerships with the world as we stage a unique and memorable event that will inspire us to drive our collective determination to be significant global players in all fields of human endeavour”.
This case study follows an eclectic approach, which applies the dimensions and variables of sustainability and impact presented by Vanclay (2002; 2003; 2004), Gursoy, Kim and Uysal (2003),
Vancouver 2010 and ASTS (2008), and Getz (2007). For South Africa, like many developing countries, development is of critical importance and an important instrument to undo the socio-economic legacy of apartheid. An event such as the 2010 FIFA World Cup™ can result in significant socio- economic development for the country. However, it is the sustainability and socio-economic legacy of the event that will determine this outcome. Here, the study has applied six indicators of sustainability, including the political impact, social context and community cohesiveness, economic spin-offs, social incentives, environmental impact and the social cost. The sustainability of each of these indicators is already challenged in the run- up to the event.
Key words
Politics, impacts, 2010 FIFA World Cup™, planning, destination management, tourism, society, South Africa
Introduct�on Governments, according to Mason (2008) and Tass�opoulos (2005) are frequently referred to as the publ�c sector of the events �ndustry. Governments are not commerc�al organ�sat�ons focussed on prof�t, but are organ�sat�ons that are meant to represent the v�ews of taxpayers and electorates. Getz (2007: 403) states “events are an important mot�vator of tour�sm, and f�gure prom�nently �n the development and market�ng plans of most
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destinations”. “Globally”, states Whitford (2008: 1), “governments are �ncreas�ngly ut�l�s�ng events as veh�cles for reg�onal development as they cont�nue to demonstrate a capac�ty to generate pos�t�ve commerc�al outcomes for host reg�ons”. increasingly, according to Nauright (2004: 1326), ‘major sport�ng compet�t�ons and tournaments are regarded as “events” to be “marketed” and terms such as “hallmark” and “mega” suggest s�ze really does matter. The lure of large and spectacular events �s thought by governments to be an exped�ent way to attract (or leverage) med�a �nterest to a host c�ty wh�ch �s hoped w�ll translate �nto an �nflux of cap�tal through tour�sm and new �nvestment’.
If the publ�c sector manages and coord�nates effectively, a well-designed event strategy has the potent�al to del�ver the soc�al benef�ts and ach�eve the follow�ng object�ves for a dest�nat�on (Tass�opoulos, 2005: 3):
prov�de a means by wh�ch to re�nforce a dest�nat�ons’ benef�ts and attr�butes and generate a favourable �mage for the dest�nat�on as a tour�st dest�nat�on (Leverag�ng the benef�ts of host�ng the event);
establ�sh a dest�nat�on as a major tour�st attract�on by attract�ng h�gh y�eld v�s�tors, espec�ally repeat v�s�tors;
enhance a dest�nat�ons’ compet�t�ve pos�t�on w�th�n a country and place �t on the global tour�st map;
generate an �ncreased rate of tour�st growth;
truly br�ng a dest�nat�on to l�fe, showcas�ng �ts brand personal�ty and �nst�ll�ng conf�dence and pr�de �n �ts local commun�ty;
max�m�se the use of, and revenue for, ex�st�ng fac�l�t�es
�ncreased favourable �nc�dental med�a coverage through the event platform that extends the normal commun�cat�on reach;
�mprove the organ�sat�onal market�ng and b�dd�ng capab�l�ty of the commun�ty; and
Increase commun�ty support for events.
The ma�n reason for the �nvolvement of the government sector �n events �s that the publ�c sector �s �ntended to be �mpart�al w�th no part�cular
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vested or commerc�al �nterest; �s mandated to represent the whole populat�on and not just a s�ngle set of stakeholders or �nterest group; and, takes a longer-term view of events development than, for example, the pr�vate sector. The role of the publ�c sector, however, �n many countr�es has what seems, at face value, to be contrad�ctory. Governments not only try to regulate events but also have a role �n the market�ng of events. It �s noted by Mason (2008) that marketing is usually assoc�ated w�th the promot�on of (events) tour�sm, however, there are �nc�dents when market�ng �s used as a control measure (similar to de-marketing) of (event) tour�sm dest�nat�ons and offer�ngs. Such publ�c sector strateg�es are often followed, for example, where (event) dest�nat�ons have frag�le env�ronments or the�r carry�ng capac�t�es has been exceeded. The publ�c sector has also tended to rely on the educat�on of the (event) v�s�tors �n an attempt to mod�fy behav�our �n relat�on to potent�al and real �mpacts. Such efforts often �nvolve codes of conduct targeted at event v�s�tors or sectors of the (events) �ndustry �n an attempt to regulate behav�our. Leg�slat�on a�med at controll�ng (event) v�s�tor behav�our �s �ncreas�ngly be�ng approved by governments.
the role of the public sector in mega-events is clearly �llustrated �n South Afr�ca’s host�ng of the 2010 FIFA (Internat�onal Federat�on of Football Assoc�at�ons) world Cup™, the world’s largest and most expens�ve sports event. Soccer �s cons�dered as the largest sport �ndustry and spectator sport �n South Afr�ca (Ma�l & Guard�an Bus�ness News, 2� October 2007: 2). FIFA’s compet�t�ve �nternat�onal bidding process - with governments only as the bidders - contributes to the prestige associated w�th host�ng the event. Nat�onal governments have to produce, for example, certa�n legal guarantees before FIFA announces the host country, as well as host�ng the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ be�ng cons�dered a pol�t�cal process.
S�nce South Afr�ca’s f�rst democrat�c elect�on �n april 1994, the country has emerged from its �nternat�onal �solat�on due to �ts aparthe�d pol�c�es. Apart from the country’s growth �n formal d�plomat�c relat�ons, �t has, as �nd�cated �n Table 1, also hosted numerous mult�lateral conferences and major �nternat�onal mega events, wh�ch are �nd�cators of �ts �ntegrat�on �nto the �nternat�onal commun�ty. These events are an effect�ve tool to market or brand South africa, a revenue-generating industry, an opportun�ty for �nfrastructure development, creat�ng employment opportun�t�es, �ncreas�ng
tour�sm to South Afr�ca, and as a contr�butor to nation-building (Van der Westhuizen, 2006; Van der Merwe and Van der westhu�zen, 200�; Van der Merwe, 2007 and kachkova, 2008).
in 2008, the South african Government outlined �ts strategy to address some of the country’s most pertinent socio-economic challenges. the elements of the strategy �nclude:
Speed�ng up growth and transform�ng the economy;
F�ght�ng poverty;
Bu�ld�ng soc�al cohes�on and state leg�t�macy;
Pursu�ng the values of �nternat�onal cooperat�on; and
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Bu�ld�ng a developmental state (The Presidency, 2008a).
