Programable Logic Controller questions. PLCS

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MODULE TITLE: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

TOPIC TITLE: INTERFACING

LESSON 1: INTERFACING BASICS

PLC - 3 - 1

Published by Teesside University Open Learning (Engineering)

School of Science & Engineering

Teesside University

Tees Valley, UK

TS1 3BA

+44 (0)1642 342740

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________________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION ________________________________________________________________________________________

In this lesson we shall be concerned with the ways in which PLCs are

connected to the ‘outside world’. More precisely, we will shall be looking at

interfacing, which involves the role of transducers, the difference between

analogue and digital signals and the basics of switched or digital inputs. We

shall also see some illustrations of how typical items of input and output

equipment are connected to PLCs and how PLCs are produced for multiple

unit use.

________________________________________________________________________________________

YOUR AIMS ________________________________________________________________________________________

On completing this lesson you should be able to:

• understand the function of an interface

• describe the function of a transducer

• distinguish between analogue and digital signals

• distinguish between serial and parallel signal transmission

• understand the wiring requirements of digital switching inputs

• appreciate the need for banks of PLCs.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

INTERFACES ________________________________________________________________________________________

The ‘microprocessor’ inside a PLC uses a program stored in its memory. This

program is loaded into the memory from an external source, i.e. the user

keyboard/switchpad.

The program enables the microprocessor to react to input conditions in order to

change output conditions as required. The ‘inputs’ and ‘outputs’ of the

programmable logic controller are connected to external circuits.

To distinguish between the external circuits and the internal operations of the

‘microprocessor’, the external circuits are referred to as ‘the outside world’.

In order to match signals passing between the microprocessor and the ‘outside

world’, inputs and outputs must be correctly interfaced.

The point of connection or boundary between the ‘outside world’ and the

microprocessor is called the interface, as shown in FIGURE 1.

FIG. 1

External circuits

(Outside world)

Micro- computer

INPUTS OUTPUTS

PLC

Interface Interface

External circuits

(Outside world)

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What, then, are the essential features of an interface?

The block diagram of the microprocessor system (FIGURE 13, lesson

PLC - 2 - 1) shows an input/output block (I/O). Contained in this part of the

microprocessor is an interface adaptor chip which would be either a Versatile

Interface Adapter (VIA) or a Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA).

A VIA is a popular interface chip which allows a computer to communicate

with the outside world through two 8-bit ‘windows’ or ports. The chip also

contains extra features such as hardware timers: circuits that can generate time

delays, count pulses and produce waveforms, etc.

A PIA is, similarly, an interface chip that can be used to allow a computer to be

connected to peripherals such as printers or displays. The PIA also provides

two ports or ‘windows’ to the outside world, through which eight bits of data

can pass at once.

Both of these devices present signals to the CPU when they are required or

hold signals provided by the CPU for use by other devices in the outside

world. However, these signals are in a particular form which is acceptable to

the CPU. This form is digital in nature because the CPU uses digital

microelectronics as its operating circuitry.

Digital implies a signal which has only two possible operating states, either an

‘ON’ or an ‘OFF’. The microprocessor recognises states by associating one

with a logic ‘1’ and the other with a logic ‘0’. The previous lesson introduced

this idea when solid state logic gates were considered. For the signal to be

acceptable to the CPU it must not only be digital, its voltage levels must also

be correct. Normally a logic '1' can be taken as being +5 volts and a logic ‘0’

as a definite zero volt connection. If the signal from the outside world is not

within the acceptable specification then it is the input interface circuitry

(connected between the interface adaptor and the outside world) which must

convert this signal and make it recognisable to the CPU.

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The signal from an output interface adaptor, being +5 V or 0 V, is very limited

when it comes to controlling or driving outside world devices – the output

interface circuitry should convert these signals into more acceptable forms for

outside world use.

________________________________________________________________________________________

TRANSDUCERS ________________________________________________________________________________________

PLCs, in common with all other electrical control systems, are only able to

process electrical signals. To enable electrical control systems to respond to,

and control, non-electrical quantities (such as temperature, pressure, flow, and

so on), conversions must be made both from electrical quantities into other

forms, and vice versa.

Devices which are used to make these conversions are known as transducers.

A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy to another form of

energy.

Output transducers are used to convert electrical energy into other forms of

energy.

Given below is a list of transducers. Split this list into two separate lists – one

for input transducers and another for output transducers.

motors

pressure sensors

light emitting diodes

strain gauges

photocells

solenoid valves

thermocouples

tacho-generators.

The two lists are given on page 17.

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However, even when conversions have been made, the PLC may not respond

directly to the electrical signal of the input transducers. Further conversions

may be required as the microprocessor only responds to electrical signals

which are in a digital form whereas some transducers have an output which is

in an analogue form.

FIG. 2

FIGURE 2 shows an analogue system incorporating transducers with which

you may be familiar – those of a record playback system. The pick-up, which

is a pressure transducer, has a varying electrical signal output which is fed into

an amplifier. This varying signal is in analogue form. After amplification, an

output transducer in the form of a loudspeaker is used to convert the amplified

signal into sound.

WHAT THEN IS AN ANALOGUE SIGNAL?

An analogue signal has a value which normally lies between defined limits i.e.

an upper limit or maximum value and a lower limit or minimum value. At

different points in time the value may be different but so long as it stays within

the limits it will be acceptable. The signal may vary with time or equally it

may hold its value constant over a period of time. A digital signal has only

two acceptable values but an analogue signal can have an infinite number of

values.

Amp

Electrical signals

Transducer

Amplifier

Record pick-up

Sound waves

Transducer loudspeaker

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Consider, for example, a container with a capacity of one litre.

If the container is empty this can be considered as a lower limit, if it is full

then this can be considered as an upper limit – but how many possible values

lie between these limits?

Well, the container might contain 0.5 litres or 0.51 or 0.501 or 0.5001 etc. etc.

If we attempt to write down all of the possible values then this would be an

impossible task because the number of values is never ending i.e. infinitely

large. Of course this example is not of an analogue signal but it is of an

analogue value. Analogue values, when measured with suitable transducers,

produce analogue signals.

Perhaps now you will appreciate the real problem of a digital device, such as a

PLC which recognises only two levels of signal, accepting and handling a

signal from an analogue transducer – clearly the two are not compatible. A

later lesson will explain how the problem is overcome.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL SIGNALS ________________________________________________________________________________________

The microprocessor within the PLC functions in a ‘digital manner’, that is to

say, it responds to, and communicates at, two levels only; ‘Highs and Lows’ or

l’s and 0’s. Let us look more closely at digital signals.

A digital signal has defined states. It cannot be at ‘any level’ between two

limits as can an analogue signal otherwise it would not be acceptable. It must

have certain pre-defined values. So, a digital signal is a discrete variable. An

example of communications using digital signals is the international Morse

Code system, which has been in use for many years for the transmission of vast

quantities of information. The operator's key is either open or closed, i.e. there

are only two states.

The simplest type of digital signal is a binary signal. Such a signal has only

two states. Typically these states may be 0 volts and + 5 volts as shown in

FIGURE 3.

FIG. 3

In this case the voltage level is changing at particular points in time after the

origin.

0 Time

+5 V Signal level

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In electronics these voltage levels are often represented by the logic symbols

‘0’ and ‘1’ so that 0 V is represented by “0” and + 5 V by “1”. What then

would the waveform of the signal 01011100 look like? The assumption we

shall make is that each '0' and 'l' last for exactly the same time (T). The

waveform will then be that shown in FIGURE 4.

FIG. 4

You should be able to see that the waveform in FIGURE 3 may be represented

by ‘01001110’.

The two examples given in FIGURE 3 and FIGURE 4 represent serial

transmission of data. Obviously, only two wires are required for serial

transmission, the bits of information being sent down one wire consecutively

and returning through the signal ground conductor.

FIG. 5

Digital system

'B'

Digital system

'A'

01110010

One wire

Signal ground

0 Time

+5 V Signal level

'0' '1' '0' '1' '1' '1' '0' '0'

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FIGURE 5 shows the basic idea.

NOTE Although this describes the basic idea it should not be confused with

serial transmission standards as used in industry.

An alternative method of conveying digital information is by parallel

transmission. Here several wires are used so that an equivalent number of bits

of information can be transmitted simultaneously as shown in FIGURE 6.

FIG. 6

The data ‘01001110’ can now be sent in one time period (T), whereas in serial

transmission at least 8 time periods would be required. The penalty paid, of

course, is that more wires are required. As a rule (and for technical reasons),

parallel transmission is used over short distances and serial transmission over

longer distances.