The purpose of th�s paper �s to present a prel�m�nary analys�s of South Afr�ca’s host�ng of the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ �n terms of the key �nd�cators of susta�nab�l�ty: soc�al, cultural and pol�t�cal �mpact; env�ronmental �mpact; and econom�c �mpact. The paper also analyses the pol�t�cs and pol�cy �ssues assoc�ated w�th South Afr�ca’s host�ng of the event. Th�s paper further assesses the �ncreas�ng �mpact on South Afr�ca’s c�t�zens’ l�ves and �ndeed the ent�re development and d�rect�on of soc�ety �n the country.
Table 1: Select�on of �nternat�onal conferences and mega events hosted by South africa since 1994 (the Presidency, 2008: 58)
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Table 1: Selection of international conferences and mega events hosted by South Africa since 1994 (The Presidency, 2008: 58)
Analyt�cal framework Th�s paper follows an eclect�c (or �nterd�sc�pl�nary research) approach to pol�t�cal, pol�cy and �mpact analys�s, wh�ch appl�es the comprehens�ve d�mens�ons and var�ables of susta�nab�l�ty and �mpact (see table 2), developed by Vanclay (2002;
2003; 2004), Gursoy, kim and uysal (2003), Vancouver 2010 and Internat�onal Academy of Sport Science and technology (aiStS) (2008), Getz (2007) and Grundling and Steynberg (2008), and deta�led �n table 2.
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Generally, as deta�led �n table 2, th�s paper cons�ders South Afr�ca’s host�ng of the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ �n terms of the follow�ng key �nd�cators of susta�nab�l�ty:
Soc�al, cultural and pol�t�cal �mpact;
Env�ronmental �mpact; and
Econom�c �mpact.
In 2002, an event strategy, Towards a nat�onal event strategy for South Afr�ca, was prepared for the off�c�al South Afr�can tour�sm agency, South Afr�can Tour�sm (SAT) and the Department of Env�ronmental Affa�rs and Tour�sm (DEAT) (Octagon South Afr�ca, 2002). One of the ma�n conclus�ons of the Strategy is that ‘a clearly articulated and co- ord�nated event strategy �s needed to ensure that opportun�t�es are max�m�sed and potent�al p�tfalls are m�n�m�sed’ and proposes, amongst others ‘a community-orientated approach to eventing in South Afr�ca �s requ�red to max�m�se and d�str�bute event tour�sm benef�ts. Th�s �s �n keep�ng w�th South africa’s transformational, equity-orientated and redress developmental agenda’ (Octagon, 2002: 112 & 115). The Strategy was �ntended to �nform the South Afr�can Government’s approach to events, �ts true �mpact �s however unknown as ne�ther of the two comm�ss�on�ng agenc�es (SAT and DEAT) ever formally adopted the sa�d strategy.
H�story of the case On 15 May 2004, South africa was announced as the w�nner of the b�d to host the 2010 FIFA world Cup™, a decade after the country’s f�rst democrat�c elect�ons. Dur�ng the b�dd�ng process lead�ng up th�s announcement, the benef�t of host�ng such a mega event was argued. Apart from brand�ng �t as an ‘Afr�can Cup’, �n l�ne w�th the then South Afr�can Pres�dent, Thabo Mbek�’s notion of an ‘africa renaissance’ and pan-african sol�dar�ty and �ntegrat�on. A second argument focused on the econom�c benef�ts of host�ng the event. Th�s announcement was a momentous occas�on, part�cularly g�ven that �t was the f�rst t�me that an Afr�can country had been chosen to host a mega-event of this stature. Subsequently, the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ Organ�s�ng Comm�ttee (LOC) was establ�shed to oversee preparat�ons towards ensur�ng South Afr�ca’s read�ness to successfully host th�s �mportant event. The Techn�cal Coord�nat�ng Team (TCC) was also
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establ�shed to coord�nate the preparatory work of nat�onal government departments. The TCC has representat�on from several nat�onal departments �nclud�ng the Department of Env�ronmental Affa�rs and Tour�sm (DEAT) and South Afr�can Tour�sm (Sat). (deat and Sat, 2005: 4).the vision of the 2010 FIFA world Cup™, accord�ng to 2010 FiFa World Cup South africa (2008) ‘will seek to strengthen the Afr�can and South Afr�can �mage, promote new partnersh�ps w�th the world as we stage a un�que and memorable event that w�ll �nsp�re us to dr�ve our collect�ve determ�nat�on to be s�gn�f�cant global players �n all f�elds of human endeavour’.
Core �ssues Internat�onal standards and pract�ces for susta�nable sport events
Internat�onally, th�s study has noted that, the follow�ng organ�sat�ons prov�de standards and pract�ce for susta�nable sport events and pract�ces:
The Internat�onal Standards Organ�sat�on’s (iSO) iSO 14001: 2004 environmental management systems ass�st organ�sat�ons to m�n�m�se the�r env�ronmental �mpact and comply w�th the relevant laws and regulat�ons.
The Global Report�ng In�t�at�ve’s (GRI) Susta�nab�l�ty Report�ng Framework �s the world standard �n susta�nab�l�ty report�ng guidelines vis-à-vis environmental and econom�c performance of an event.
The Internat�onal Olymp�c Comm�ttee (IOC), and, the UN’s (Un�ted Nat�on) Olymp�c Movement Agenda 21, wh�ch prov�des a bluepr�nt for susta�nable development
The Br�t�sh Standards Inst�tute (BSI) has two standards, BS 8900: 2006 Guidance for manag�ng susta�nable development and BS 8901: 2007 Specification for a sustainable event management system w�th gu�dance for use. BS 8900: 2006 assists organisations to develop an approach to susta�nable development. BS 8901: 2007 outlines all the requ�rements for plann�ng and manag�ng susta�nable events.
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Table 2: Indicators of the sustainability of the 2010 FIFA World Cup™ in South Africa
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UNEP (Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment Programme) (Vancouver 2010 and AISTS, 2008: 2, 15-16)
South Afr�ca faces many of the problems exper�enced by develop�ng countr�es, �n wh�ch rap�d �ndustr�al�sat�on, populat�on growth and urban�sat�on pose a threat to the qual�ty of the env�ronment. The Nat�onal Env�ronmental Management act (act No. 107 of 1998) (NeMa) �s the framework leg�slat�on on wh�ch most of the subsequent prov�nc�al and local author�ty env�ronmental respons�b�l�t�es are based. Sect�on 16(4)(b) of NeMa requires municipalities to adhere to relevant Env�ronmental Implementat�on Plans (EIPs) and Env�ronmental Management Plans (EMPs) when prepar�ng any programme or plan (�nclud�ng the plann�ng and host�ng of events); �nclud�ng Integrated Development Plans (IDPs) and Land Development Object�ves (LDOs).
The enforcement of env�ronmental leg�slat�on however is critical for the protection of eco-systems and the promot�on of susta�nable development �n South Afr�ca. Far too often, the good �ntent�ons of laws such as the NEMA are underm�ned by an �nab�l�ty of prov�nc�al and local government to effect�vely enforce compl�ance or to mon�tor developments after the Records of Dec�s�ons for �nd�v�dual projects (�nclud�ng the plann�ng and host�ng of events) have been handed down.