Signal ground

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Digital system

'B'

Digital system

'A'

8 signal conductors

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________________________________________________________________________________________

PLCs AND ASSOCIATED INPUT AND OUTPUT HARDWARE ________________________________________________________________________________________

Before we move on, let us see a picture of a typical PLC for use in industrial

process control manufactured by a leading control equipment manufacturer.

FIGURE 7 shows a PLC with associated input and output pieces of equipment.

FIG. 7 With Kind Acknowledgement to Siemens plc

From the picture of FIGURE 7 list the input and output pieces of equipment and state

which, if any, of the inputs is a transducer.

...................................................................................................................................................

________________________________________________________________________________________

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Inpute equipment:

Push button

Photo sensor – transducer.

Output equipment:

Motor – transducer

Light – transducer

Pump.

A general schematic of a PLC and associated modules is shown in FIGURE 8,

which shows, as well as input and output modules, an operator module and

programming device. The programming device is the means by which the

program is entered into the CPU and it is the program that determines how the

PLC responds to specific input signals. (You will encounter a hand held

programmer when embarking on the practical part of this module.)

FIG. 8

The operator module allows the operator to view a display of the process being

controlled by means of a mimic diagram or such. The operator can also enter

new control parameters, such as set points, to adjust or correct a particular loop

or part of the process and observe the control effect.

CPU Central

Processing Unit

Input modules

Output modules

Operator module

Programming device

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MULTIPLE PLC PACKAGES

Where there are multiple applications of PLCs controlling a complex system

like an industrial chemical process, for example, it is convenient on occasions

to have a centralised bank of PLCs where maintenance and re-programming

can be centrally and conveniently contr olled. As a consequence ,

manufacturers produce rack mounted banks of PLCs where common power

supplies and terminal arrangements, etc. are arranged for efficient use.

FIGURE 9 shows an arrangement rack of stackable PLCs obtainable in the

Siemens Simatic S7 range.

FIG. 9 With Kind Acknowledgement to Siemens plc

These are used in more complex applications where a greater number of inputs

and outputs are required than are normally available. They are designed to be

expandable so plant additions and future expansion of a controlled process can

be easily accommodated. The power supply and input/output functions are

contained in separate modules that connect to the CPU module.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION TO PLC INPUTS ________________________________________________________________________________________

Manufacturers of PLCs will always provide some form of input interface and

output interface, mainly as a method of isolating and protecting the

microelectronics of the microcomputer from the voltages of the outside world.

Microelectronic devices are very sensitive to exposure from large voltages.

Such devices become overdriven very quickly, they burn out and, because they

are so small, are beyond repair. When this happens the only way to effect a

repair is to locate and replace the faulty integrated circuits (if replacements can

be obtained).

If the interface circuitry has been well designed and the recommended

installation procedures have been followed then most PLCs will give trouble-

free operation for a good number of years. A survey of breakdowns has shown

that more than 95% of faults blamed on PLCs are actually found to be

attributable to factors outside of the PLCs.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

DIGITAL INPUTS ________________________________________________________________________________________

PLCs are provided with sets of segregated terminals for both the input signals

and the output signals. It makes sense for the inputs and outputs to be kept

segregated as, more often than not, the value of voltage associated with these

terminals will be different. The user must identify the terminals and document

their use.

The most common type of digital input device will be the simple switch. This

comes in many forms (limit switch, micro switch, float switch, push button,

toggle, etc.). The user is normally required to connect one conductor to each

of the two switch terminals and bring these two conductors back to the PLC

input terminals (if the switching device does not have a single pole operation

then there are likely to be more than two conductors brought back). These

conductors are terminated at the PLC – one to a particular input terminal which

will be numbered and which can thereafter be associated with that switching

device and the other to a 'common' terminal. One of these terminals will

typically carry a supply of voltage provided by the circuitry of the interface

inside the PLC. The user, then, does not need to provide a separate supply for

the input devices if they are simple switches.

FIGURE 10 shows a push-to-make switch connected to PLC input number 2.