At the t�me of wr�t�ng th�s paper, the research f�nd�ngs suggests that South Afr�can events managers do not need to comply w�th standards s�m�lar to the Br�t�sh Spec�f�cat�on for a susta�nable event management (BS 8901:2007). However, the SANS 103��:200X health and safety general requ�rements standard at l�ve events was recently publ�shed, accord�ng to the Exh�b�t�on Assoc�at�on of Southern Afr�ca (EXSA) (200�: �nternet) by the SABS (South Afr�can Bureau of Standards) Standards D�v�s�on. Th�s standard spec�f�es the m�n�mum requ�rements for a person or organ�sat�on plann�ng, organ�s�ng and stag�ng a l�ve event. The standard �ncludes the �dent�f�cat�on of the requ�red control and management processes and serv�ces, as well as health and safety management. The latter �s most �mportant, as all enterta�nment events �n South Afr�ca are class�f�ed as work act�v�t�es and are therefore subject to the Occupat�onal Health and Safety act, 1993 (act No 85 of 1993), as amended from t�me to t�me.
• Th�s paper, consequently, notes that at the t�me of �ts wr�t�ng that the South Afr�can Government does not have any other approved standards for events and that th�s poses challenges for measur�ng the �mpact of events emp�r�cally.
Pol�t�cal aspects Several pol�t�cal events took place s�nce South Afr�ca was announced as the successful b�dder �n 2004 of the 2010 FiFa World Cup™.
The rul�ng Afr�can Nat�onal Congress (ANC) party held �ts 52nd Nat�onal Conference at the Un�vers�ty of limpopo in Polokwane on 16-20 december 2007. In 2009, South Afr�cans w�ll go to the polls for the country’s fourth post aparthe�d democrat�c elect�ons. These elect�ons follow on the sack�ng of President Mbeki in 2008 and the election of jacob Zuma as the rul�ng party’s pres�dent. Zuma �s also the party’s pres�dent�al cand�date for the Apr�l 2009 elect�ons. Zuma �s fac�ng ser�ous allegat�ons of corrupt�on related to South Afr�ca’s arms deal and h�s court appearance has been set for August 2009. Concerns have been ra�sed about the �mpl�cat�ons of these allegat�ons and the percept�ons of h�s pres�dency �n the run up to the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ event �n 2010.
Legacy States’ behav�our �s shaped by el�te bel�efs, identities, and social norms (Mingst, 2004). Therefore, �dent�t�es are shaped, and changed through �deas and pract�ces. Moreover, states’ �dent�t�es and nat�onal �nterests result from the soc�al �dent�t�es of �nd�v�duals. L�ke Real�sts, Construct�v�sts regard power as �mportant, but depart from Real�sts �n the�r cla�m that power �s not only mater�al, but that the power of �deas, culture and language are significant (Mingst, 2004).
Since 1994, the post apartheid South african Government has repeatedly emphas�zed the moral and normat�ve agenda of �ts domest�c pol�c�es and �nternat�onal relat�ons. Furthermore, s�nce 1994, South africa has proclaimed an identity for �tself as that of a global norm entrepreneur, �.e. a state that compl�es w�th �nternat�onally acceptable behav�our, but also �n�t�ates new normat�ve �deas (Geldenhuys, 200�). Thabo Mbek�’s, South Afr�ca’s president from 1999 until 2008, idea of an african Rena�ssance �s an example of the country’s norm entrepreneursh�p. Here, the object�ve was to work
towards end�ng the cont�nent’s wars and �mprove development, as well as speak�ng on behalf of the cont�nent. Mbek�’s �dea man�fested, �nter al�a, �n, South Afr�ca’s b�dd�ng and host�ng of the 2010 FIFA world Cup™. In fact, Mbek� declared the 2010 events as an ‘Afr�can world Cup.
Throughout �ts b�dd�ng process, South Afr�ca placed an emphas�s on ‘mak�ng �t [the 2010 FIFA world Cup™] an Afr�can event, one that w�ll help spread conf�dence and prosper�ty across the ent�re cont�nent’, ‘South Afr�ca stands not as a country alone – but rather as a representat�ve of Afr�ca and as part of an Afr�can fam�ly of nat�ons’ and ‘the successful host�ng of the FIFA world CupTM �n Afr�ca w�ll prov�de a powerful, �rres�st�ble momentum to [the] Afr�can rena�ssance (Republ�c of South africa, 2008a: internet)’.
In construct�ng �t as an Afr�can Cup, the South Afr�can Government stated that the event �s �ntended to have a clearly def�ned legacy and soc�al �mpact:
‘An event that w�ll create soc�al and econom�c opportun�t�es throughout Afr�ca’. In fact, South Afr�ca’s host�ng of the event as an Afr�can event �s strongly supported by the Afr�can Un�on (AU), wh�ch ‘seeks to promote sport as an �nstrument for susta�nable econom�c development and poverty reduct�on, peace,sol�dar�ty and soc�al cohes�on.’
‘To ensure that one day, h�stor�ans w�ll reflect upon the 2010 world Cup as a moment when Afr�ca stood tall and resolutely turned the t�de on centur�es of poverty and confl�ct. we want to show that Afr�ca’s t�me has come’ (Republ�c of South africa, 2008a: internet).
In November 200�, the Afr�can Legacy Programme, a jo�nt respons�b�l�ty of the Local Organ�s�ng Comm�ttee (LOC) and the South Afr�can government, was announced. For the South Afr�can Government, ‘one of the ma�n �nsp�rat�ons beh�nd South Afr�ca’s preparat�ons for 2010 FIFA world Cup™ – that be�ng to leave a legacy for the african continent (republic of South africa, 2008a: �nternet).
The object�ves of the Afr�can Legacy Programme are to:
support the real�sat�on of the object�ves of the Afr�can Rena�ssance such as the programmes
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of the Afr�can Un�on’s New Partnersh�p for Afr�ca’s Development (NEPAD);
ensure Afr�can part�c�pat�on �n the event;
develop and advance Afr�can football; and
improve africa’s global image and combat afro- pessimism (republic of South africa, 2008a: �nternet).
Furthermore, the South Afr�can Government ma�nta�ns that the legacy of the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ w�ll be ‘d�fferent from that typ�cally assoc�ated w�th other large sport�ng events for three ma�n reasons:
The legacy benef�ts are not to be conf�ned to the host country.
The host country �tself has made an undertaking to make the continent-wide legacy one of the core focus areas of preparat�ons for the event.
The Afr�can Un�on �s act�vely �nvolved �n ensur�ng that the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ legacy agenda is owned continent-wide’ (republic of South africa, 2008a: internet).
The South Afr�can government stated that �ts contr�but�on to the Afr�can Legacy Programme �s �ncluded �n collaborat�on w�th Afr�can countr�es �n a number of projects �n the follow�ng areas:
peace and nation-building;
football support and development;
env�ronment and tour�sm;
culture and her�tage;
commun�cat�on;
telecommun�cat�ons; and
Cont�nental secur�ty cooperat�on (Government of South africa, 2008a: internet).
South Afr�ca, w�th Afr�can states such as Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozamb�que, Nam�b�a, Swaz�land, Zamb�a and Z�mbabwe are us�ng the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ event to develop seven trans-frontier conservation areas in southern Afr�ca, wh�ch w�ll contr�bute to susta�nable env�ronmental development, but also prov�d�ng opportunities for eco-tourism (republic of South
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africa, 2008d: internet). the 2010 FiFa World Cup LOC, accord�ng to DEAT and SAT (2005), w�ll establ�sh stakeholder relat�onsh�ps w�th the Reg�onal Tour�sm Organ�sat�on of Southern Afr�ca (RETOSA), to fac�l�tate the development of RETOSA packages, to coord�nate efforts to market the southern Afr�can reg�on more effect�vely and to secure that tour�sts attend�ng the world cup also enjoy the reg�on’s tour�st offer�ngs.
South Afr�ca’s host�ng of the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ �s st�mulat�ng development �n ne�ghbour�ng countr�es. The Mozamb�can government, for example, �s spend�ng US$51 m�ll�on on the rehab�l�tat�on of a ra�lway l�ne between Maputo and South Afr�ca. It �s also upgrad�ng �ts road network and �nvest�ng US$�00 m�ll�on �n new tourism facilities (republic of South africa, 2008d: �nternet).
The Afr�can Un�on’s (AU) development programme, the New Partnersh�p for Afr�ca’s Development (NEPAD), has establ�shed an Informat�on and Commun�cat�ons Technology Broadband Infrastructure Net (Uhurunet), wh�ch �s a US$2 b�ll�on 50 000 km submar�ne cable wh�ch w�ll be connect�ng Afr�ca d�rectly to Ind�a, the M�ddle East, Europe and Braz�l. Not only w�ll �t reduce the telecommun�cat�on cost for Afr�ca, but �t w�ll be completed to prov�de telecommun�cat�ons for the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ (Republ�c of South Afr�ca, 2008d: internet).
Leg�slat�on The South Afr�can Government had to prov�de FIFA w�th 17 guarantees �n order to be announced as the host. These guarantees cover tour�sts and FIFA delegat�ons’ access to South Afr�ca, a support�ve f�nanc�al env�ronment, �ntellectual property and market�ng r�ghts, safety and secur�ty, healthcare serv�ces, transport and telecommun�cat�ons. In September 200�, the South Afr�can Parl�ament promulgated the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ Spec�al Measures Act �n order to comply w�th FIFA’s requ�rements. Amendments to the Value Added Tax Act, Income Tax Act and the Customs and Exc�se Act were also promulgated to adhere to FIFA’s requ�rements. Some of these guarantees requ�red new leg�slat�on. For th�s, the South Afr�can Parl�ament promulgated the follow�ng leg�slat�on:
Merchand�se Marks Act, wh�ch g�ves the world Cup protected event status guarantee�ng
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FIFA’s �ntellectual property r�ghts and prevent�ng ambush market�ng;
Revenue Laws Amendment Act, wh�ch prov�des for a support�ve f�nanc�al env�ronment for the event (republic of South africa, 2008c: �nternet).
The M�n�stry of F�nance has agreed that to wa�ve custom dut�es, taxes, costs and lev�es on the �mport and subsequent export of goods belong�ng to the FIFA delegat�on, �ts commerc�al aff�l�ates, the broadcast r�ght holders, the med�a and spectators travell�ng to South Afr�ca for the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ prov�de adm�n�strat�ve support �n handl�ng tax connected to the event, and has guaranteed unrestr�cted �mport and export of all fore�gn currenc�es to and from South Afr�ca (Republ�c of South africa, 2008c: internet).
The pol�t�cal �mpact of these guarantees �s s�gn�f�cant as �t �s supported by 17 government m�n�str�es, �t �s event spec�f�c, and, w�ll �nfluence future events �n terms of the legal framework that �t prov�des.
The soc�al context and commun�ty cohes�veness Events can be used to rev�tal�se ceremon�es and r�tuals and comb�n�ng �t w�th sk�lls and crafts. Th�s can �nsp�re and ass�st w�th foster�ng local pr�de of a host commun�ty and to prov�de the best poss�ble exper�ence to the event attendee. It �s further indicated by Nauright (2004) that sporting events are �ncreas�ngly emulat�ng the Olymp�c Games by �ncorporat�ng cultural elements, such as cultural mus�c, opera and art exh�b�t�ons, �n an effort to present themselves as broader events. These events are commonly used �n tour�st promot�on to present c�t�es and countr�es as exc�t�ng dest�nat�ons w�th exot�c cultures for tour�sts to consume. Events are the new �mage makers of governments �nd�cate Deffner and Labr�an�d�s (2005) wh�ch along w�th place market�ng, statement of �ntent and branded concepts, are the four pr�nc�pal symbol�c tr�ggers of the ‘creat�ve m�l�eu’ or cultural plann�ng of a destination. South africa has, for example, show- cased �ts cultural wealth at major events such as the wSSD wh�ch �t hosted �n 2002.
Research by Roux (2007: �nternet) �nd�cates that dur�ng the 2010 FIFA world Cup™, Br�t�sh football
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fans are most l�kely to base themselves �n Cape Town, w�th the second most popular cho�ce of dest�nat�on be�ng where the supporters’ nat�onal football teams are based for the durat�on of the compet�t�on. Roux further suggests that wh�lst fans are based �n South Afr�ca for the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ they w�ll be keen to make the most of the opportun�ty of be�ng �n the country. The most popular dest�nat�ons for supporters dur�ng the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ are suggested to be the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Po�nt. Br�t�sh fans are l�kely to make the most of both w�ne and cultural tours dur�ng the�r stay w�th Robben Island and Table Mounta�n be�ng popular places to v�s�t. The lure of the golf courses and a round or two of golf �n South Afr�ca also ranked h�gh �n the research. The var�ous other prov�nces, accord�ng to CTRU (2008), have a marketing focus that is generally s�m�lar. In part�cular, Mpumalanga, L�mpopo, and Free State w�ll use culture and nature as the�r market�ng focus and are plann�ng cultural routes that would �ntroduce the v�s�tor to the var�ous cultures �n the prov�nces.
reconciliation and nation-building Prior to 1994, South africa’s policy of apartheid resulted �n rac�ally d�v�ded sport, however, s�nce 1994, the political and social significance of sport as an �nstrument of nat�on bu�ld�ng �s recogn�sed w�th the ex�stence of a M�n�stry of Sport and recreation, which formalises this nation-building object�ve.
South Afr�ca �s host�ng of the 1995 Rugby world Cup and the 199� Afr�ca Soccer Cup of Nat�ons �s regarded as two events that contr�buted to nat�on bu�ld�ng. The South Afr�can Government �s collaborat�ng w�th Afr�can countr�es on a
number of 2010 FIFA world Cup™ projects that w�ll contr�bute to the Afr�can legacy, �n part�cular, �n the areas of peace and nation-building.
Soc�al just�ce and equ�ty One of the key factors erod�ng soc�al cohes�veness �n South Afr�ca �s pers�stent �ncome �nequal�ty (the Presidency, 2008a: 29), which is one of the contr�but�ng factors to r�s�ng levels of cr�me �n the country. H�gh levels of cr�me mean that South Afr�ca �s perce�ved as an unsafe tour�st dest�nat�on.
Soc�al legacy projects For the South Afr�can Government, �ts soc�al legacy projects for the FIFA world Cup focuses on:
Arts and culture, relat�ng to the open�ng and clos�ng events for 2010, the Nat�onal Symbols Campa�gn, research on the soc�al h�story of host c�t�es and develop related publ�cat�ons, a Clean-up Campaign for host cities, and the part�c�pat�on �n �nternat�onal arch�tectural exh�b�t�ons and art fest�vals.
Sports, commun�ty development and legacy, wh�ch w�ll focus on the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ Volunteer Programme.
Schools programme such as the recently launched Schools Football world Cup Programme, wh�ch w�ll at least 5000 South Afr�can.
2010 FIFA world Cup Legacy projects, wh�ch �nclude sport f�elds and mult�purpose sports centres �n d�sadvantaged commun�t�es (GCIS, 2008: internet). these projects will also focus on a sports club support programme, capac�ty bu�ld�ng and placement �n Sport Federat�ons, development programmes at grassroots level, talent �dent�f�cat�on and coach development. Almost R 25m was allocated for these legacy projects. r 17m was allocated for multi-sport code fest�vals and other recreat�on events, such as a street-football programme, that will mob�l�se commun�t�es and create awareness of and enthus�asm for the world Cup. A total amount of R337m was allocated to the Leav�ng a Legacy project (Republ�c of South Afr�ca, 2008b: internet).
Poverty reduct�on �s one of the Un�ted Nat�on’s M�llenn�um Development Goals, as well as that of the stated object�ves of the South Afr�can Government. Human development can �mprove through �nfrastructure development such as access�ble and rel�able publ�c transport.The Gauteng 2010 FIFA world Cup™ Strategy, for example, �ncludes a prov�nc�al �nfrastructure development programme (Eng�neer�ng News, 29 March 2007: �nternet).
Econom�cs Econom�c decl�ne �s an �ssue that many governments must deal w�th. The econom�c �mpact
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of events �s t�ed to the soc�al fabr�c of a part�cular commun�ty. It �s d�rectly l�nked to the soc�al health and conf�dence of a dest�nat�on and �s a b�g factor �n econom�c growth. The South Afr�can Government’s budget�ng for 2010 FIFA world Cup™ was gu�ded by pr�or�t�es that ‘would leave a last�ng legacy’ and that ‘host�ng the event must help South Afr�ca ach�eve �ts development goals’ (Republ�c of South africa, 2008b: internet).
Cost of event Hosting a mega-event such as the 2010 FiFa world Cup™ �s costly. Table 3 �llustrates the s�ze of the budgetary allocat�ons for the event. It �s estimated that r 2.49 billion will be spend on the Green Po�nt Stad�um and R 20 m�ll�on on the K�ng Senza-ngakhona Stadium (engineering News, 22 June 2007: �nternet), whereas government’s spend�ng on educat�on and health �s proport�onally much smaller.
In February 2009, the South Afr�can M�n�ster of F�nance announced the prov�s�on of an add�t�onal r 463 million to the 2010 World Cup stadiums construct�on grant. The nat�onal government’s overall contr�but�on to stad�um construct�on �s est�mated to be R 11.5 b�ll�on. Add�t�onal allocat�ons include r 508 million in 2009/10 and r 210 million �n 2010/11 to the world Cup host c�ty operat�ng grant �n support of host c�t�es’ preparat�ons for the Confederat�ons Cup �n 2009 (Eng�neer�ng News, 11 February 2009: �nternet).
Increased event tour�sm Table 1 referred some of the mega �nternat�onal events that South Afr�ca has hosted s�nce 1994. these events and, for example, an active �nternat�onal brand�ng campa�gn by the South Afr�can Government resulted �n a steady �ncrease in tourism to South africa. See table 4 in this regard. By 2007, the d�rect and �nd�rect econom�c contr�but�on of tour�sm �n South Afr�ca has been estimated at r 159. 6 billion, compared to r 104 billion in 2003 (the Presidency, 2008b: 72).
The �ncrease �n tour�sm to South Afr�ca has created more than 400 000 direct employment opportunities (the Presidency, 2008a: 68). it is expected that the 300 000 v�s�tors est�mated to v�s�t South Afr�ca for the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ �n South africa (engineering News, 23 january 2008: �nternet) w�ll produce s�m�lar pos�t�ve results.
Infrastructure development For the South Afr�can Government, some of the ma�n �ntended econom�c and soc�al �mpacts of the event are �mproved �nfrastructure, log�st�cs, commun�cat�ons and secur�ty.
Between 200� and 2010, the South Afr�can government will invest more than r400 billion �n the country’s �nfrastructure, wh�ch �ncludes ra�l fre�ght serv�ces and energy product�on, to commun�cat�ons, a�rports and ports of entry. By 2008, the South african government’s total contr�but�on to �nfrastructure and stad�ums amounted to r17.4 billion, which includes:
R9 b�ll�on for the �mprovement of transport and support�ng �nfrastructure; and
r8, 4 billion for the construction of five stad�ums and upgrad�ng another f�ve (Government of South africa, 2008b: internet).
For th�s, the South Afr�can Government has completed the Nat�onal Transport Operat�onal Plan (NTOP) �n 2007. Each host c�ty has rece�ved fund�ng to develop �ts own transport plan (see table 5). In add�t�on to the NTOP, the Publ�c Transport Infrastructure and Systems Grant (PTIS) for the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ has been �ncreased from R9,2 b�ll�on to R13,� b�ll�on (Government of South africa 2008b: internet).
The �mplementat�on of the PTIS has gathered momentum w�th most of the �nfrastructure e�ther under construct�on or scheduled to start construct�on th�s year. In add�t�on, operat�onal transport plann�ng �s at an advanced stage. By October 2008, revised PtiS allocations to host c�t�es amounted to:
johannesburg: r2,832 billion
Tshwane: R2,0�9 b�ll�on
Ethekw�n�: R1,�91 b�ll�on
Cape Town: R1,030 b�ll�on
Nelson Mandela: r586 million
Mangaung: r425 million
Mbombela: r421 million
rustenburg: r324 million
inter-city buses: r500 million
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Table 3: Budgetary allocations for the 2010 FIFA World Cup™ (as at 2007) (Republic of South Africa, 2007: 6)
Table 4: Tourism to South Africa (The Presidency, 2008a: 68)
Table 5: Selected transport projects in host cities (Republic of South Africa 2008b: internet)
Non-host cities: r414 million (Government of South africa 2008b: internet).
Improved access to a�rports South Afr�ca’s nat�onal event b�dd�ng strategy has pr�or�t�sed b�dd�ng to a number the major sports federat�ons, accord�ng to DEAT and SAT (2005a), �nclud�ng the b�dd�ng and host�ng of the
• 2020 or 2024 Olympic Games. the infrastructural �nvestment for the host�ng of the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ w�ll set the stage for the successful b�dd�ng and host�ng of other mega events �n South Afr�ca.
Env�ronment Governments, according to Mason (2008), often requ�re that Env�ronmental Impact Assessments
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(EIA) be conducted pr�or to the development and staging of new mega-event projects. eia’s usually attempt to prevent env�ronmental degradat�on by providing decision-makers information about the l�kely consequences of developmental act�ons and usually requ�re the complet�on of the assessment of the project pr�or to development. The EIA’s not only cons�der whether there �s l�kely to be an impact but also its intensity. the socio-economic and env�ronmental �mpact of sport events �s w�dely accepted. Common env�ronmental threats posed by sport events �nclude a�r pollut�on, �ndoor a�r qual�ty, tox�c chem�cals, pest�c�des, water pollut�on, no�se pollut�on, c�garette smoke, deplet�on of the zone layer, cl�mate change, and habitat and biodiversity loss (uNeP, 2008: �nternet). The Na�rob� Declarat�on on Sport, Peace and Env�ronment, adopted �n 2005, for example, acknowledges ‘the pr�nc�ples of susta�nab�l�ty’ and supports ‘the �nclus�on of the env�ronment as the th�rd p�llar of Olymp�sm. It also acknowledges ‘the d�rect l�nk between peace, secur�ty and the protect�on and susta�nable management of the env�ronment’ (UNEP, 2005: �nternet).
In �ts 200� State of the Env�ronment Report, the South Afr�can Government �dent�f�ed worry�ng �nd�cat�ons that econom�c growth and development are ma�n contr�butors to env�ronmental degradat�on (the Presidency, 2008a: 42). in an effort to counter th�s development, and �n preparat�on for the 2010 FIFA world Cup, the SARTOSA Government has �nst�tuted the Green Goal Programme, wh�ch �s a collaborat�on between the Local Organ�s�ng Comm�ttee and the Department of Env�ronmental Affa�rs and Tour�sm (DEAT), the governments of Norway and Germany, the Un�ted Nat�onals Env�ronment Programme (UNEP). The Green Goal Programme focuses on:
Sett�ng of the m�n�mum ach�evable env�ronmental targets for 2010 projects. Th�s �ncludes stad�ums, tra�n�ng venues, the Internat�onal Broadcast Centre, fan parks, publ�c v�ew�ng areas, transport systems and accommodat�on.
A campa�gn to ra�se awareness on environmental issues (GCiS, 2008: internet).
in july 2008, the South african department of Env�ronmental Affa�rs and Tour�sm (DEAT) released a sustainable development policy, People-Planet- Prosper�ty. The susta�nable development pol�cy of the South african government (deat, 2008),
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wh�ch �s set to �nfluence development standards beyond 2010. It refers to a number of ‘strateg�c pr�or�ty areas for act�on and �ntervent�on that are necessary to reach the des�red state of susta�nable development’:
Enhanc�ng systems for �ntegrated plann�ng and �mplementat�on;
Susta�n�ng our ecosystems and us�ng natural resources eff�c�ently;
Econom�c development v�a �nvest�ng �n susta�nable �nfrastructure;
Creat�ng susta�nable human settlements; and
Respond�ng appropr�ately to emerg�ng human development, econom�c and env�ronmental challenges (deat, 2008: internet).
Furthermore, the B�ll of R�ghts �n the South Afr�can Constitution (act 108 of 1996) guarantees the right of every South Afr�can to have ‘the env�ronment protected, for the benef�t of present and future generat�ons, through reasonable leg�slat�ve and other measures that secure ecolog�cally susta�nable development and use of natural resources wh�le promot�ng just�f�able econom�c and soc�al development.’ Th�s r�ght has been legally formal�sed �n �ts def�n�t�on of susta�nable development �n the Nat�onal Env�ronmental Management act (act No. 107 of 1998): ‘Susta�nable development means the �ntegrat�on of soc�al, econom�c and env�ronmental factors �nto planning, implementation and decision-making so as to ensure that development serves present and future generations (deat, 2008: internet).
Soc�al cost
Human development Since 1994, an improvement vis-à-vis governmental del�very of soc�al serv�ces and an overall �mprovement of human development are ev�dent (Statistics South africa, 2007: 1-20). despite these �mprovements, South Afr�ca st�ll ranks med�um �n terms of the Human Development Index (HDI). In 2007, �t, as �nd�cated �n table �, ranked 121st �n terms of global human development standards (UNDP, 2007: 23�).
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Table 6: South Africa’s human development indicators 2007 (UNDP, 2007: 236, 239, 328, 332, 355-360)
Transport One of the last�ng legac�es of aparthe�d �s the country’s poor transport �nfrastructure. The C�ty of Cape Town’s 2020 Transport Plan’s theme ‘How to ach�eve susta�nable mob�l�ty for 2010 and beyond’ �s one �llustrat�on of the �mportance of �nfrastructure development assoc�ated w�th the world Cup. The Plan �s �ntended to contr�bute to the Cup’s ‘transport �nfrastructure legacy’ and �ncludes, amongst others the upgrad�ng of ra�ls and commuter networks, stat�on upgrades, �mprove safety and secur�ty, expans�on of the Cape Town Internat�onal A�rport, and road upgrades (Ma�l & Guard�an Transport, 2� October 2007: 1).
Safety, secur�ty and cr�me On 11 april 2001, 43 fans died in a stampede at a soccer match at Ell�s Park. As a result of an enqu�ry, var�ous def�c�enc�es �n the procedures followed at the match were �dent�f�ed. S�nce then, problems at other l�ve events have also ga�ned med�a attent�on, �nclud�ng former Pres�dent Mbek�’s narrow escape from �njury when a temporary stage cover collapsed at the Un�on Bu�ld�ngs (eXSa, 2006). Consequently, in 2004, the Safety at Sports Recreat�onal Events B�ll was �ntroduced.
The purpose and object�ves of the B�ll �s to prov�de safety and secur�ty of part�c�pants and spectators, r�sk analys�s, safety cert�f�cates, the powers and funct�ons of a Nat�onal Event Inspectorate, event t�cket�ng and accred�tat�on requ�rements, spectator access, vendor control, procedures for appeals and offences, and measures to prevent ambush market�ng (Sports & Recreat�on South Afr�ca and Patrick ronan, 2004: 3). However, by early 2009, the B�ll was st�ll be�ng debated and ref�ned at the South Afr�can Const�tut�onal Court by the var�ous Government Departments and Organ�sat�ons that are �mpacted by the sa�d B�ll.
South africa’s crime rates, as tables 7 and 8 �nd�cate, are cons�dered to be very h�gh. Ser�ous concerns have been ra�sed about the safety and secur�ty related to the world Cup, wh�ch w�ll be a month-long event with 64 matches played in all n�ne South Afr�can prov�nces and a safety and secur�ty budget amount�ng to US$3�m (Burger, 2007: �nternet).
The South Afr�can Government was requ�red to prov�de FIFA w�th guarantees perta�n�ng to the event’s safety and secur�ty. Thus, �t w�ll have to secure the 2010 FIFA world Cup™, as well as cont�nue w�th normal pol�c�ng am�dst h�gh cr�me rates.
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Table 7: Serious and violent crimes in South Africa (per 1000 of population) (Burger, 2007: internet)
Table 8: Car hijackings and cash-in-transit robberies (Burger, 2007: internet)
Dur�ng South Afr�ca’s host�ng of major �nternat�onal events such as those �n table 1, effect�ve safety and secur�ty arrangements resulted �n no ser�ous �nc�dents. In fact, the safety and secur�ty standards at these were recogn�sed by the Un�ted Nat�ons (UN) after the world Summ�t on Susta�nable Development (wSSD) and subsequently adopted for all future UN events (Burger, 2007: �nternet). in june 2008, the South african government subm�tted a General Safety and Secur�ty Plan to FiFa (GCiS, 2008: internet).
The h�gh cr�me rates (as dep�cted �n Tables 7 and 8), reports of human trafficking for the event and an ex�st�ng �neff�c�ent cr�m�nal just�ce system (Altbeker, 2007) are �nd�cat�ve of the enormous challenges that need to be overcome for the event and �ts susta�nab�l�ty. By 2009, the South Afr�can department of justice has made progress vis-à-vis �ts ma�n role dur�ng the event, namely �s to prov�de court fac�l�t�es, prosecut�on, adjud�cat�on, language court �nterpret�ng and gu�dance �n leg�slat�on serv�ces. It has benchmarked on cr�m�nal just�ce �ssues w�th Germany as the hosts of 200� FIFA world Cup, ded�cated courts nearer to the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ stad�ums to adjud�cate over matters emanating from the events and an anti- rac�sm campa�gn, wh�ch w�ll focus on sport. The
�n�t�at�ve w�ll be done �n collaborat�on w�th Sports and Recreat�on South Afr�ca, the Local Organ�s�ng Committee and FiFa (GCiS, 2008: internet). the latter �s extremely �mportant �n the wake of severe xenophob�c act�v�t�es that occurred �n South Afr�ca during 2008.
Pressure on local amen�t�es and serv�ces Since 2008, South africa has experienced an electr�c�ty supply cr�s�s. Concerns were ra�sed that an �ncrease �n demand dur�ng the world Cup may result �n more outages. In a response to these concerns, Eskom, the state power ut�l�ty, has allocated R 300 b�ll�on for the construct�on of new power stat�ons unt�l 2013 (Eng�neer�ng News, 23 january 2008: internet). eskom has also guaranteed that World Cup-related projects such as stadium construct�on and the event �tself w�ll be protected from power d�srupt�ons. Th�s, however, comes at a cost. in 2008, the South african Government has approved electr�c�ty tar�ff �ncreases for local governments. Th�s was just�f�ed on the bas�s that these �ncreases w�ll prov�de fund�ng for electr�c�ty �nfrastructure rehab�l�tat�on. Government has made an add�t�onal R120 m�ll�on ava�lable for the rehab�l�tat�on of host c�t�es’ mun�c�pal�ty d�str�but�on
networks which are 2010 FiFa World Cup™-related (GCiS, 2008: internet). However, the sustainability of these efforts �s quest�onable. Dur�ng a report back on government’s progress on preparat�ons for the world Cup, �t was stated that ‘The process of acquiring Generators is underway’ (GCiS, 2008: �nternet). Moreover, Government has �nd�cated �ts �nab�l�ty to susta�n these techn�cal and supply demands w�th the establ�shment of an Electr�c�ty Techn�cal work�ng Group compr�s�ng of all host c�t�es, the Department for M�nerals and Energy, and the Nat�onal Energy Regulator (Nersa) (GCIS, 2008: internet).
Populat�on d�splacements In order to construct state of the art Olymp�c facilities for the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, the Ch�nese government forced large numbers of people to move (the economist, 2 august 2008: 11). Fears have been ra�sed, accord�ng to Project 2010 (Internet), that South Afr�ca may follow the example of many other c�t�es around the world by ‘demol�sh�ng the l�vel�hoods of the poor’ when �t hosts the 2010 FIFA world Cup™. South Afr�ca has a h�story of ‘gedwonge versku�w�ngs’ (forced removals) and, by 2009, tens of thousands of South Afr�ca’s poorest people have already been evicted from inner-city suburbs ahead of the 2010 world Cup. The country’s Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA), for �nstance, recently allowed johannesburg City, which has two world-cup stadiums, to evict 300 squatters from inner-city bu�ld�ngs class�f�ed as unsafe by the Johannesburg mun�c�pal�ty. Johannesburg has ev�cted thousands of the country’s poorest people from 125 bu�ld�ngs since the 2001 launch of its urban-renewal plan for 235 bu�ld�ngs on �ts l�st of ‘bad bu�ld�ngs’, mainly hotel and apartment-block construction and refurb�shment.
Evaluat�on and conclus�on For South Afr�ca, l�ke many develop�ng countr�es, human and �nfrastructural development �s of cr�t�cal �mportance and an �mportant �nstrument to undo the socio-economic legacy of apartheid. An event such as the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ can result in significant socio-economic development for the country. However, �t �s the susta�nab�l�ty and socio-economic legacy of the event that will determ�ne th�s outcome. Here, we have prov�ded a prel�m�nary analys�s by apply�ng s�x �nd�cators of
susta�nab�l�ty, �nclud�ng the pol�t�cal �mpact, soc�al context and commun�ty cohes�veness, econom�c spin-offs, social incentives, environmental impact and the soc�al cost. The susta�nab�l�ty of each of these indicators is already challenged in the run- up to the event.
These �nd�cators of susta�nab�l�ty resonate closely w�th that of the South Afr�can Government, the �n�t�ator and underwr�ter of the event. The South Afr�can Government’s strategy to address some of the country’s most pertinent socio-economic challenges �nclude
Speed�ng up growth and transform�ng the economy;
F�ght�ng poverty;
Bu�ld�ng soc�al cohes�on and state leg�t�macy;
Pursu�ng the values of �nternat�onal cooperat�on; and
Bu�ld�ng a developmental state (The Presidency, 2008a).
In order to determ�ne the pol�t�cal susta�nab�l�ty of the event, a level of analys�s approach �s �nstruct�ve. Four pol�t�cal levels are �dent�f�ed here: local and prov�nc�al, nat�onal and �nternat�onal. In address�ng the pol�t�cal �mpact of the event, the �ntended �nternat�onal legacy reputat�onal: host�ng an successful Afr�can Cup. Reg�onally, the �mpact w�ll be pol�t�cal �n terms of closer reg�onal �ntegrat�on as well as econom�c. Nat�onally, the government’s comm�tment �s clearly ev�dent..Domest�cally, FIFA requ�red spec�f�c leg�slat�ve changes, whereas local and prov�nc�al governments of host c�t�es are predom�nantly overspend�ng the�r allocated budgets.
By 2009, f�fteen years after the end of aparthe�d, South Afr�ca rema�ns a h�ghly unequal soc�ety. The lack of deeply embedded rac�al and econom�c reconc�l�at�on among South Afr�ca �s st�ll a matter of concern. Reconc�l�at�on �s also challenged by regular outbreaks of xenophob�c v�olence aga�nst fore�gners, refugees and �mm�grants from the cont�nent. There are concerns that these outbreaks – coupled w�th soccer hool�gan�sm – can occur dur�ng the Cup. These challenges form the bas�s of the South Afr�can Government’s strategy to bu�ld�ng soc�al cohes�on.
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The cap�tal expend�ture for RETOSA b�dd�ng, plann�ng, prepar�ng and host�ng the event �s unparalleled �n South Afr�ca. The central and regulatory role of the South Afr�can Government reflects that of a developmental state. In an address at the Un�vers�ty of Zur�ch �n January 2008, the President of the South african ruling party, the Afr�can Nat�onal Congress, Jacob Zuma (2008: internet), reiterated the need to build a developmental state, wh�ch he def�ned as: ‘Th�s presupposes act�ve state �ntervent�on �n the economy of the country and a sound mechan�sm to address the needs of the people. we have come to the conclus�on that a complete free market economy, w�thout any form of state regulatory �ntervent�on, w�ll not be able to address the huge and unacceptable backlog �n serv�ce del�very, and erad�cate poverty and under development’. However, Government has entered �nto numerous public-private partnerships (PPPs) to complete �nfrastructure projects such as the Gautra�n and some of the stad�ums.
Host�ng an �nternat�onal event such as the 2010 FIFA world Cup™ �s a huge respons�b�l�ty for any country. For South Afr�ca, �t �s expected that the event w�ll �mprove our �nternat�onal reputat�on, attract much needed fore�gn d�rect �nvestment, contr�bute to an �mprovement �n human development, w�thout comprom�s�ng on env�ronmental standards. The cost �nvolved to host an event of such magn�tude �s stagger�ng for a development�ng country such as South africa. On the eve before the kick-off �n June 2010, South Afr�ca’s host�ng of the event �s affected by three major challenges: the global f�nanc�al cr�s�s, the stab�l�ty produced by the new government after the Apr�l 2009 elect�ons, and the complet�on of all preparat�ons on t�me.
It �s also �mportant to analyse the event �n terms of �ts contr�but�on to test�ng theor�es of the appl�ed sc�ences. F�rst, �nd�cators of susta�nab�l�ty should be recons�dered. Can susta�nab�l�ty be un�versal, �.e. does susta�nab�l�ty and �mpact have the same mean�ng �n develop�ng and developed countr�es?
Second, susta�nab�l�ty and �mpact should be measured after the event. For th�s, a rev�s�on of current �nd�cators �s requ�red. More �mportantly, who w�ll be accountable?
Th�rd, the role of sport bod�es such as FIFA and the IOC should be recons�dered, as these organ�sat�ons, amongst others, w�eld cons�derable power.
Fourth, major mega events, such as the 2010 FIFA world Cup™, present opportun�t�es for emp�r�cal research on consumer behav�our – espec�ally �n develop�ng economy contexts.
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LEISURE EXPERIENCE AND AUTHENTICITY
HANS RUEDIGER KAUFMANN UNIVERSITY OF NICOSIA, CYPRUS
PANICOS CONSTANTI UNIVERSITY OF NICOSIA, CYPRUS
wERNER GRONAU UNIVERSITY OF NICOSIA, CYPRUS
PANAYIOTA PANAYI UNIVERSITY OF NICOSIA, CYPRUS
SHAFqAT BARI UNIVERSITY OF NICOSIA, CYPRUS
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to investigate a new trend in consumer behavior which posits that certain tourist segments desire new forms of leisure experience that are characterized by a high level of existential authenticity. The results of the paper are twofold: firstly, the paper suggests that more attention be given to the interdisciplinary relationship between the concepts of identity, existential authenticity and consumer behavior in the field of leisure; secondly, initial exploratory and descriptive findings of a survey with 100 international tourists, 4 interviews with Cypriot hotel providers and strategic decision makers as well as two focus groups with Cypriot tourists are provided in order to identify a clearer research focus as a basis for a later much broader investigation into the association between tourist expectations based on identity and existential authenticity and marketing strategies. The research findings, so far, imply a gap between an increasing body of knowledge in the field and its actual application in practice.
Keywords: Authenticity, existential authenticity, identity, tourism, marketing
“In postmodern society, tourism becomes a commodity to be consumed...the tourist consumes images or representations of a society; and any reality is obscured by many levels of representation.”
(Pretes, 1995, p. 2)
Introduct�on An �nd�cat�on of the relevance of the �dent�ty concept �s prov�ded by Gecas and Mort�mer (�n Honess and yardley, 1987, p. 265) who liken ex�stent�al �dent�ty to the �nd�v�dual’s sense of un�queness and cont�nu�ty as “each new present g�ves the �nd�v�dual a new perspect�ve on the past and the future (�n the form of goals, plans and asp�rat�ons)”. Although �ts �nfluence on market�ng st�ll seems to be underrated, the concept of �dent�ty, espec�ally sal�ent �dent�ty, compr�s�ng the individual’s self-concept consisting of multiple �dent�t�es and structured �n a h�erarch�cal order (Burke, 1980, quoted in reed, 2000) has been appl�ed to market�ng �n general (Laver�e, 1995; Reed, 2000; Laver�e et al., 2002; Arnett et al., 2003) and to consumer behav�or �n part�cular (Bear et al., 2002; reed, 2002; reed, 2004; Kaufmann and G�es�nger, 2007). Integrat�ng the relat�onsh�p aspect, Mead holds that ‘�dent�ty �s a dynam�c phenomenon, wh�ch can develop only �n soc�al �nteract�on, however, �s s�multaneously
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