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FIG. 10

When the switch is closed a current will flow along the conductors between the

two terminals. The value of this current depends upon the design of the

interface circuitry but is typically limited to the small value of about 10 mA

(0.01 A). Quite often this current is used to operate a visual display (such as

an LED) situated on the front panel of the PLC. When this display illuminates,

as shown in FIGURE 11, it means that the PLC can recognise the fact that the

switch has been closed. When the device is not illuminated it means that the

PLC can recognise the fact that the switch is open.

Common

Inputs

Terminals Input indicators

PLC

Conductor

Switching device for input No.2

Conductor

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FIG. 11

Most manufacturers recommend that the input conductors are run (installed)

separately from other cables apart from similar input conductors. It is most

important to segregate such conductors from mains cables carrying large

values of current because it is possible for the input conductors to pick up stray

signals which the PLC may interpret as being a closed switch when the switch

is in fact still open. Input conductors should never share conduit, trunking or

ducting with power cables even if the conductors are insulated to the same

standard.

Now attempt the Self-Assessment Questions given on page 18.

Common

Inputs

PLC

Input current

Switch closed

Input indicator No.2 recognises switch

closure

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________________________________________________________________________________________

LIST OF TRANSDUCERS FROM PAGE 4 ________________________________________________________________________________________

INPUT TRANSDUCERS

pressure sensors

strain gauges

photocells

thermocouples

tacho-generators.

OUTPUT TRANSDUCERS

motors

light emitting diodes

solenoid valves.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS ________________________________________________________________________________________

1. What type of signal can a CPU recognise?

2. What is the purpose of a transducer?

3. Explain the differences between a digital signal and an analogue signal.

4. Explain the basic differences between serial and parallel signal

transmission.

5. How does a PLC indicate that it has recognised the operation of an input

switch?

6. Why should input conductors be kept segregated from other conductors,

such as power cables?

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________________________________________________________________________________________

NOTES ________________________________________________________________________________________

....................................................................................................................................................

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________________________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS ________________________________________________________________________________________

1. The CPU operates by using digital microelectronic circuitry. It is,

therefore, designed to work with and recognise only digital signals.

Digital signals suitable for a CPU can have one of only two acceptable

states i.e. either a logic ‘1’ (+5 V) or a logic ‘0’ (0 V).

2. A transducer is a device which converts energy of some form into energy

of another form. In the world of control electronics one of these forms of

energy is expected to be electrical. An electric motor, for example, uses

an electrical energy input to produce a rotating mechanical energy output.

3. A digital signal can have any one of only two acceptable values whereas

an analogue signal may have any one of an infinite number of values

between an upper and lower limit.

4. Serial transmission sends digital signals by the use of one pair of

conductors. The signal level is applied for a given amount of time to

represent a bit of information. Only one logic level can be transmitted at

any point in time.

Parallel signal transmission uses more signal conductors. Each conductor

is used to carry a signal level for a given amount of time. If, for example,

eight signal conductors were used then eight bits of information could be

transmitted at the same time. Parallel transmission can, therefore, handle

more bits of information in the same time interval. However, parallel

transmission is restricted to very short lengths of cable whereas serial

transmission can be used over a greater distance.

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5. PLC manufacturers allow an operator to know whether the controller has

recognised the change of state of an input device, such as a switch, by

having the PLC indicate on an LED panel the present state of all inputs. If

an input switch changes then the indicator for that number input will also

change – the delay between these two things happening is in milliseconds

or less.

6. Installation personnel are recommended to ensure that all input

conductors are kept separate from other conductors such as power cables.

The level of signal required on input conductors is extremely small; if the

inputs are not segregated from power cables then it becomes possible for

them to pick up interference radiated from the power cables with the

consequence that the CPU may interpret the interference as input signal

changes.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

SUMMARY ________________________________________________________________________________________

This first lesson in topic two has served as an introduction to the wide field of

interfacing. It is a fairly short lesson in relation to the other three in this topic

but it should serve to lay the foundations for future work.

Some sections have been of an introductory nature and these will be expanded

in detail in subsequent lessons.

The main points covered by this lesson are that:

• a PLC needs information from the outside world in order to function

• the term 'interface' refers to that point or boundary between the

‘outside world’ and the ‘microcomputer’

• an output interface ensures that outside world devices can be

controlled by the PLC.

• a transducer is a device which converts one form of energy to another

• signals from transducers can be either analogue or digital

• analogue signals vary within set limits

• digital signals have only two acceptable states, high or low (on or

off).

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setdistillerparams << /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice