Sociology Paper - Environmental Movements

Ecology of Increasing Diseases: Population Growth and Environmental Degradation Author(s): D. Pimentel, S. Cooperstein, H. Randell, D. Filiberto, S. Sorrentino, B. Kaye, C. Nicklin, J. Yagi, J. Brian, J. O'Hern, A. Habas and C. Weinstein Source: Human Ecology, Vol. 35, No. 6 (Dec., 2007), pp. 653-668 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27654237 Accessed: 13-12-2016 06:41 UTC

REFERENCES Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27654237?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted

digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about

JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at

http://about.jstor.org/terms

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Human Ecology

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668 DOI 10.1007/s 10745-007-9128-3

Ecology of Increasing Diseases: Population Growth and Environmental Degradation

D. Pimentel S. Cooperstein H. Randell D. Filiberto S. Sorrentino B. Kaye C. Nicklin J. Yagi J. Brian J. O'Hern A. Habas C. Weinstein

Published online: 31 July 2007 ? Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2007

Abstract The World Health Organization (WHO) and other organizations report that the prevalence of human diseases during the past decade is rapidly increasing. Population growth and the pollution of water, air, and soil are contributing to the increasing number of human diseases worldwide. Currently an estimated 40% of world deaths are due to environmental degradation. The ecology of increasing diseases has complex factors of environmental degradation, population growth, and the current malnutri tion of about 3.7 billion people in the world.

Key words Ecology environmental degradation increasing disease malnutrition pollution population growth

Introduction

The ecology of increasing diseases in humans is exceed ingly complex because of the biology and diversity of infectious organisms and the effects of environmental degradation on the prevalence of disease (World Resources Institute 1998; Pimentel et al 1998; McMichael 2001;

World Health Organization 2003e; Weiss and McMichael 2004; United Nations Environment Programme 2005). Today, just six infectious diseases (acute respiratory infections, human immunodeficiency virus/autoimmune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), diarrhea, tuberculosis, malaria, and measles) cause approximately 90% of all

D. Pimentel (M) S. Cooperstein H. Randell D. Filiberto S. Sorrentino B. Kaye C. Nicklin J. Yagi * J. Brian J. O'Hern A. Habas C. Weinstein College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-0901, USA e-mail: [email protected]

deaths from infectious diseases worldwide (WHO 2005c). About 40% of the deaths (62 million per year) are attributed to various environmental factors especially organic and chemical pollutants (Pimentel et al 1998; Robbins 2000). In addition, more than 3.7 billion humans suffer from

malnutrition (WHO 2004a), and 2.2 million infants and children die each year from diarrhea, which is caused largely by contaminated water and food (Population Resource 2004).

In this article, we assess the relationship between increasing population numbers and growing environmental degradation. In addition, we examine the effects of both factors on the current and future disease incidence throughout the world.

Population Growth and Disease Transmission

Health hazards associated with population growth include emerging and re-emerging diseases, poor vector control, poor sanitation, water and food contamination, air pollu tion, and natural disasters (Daily and Ehrlich 1996; Sachs 2000). Based on the current human growth rate of 1.2%, the current world population of nearly 6.5 billion will double to 13 billion in the next 58 years, thereby greatly intensifying pollution and disease problems (PRB 2006). The US population is growing at twice the rate of China's population (PRB 2006; US Census Bureau 2004, 2005). In 70 years the US population is expected to double to 600

million, and will reach China's population of 1,300 million in another 70 years, based on current growth rates (PRB 2006).

Today nearly half of the world's population live in cities, and by 2025, it is projected that two thirds of the world's population will have settled in large urban areas (PRB 2005). Densely crowded urban environments, especially

4? Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

654 Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668

those without adequate sanitation, are of public health concern because they promote disease epidemics, like measles and new diseases and influenza.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) disease resulted from the crowding of humans and their livestock in cities in China (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases 2004a). SARS probably originated in civet cats that were being cultured and eaten by Chinese fanners. Eventually the vims was passed to farmers and then other people. In the 2003 outbreak, there were more than 8,000 cases of SARS with about 774 deaths (NIAID 2004a).

Environmental Pollution and Degradation

Global increases in air, water and soil pollution exacerbate human exposure to environmental pollutants and malnutri tion, resulting in an estimated 40% of the total human deaths each year (Pimentel et al 1998). Even more harmful to human health than these sources of pollution are tobacco smoke and indoor cooking smoke (WHO 2004h). More than 4 billion humans suffer from continuous exposure to smoke from these sources (Bruce et al 2002). Increasing automobile and energy use is also contributing to poorer air quality in urban areas and to the growing number of human illnesses and deaths worldwide (Union of Concerned Scientists 2004).

Many humans are regularly exposed to toxic chemicals, including mercury, benzene, and pesticides. Approximately 2.8 billion kilograms of toxic chemicals are released into the US environment annually (US Census Bureau 2004). Common household and industrial chemicals may cause learning disabilities in 5 to 10% of US children (Miller 2004; Shettler et al 2000). Environmental factors, includ ing various chemicals, ultraviolet and ionizing radiation, and tobacco and cooking smoke account for 75% of all cancers (Sharpe and Irvine 2004). Annually, approximately 10 million people are diagnosed with cancer with about 6

million cancer deaths reported worldwide (WHO 2004d). In the United States, cancer-related deaths increased from 331,000 in 1970 to about 563,000 in 2002 (USCB 2003). The majority of cancers are linked to the environment, including chemicals and radiation (National Cancer Institute 2004).

Water Pollution and Diseases

Waterborne infections account for 80% of all infectious diseases worldwide and 90% of all infectious diseases in

developing countries (Epstein et al 1994; Robbins 2000). Lack of sanitary conditions contributes to approximately 4 billion human diarrhea infections, resulting in more than 2 million deaths each year, mostly occurring in infants and young children (One World Health 2004). Even in

developed countries, waterborne diseases have major impacts. In the USA, they account for 900,000 infections and about 900 deaths each year (Seager 1995; Global Water Issues 2002).

Approximately 1.2 billion people in developing nations lack clean water because most household and industrial

wastes are dumped directly into rivers and lakes without treatment, contributing to many waterborne diseases in humans (Gleick 1993; MacDonald 2001; WHO 2004e). Currently, about 50% of the developing world's population is exposed to polluted water sources (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization 2004a). Approximately 2.5 billion people lack adequate sanitation, contributing to more than 5 million deaths each year of which more than half are children (United Nations 2001). Developing countries discharge approximately 95% of their untreated urban sewage directly into surface waters (United Nations 2003). For example, only 4.6% of India's 5005 cities and towns have sewers and wastewater treatment

facilities (Eddy 2004). Often people use the untreated water downstream for drinking, bathing, and washing.

Agricultural runoff also threatens the world's drinking water with animal and chemical wastes. In the United

States, nearly 50% of lake water is polluted by erosion runoff containing nitrates, phosphates, and other agricul tural chemicals (Gleick 1993; Environmental Protection Agency 2002). An estimated 20% of rivers are impaired due to runoff from nearby intensive livestock operations (EPA 1998).

In some countries, drastic environmental changes have led to an explosion in diseases affecting humans. For example, the construction of dams and similar alterations to natural water flow has increased the number of snails that are intermediate hosts for schistosomiasis. Schistosomiasis

is associated with contaminated fresh water and is expand ing worldwide, currently infecting more than 200 million people, with death estimates of up to 200,000 per year (Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, TDR 2004). For example, the 1985 construction of a dam 100 km from the mouth of the Senegal River in

West Africa was followed by an explosion in Schistosoma mansoni in the human population. By 1994, 72% of the population was infected whereas there had been no documented cases prior to the dam's construction (Morgan et al 2001). Additionally, various models suggest that climate change could lead to the spread of schistosomiasis to more areas in Africa, Southeast Asia, and South America

(Martens 1995). Schistosomiasis is relatively stable in Africa (it has been there longer) but continues to colonize new snail hosts in South America, increasing its distribution

(DeJong et al 2001). Malaria is another water-related concern for human

health. Currently more than 50% of the world's population

? Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668 655

is exposed to malaria, nearly a 10% increase in just 10 years (Breman et al 2004). Malaria infects more than 500 million humans each year, killing approximately 1.2 to 2.7 million per year (Breman et al 2004; Snow et al 2005). Approximately 90% of all malaria cases occur in Africa, as do approximately 90% of the world's malaria-related deaths (Breman et al 2004). Of interest is the fact that urbanization appears to reduce the incidence of malaria (Hay et al 2005). This may be due to a relative lack of breeding sites in urban areas.

Pesticides are one of the prime methods of malaria control. Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT), when first used for treating homes, resulted in dramatic reduc tions in the incidence of malaria in people. For example, in South Africa the use of DDT has been highly successful from 1945 to 1995 and there has been no sign of DDT resistance in vectors over the 50-year period (Guaasekasan et al 2005). However, when DDT was also used for agricultural purposes, it exposed most of the mosquito populations to DDT and the mosquitoes evolved high levels of resistance to DDT, making DDT relatively ineffective (ICAITI 1977). Most nations have abandoned the use of

DDT for use in agriculture. Yet, DDT appears to be one of the most effective insecticides for controlling malaria when sprayed on the inside walls of houses and Chris Curtis of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine reports no serious environmental problems when treating the inside of houses (Curtis 2002). Mosquitoes do not develop resistance because the quantities used are small; spraying is required only once or twice a year, and only a few mosquitoes (those inside houses) are actually exposed to DDT (Walker et al 2003; Shapiro 2004). Additionally, the negative effects usually associated with DDT, such as bird kills, are greatly reduced by using only small quantities of DDT inside houses (Pimentel 2005). However, it must be emphasized that DDT is a hazardous chemical (John Rappole, personal communication, Smithsonian Nation Zoological Park, Front Royal, VA.). Since most mosquito bites occur after dark when people are inside their homes the use of DDT could dramatically reduce the incidence of

malaria in endemic areas (Walker et al 2003; Shapiro 2004).

A major concern in Africa is that malnourished people are more susceptible to malaria. Young children who are malnourished are twice as likely to die compared with well nourished children (Caulfield et al 2004).

Environmental changes, including increased water pol lution, have fostered much of the increase and high incidence of malaria. Deforestation in parts of Africa has exposed land to sunlight and promotes the development of temporary pools of water with more neutral pH than puddles in forested areas where organic matter is abundant and pH is acidic (pH 4.5-5.5). The new pools facilitate the

breeding of human-biting, mal aria-transmitting mosqui toes (Coluzzi 1994; Patz et al 2000). Moreover, changing land use activity allows newr mosquito species to move in and proliferate. For example, between 1971 and 1986 Brazil experienced a 76% increase in malaria transmitted by mosquitoes (Patz et al 2000). As a result of mining operations, migrants help malaria pathogens to migrate between deforested areas (Patz et al 2000). In addition, global wanning is improving environmental conditions for mosquito proliferation, malaria, and other diseases (Epstein et al 1998; Patz 2002). In sub-Saharan Africa the average person in an endemic area receives 121 bites from malaria-infected mosquitoes each year (Hay et al 2005). In addition, mosquito vectors are evolving resis tance to insecticides, while the protozoan pathogens are evolving resistance to anti-malarial drugs, reducing the effectiveness of the control efforts (Lambert 2004; Whitty et al 2004).

Atmospheric Pollution and Diseases

Each year, air pollutants kill about 3 million people worldwide (WHO 2002c). Respiratory diseases such as asthma, acute respiratory infections, and lung cancer are strongly linked to environmental contaminants such as tobacco smoke, indoor smoke from cooking with biomass, and emissions from vehicle exhaust, power plants and other industrial processes. Respiratory diseases disproportionate ly affect vulnerable populations such as infants, children,

women, the poor, and people in developing countries (WHO 2002c). An estimated 2.1 million children, younger than 5 years, die from acute respiratory infections world wide (WHO 2003c).

Air pollution is a significant source of respiratory disease in the world, with 50% of chronic respiratory illness probably associated with air pollution (Ourplanet 2004). In most developed nations, the primary source of outdoor pollution is vehicle exhaust and power plant emissions. About 20% of the lung cancer deaths in the USA are caused by particulate matter from vehicle exhausts (Pearce 2002).

In cold-climate developing countries, like parts of China and the former Soviet Union, the prime source of outdoor air pollution is coal-powered home heating and automobile exhausts. In developing nations with warm climates, dust and vehicle exhaust are the prime sources of air pollution (Lvovsky 2001). Indoor air pollution from open cooking fires and tobacco smoke is an equally lethal source of respiratory disease, especially in rural areas in developing countries (WRI 1998). By 1993, air pollution levels in all 20 of the world's largest cities exceeded World Health Organization guidelines (WHO/UNEP 1992). Further, the highest levels of air pollution are found in developing countries.

? Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

656 Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668

The Environmental Protection Agency's limit for partic ulate matter (PM) in the air has a diameter of greater than 10 |xg (PM10), and this particulate matter is strongly linked to respiratory disease. Los Angeles, with the highest PM10 level in the USA, averages less than 50 [ig/m2 (Samet et al 2000). However, in heavily polluted cities in the developing world, like Beijing and New Delhi, fine particulate matter averaged more than 300 |xg/m3 (Alberini et al 1997).

Air pollution is excessive in China, which has seven of the ten most polluted cities in the world (Energy Informa tion Agency 2003). If air pollution in China could be brought within Chinese air quality standards, approximately 178,000 premature deaths from respiratory diseases in urban areas could be prevented each year (McDonalds 2005). From 1955 to 1984, the prevalence of respiratory diseases occurred at a rate five times higher in China than in the USA, making respiratory diseases the leading cause of death in China (Zimmerman et al 1996; WRI 1998).

In general, air pollutants exacerbate asthma, which ultimately can become severe enough to cause death.

Worldwide, the incidence of asthma has increased, with between 100 and 150 million people suffering from asthma (WHO 2000c). In the USA, asthma is one of the most chronic diseases in children, affecting about 5 million children annually (Keeler et al 2002).

Globally, but especially in developing nations where people cook with coal, fuelwood, dung, and other biomass resources over open fires, nearly 4 billion humans suffer continuous exposure to smoke (Bruce et al 2002). This smoke contains more than 4,000 hazardous chemicals including many carcinogens (DeKoning 1985). Fuelwood cooking smoke is estimated to cause the death of 1.6 million children each year worldwide (WHO 2002c). Because women do most of the cooking, they are twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with respiratory illness (Ezzati and K?mmen 2001).

Smoking is another major contributor to respiratory illness. Currently there are 1.3 billion tobacco smokers

worldwide (WHO 2005b). More than 4,000 hazardous chemicals are produced in cigarette smoke, 200 of which are highly toxic (LSC 2004; LungUSA 2004). In the long term, the carcinogenic compounds in tobacco smoke are linked to a heightened risk of cancer among children exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in their childhood (D'Souza 1997). Each year between 150,000 and 300,000 cases of lower respiratory tract infections in infants and young children up to 18 months are attributed to ETS (EPA 1992).

At present 4.9 million people worldwide die annually from smoking (Von Schirnding et al 2000) with projections suggesting that 10 million will die per year by 2025, 70% of whom will reside in developing countries (Jenkins et al 1997). In the USA, about 440,000 people die each year

from smoking related illnesses, which is about 20% of all US deaths (Center for Disease Control 2004c). The number of smokers worldwide is expected to double by 2010 (UNESCO 2004b).

Skin cancer is another threat to global human health. Between 2 and 3 million non-melanoma skin cancers and

132,000 melanoma skin cancers occur globally each year (WHO 2002d). Skin cancer incidence is doubling about every 17 years in the USA (Health Link 2004). The American Cancer Society reported about 800,000 cases of non-melanoma skin cancers in 1995, and in 2001 the number

of cases had risen to more than 1 million (Health Link 2004). The WHO predicts a 10% increase in skin cancer incidence in the USA by the year 2050 (WHO 2003b, e).

The rise in skin cancer incidence is associated with

anthropogenic pollution. As the ozone layer decreases, this increases cancer-inducing UV-B radiation (McMichael 1993;

Martens and McMichael 2002; Mckenzie et al 2003). Exposure to sunlight, including UV-B radiation, accounts for 70% of skin cancers in the USA (SoRelle 2004).

The use of leaded gasoline is another source of concern related to atmospheric pollution. Lead poisoning causes anemia, kidney problems, and brain damage. Children exposed to lead are particularly at risk for brain damage and reduced learning capabilities (Canf?eld et al 2004). Currently, an estimated 1.7 million children in the USA are exposed to hazardous levels of lead and have blood levels above the acceptable level of 10 u.g/dl (Council on Environmental Quality 1996; CDC 2004g).

Chemical Pollution and Disease

Newly developed technologies increase the varieties, potencies, and quantities of chemicals that are released into the air, soil, and water each year. The release of chemicals has damaged many important ecosystems and caused serious disease problems in humans. The USA releases over 2.8 billion kilograms per year of toxic chemicals (USCB 2004). Over 85,000 industrial chemicals are used in commerce and an additional 2,300 chemicals are added each year (Zeeman et al 1996; Lucier and Schecter 1998). The biological activity and human toxicity of most of these chemicals is unknown (Thornton et al 2002).

Chemical exposures contribute to a variety of serious human diseases, including cancer, birth defects, immune system defects, reduced intelligence, behavioral abnormal ities, decreased fertility, altered sex hormones, altered

metabolism, and specific organ dysfunctions (Carpenter et al 2002). Americans of all ages carry a burden of at least 116 chemicals extraneous to their bodies, some of which

were banned more than three decades ago, such as DDT and BHC (CDC 2003a). Other chemicals found in virtually every person are lead, mercury, dioxins, and PCBs

? Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668 657

(Carpenter et al 2002). These chemicals find their way into our bodies through the air we breathe, the water we drink, our food, and our every day environmental exposure. In fact, 48 states have advisories limiting fish consumption because of contamination, like mercury; found in fish (Anderson et al 2004). In Oklahoma, ponds tested from 2000 to 2003 by the Environmental Protection Agency have been found to have mercury levels above the 0.5 ppm

that can be dangerous for pregnant women and children (Tyree 2006). Despite advisories, currently 6% of women of childbearing age in the USA have potentially hazardous levels of mercury in their blood, which can cause developmental and neurologicial defects in fetuses (Jones et al 2004). Coal-fired power plants are the largest source of mercury pollution.

In studies conducted in California and New Mexico, 16% of those surveyed were allergic or sensitive to common chemicals (Kreutzer et al 1999). The cost of multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) to society is high when the effects of lost productivity, health care, and support for disabled workers are totaled (Ashford and Miller 1998; McCampbell 2002). Between 33 and 77 million people in Bangladesh are at risk of poisoning from naturally occuring arsenic in wells dug very deep (Arsenic 2005). The scale of this impact is greater than the Bhopal accident in India that killed 8000, injured over 120,000, and has an ongoing health impact (Vosters 2003).

Perhaps of more serious concern to public health are cancers resulting from chemicals. About 10 million new cancer cases are diagnosed each year worldwide (Eaton 2003). Some cancers are linked to the use of polluted water 70% of the water in five of China's seven major river systems is unsuitable for human use (The Economist 2004). In the USA, 1.4 million cases of cancer were reported in 2004 (USCB 2004). A woman's lifetime risk of breast cancer has increased

from 1 in 22 in 1940 to one in seven today (Evans 2004). The risks associated with chemical exposures are

compounded by immunosuppressive activities of some chemicals. These chemicals increase the risk of infectious

diseases (Van Loveren et al 1995; WHO 1999). Pesticides are one class of hazardous chemicals. Worldwide about 3

billion kilograms of pesticides are used per year, with about 0.5 billion kilograms applied per year in the USA (Pimentel 2005). Although the total quantity of pesticide use has not increased significantly during the past decade, the toxicity of individual pesticides has increased from 10- to 100-fold compared with those in use in 1950 to 1960 (Pimentel 1997). In 1990, the number of work-related pesticide poisonings in the developing world was estimated to be 25 million cases per year with approximately 220,000 fatalities (Jeyarathnam 1990; Richter 2002). Approximately 99% of the global deaths related to pesticides occur in developing countries (WHO/UNEP 1990).

The number of human pesticide poisonings in the USA was reported in 1990 to be about 67,000 per year in one study (Litovitz et al 1990); later, the number was reported to have increased to more than 300,000 per year (Klein Schwartz and Smith 1997). This may reflect the higher toxicity of the new pesticides in use today, compared with the early pesticides, as well as the increased pesticide drift problem. Aircraft application of pesticides causes the most serious drift problem, with 40% to 60% of the pesticide applied drifting away from the target area (Cox 1995). Aerially applied pesticides are estimated to drift up to 1,600 m from the application site and may drift up to 80 km downwind (Cox 1995). In California, 51% of the agricul tural pesticide poisonings were the result of pesticide drift (Kegley et al 2003).

Approximately 57% of non-fatal pesticide poisonings reported in the USA involve children younger than 6 years (Sanbom et al 2002). For example, in Washington State, reports confirm that dietary doses of pesticides were exceeded in 44% to 56% of the children with non-fatal

pesticide poisoning (Sanbom et al 2002).

Land Degradation Effect on Disease Incidence

Soil is contaminated by a wide array of chemicals and pathogens. Humans may acquire chemical pollutants and pathogens directly from the soil (i.e., by contact with the soil) or indirectly, through food and water contamination. At times, soil particles themselves may be pollutants, entering the eyes, nose, and mouth and acting as irritants or allergens.

Exposed soil is highly susceptible to wand and water erosion. Wind erosion can cause serious health problems by blowing into the air soil particles and microbes into the air, which irritate the respiratory tract and eyes, and aggravate allergies and asthma. In China, farmland erosion and desertification has led to Beijing experiencing 11 dust storms during one year (WHO 2002b). Many types of pathogens have been recorded in blowing soil. For example, 19 pathogen species that infect humans have been recorded in blowing soil in various regions of the earth, including anthrax, TB, flu virus, and hantavirus (Griffin et al 2001). Erosion disperses toxic chemicals, such as heavy metals and pesticides, leading to contami nated food and water resources. Soil depth is also critical to food crop production. For example, reducing soil depth by 25 cm was found to reduce crop productivity by about 60% (Stallings 1964).

As the human population expands and land is cleared of trees, loss of forest cover can contribute to an increase in

the prevalence of human infections by helminthes, such as hookworms. After deforestation in Haiti, hookworm infec

tions rose from zero to 12% of the population in 1990 and

Sy Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

658 Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668

15% in 1996 (Lilley et al 1997). Children suffer greater morbidity from helminth infections than adults because children need more protein than adults per kilogram of body weight; under severe parasitic infections, they may be unable to utilize protein efficiently enough to remain healthy.

Many helminth species that infect humans are found in soil contaminated by human feces, thereby exacerbating the cycle of exposure. Worldwide, more than 2 billion people are infected with one or more helminth species, either by direct penetration or by consumption of contaminated food or water (Hotex et al 1996). In locations where sanitation is poor and people are overcrowded, such as parts of urban

Africa, up to 90% of the population may be infected with one or more helminth species (Wamae and Mwanza 2000). In China, approximately 600 million people (nearly half the population) have water that is contaminated by human and animal wastes (The Economist 2004).

Food Contamination, Disease, and Malnutrition

Although it is difficult to estimate, annually about 2.1 million people die from diarrheal diseases worldwide (WHO 2002e). In industrialized nations, approximately 360 million foodborne disease cases occur annually and in developing nations an estimated 1.9 billion annually (WHO 2002e). In the United States, approximately 76 million foodborne diseases occur in humans each year, causing 5,000 deaths (Mead et al 1999; DeWaal et al 2000; NIAID 2002a). In addition, foodborne diseases cost the U.S. $5 to $6 billion each year (Table I).

Poultry, hogs, cattle, and other livestock are easily contaminated with Salmonella and various Escherichia coli

and Campylobacter microbes, especially when the animals are crowded together in livestock facilities with inadequate waste disposal systems (Lederberg et al 1992; Altekruse et al 1997). Additional microbial contamination can result from unsanitary conditions during slaughtering, processing, and handling. In the USA, hen eggs and poultry have been identified as the main source of Salmonella enteritidis,

which can cause severe gastrointestinal illnesses and sometimes death in humans, especially among children and the infirm (Prier and Solnick 2000; WHO 2002d). Over the past 10 years S. enteritidis infections have increased significantly on several continents (WHO 2002d).

The proliferation of confinement livestock has unknown consequences on human health. A study conducted in

Milford, Utah by the Utah District of Health Department studied the period of 1992-1998 when a 44,000 head sow operation (with a target of 120,000 sows) was constructed. The town of Milford experienced a fourfold increase in diarrhea cases and threefold increase in respiratory ill nesses. These rates were significantly higher than those

found in similar populations and in the state as a whole (Thu 2000).

Staphylococcus and Salmonella are two airborne patho gens in or near livestock facilities. These airborne microbes can infect farm workers and people living downwind from the livestock facility (Thu 2002). Thus, diarrhea and various infections are common near large livestock facili ties. (Thu 2002). Foodborne illnesses are estimated to cause from S6.5 to $34.9 billion in damages and treatment costs each year (Guelph University 2005).

Malnutrition, which includes inadequate intake of calories, protein, iron, iodine, and numerous essential vitamins, is a major disease related to environmental degradation (Myers and Kent 2001). The World Bank World Development Report estimated that deficiencies of vitamin A, iron, and iodine waste as much as 5% of global gross domestic product (GDP), while addressing these deficiencies would cost just 0.3% of global GDP (World Bank 1993). Malnutrition prevails in regions in

which the overall food supply is inadequate, where populations lack economic resources to purchase food, and where political unrest and instability interrupt food supplies. In addition, rapidly expanding human popula tions intensify the food-supply problems by diminishing the per capita availability of cropland (Pimentel and Pimentel 2003).

In 1950, 500 million people (20% of the world population) were malnourished (Grigg 1993). Today more than 3.7 billion people (nearly 60% of the world popula tion) suffer from malnutrition (WHO 2004a)?the largest number in history. Each year, approximately 6 million children under the age of 5 die from malnutrition (Food and

Agriculture Organization 2002). Even in the USA, over 11% of all households experienced food insecurity during 2002 and 3.5% of those households has at least one family member who went hungry (Nord et al 2003). Malnutrition at an early age can lead to physical and mental under development as an adult; this underdevelopment facilitates a poverty trap where people are stuck at a low-level of productivity, at a great cost to society and the environment (Academy of Natural Sciences 2004).

Vitamin A malnutrition diminishes and impairs the immune responses to infectious diseases in children.

Vitamin A supplements have been shown to decrease mortality by 30% in vitamin A deficient children ages 6 months to 5 years (Stephensen 2001). Each year, vitamin A deficiency causes approximately 2.5 million deaths (International Development Research Centre 2004). Vita min A shortages can also cause mental disabilities in children (Obasanjo 2004; Academy of Natural Sciences 2004). More than 13 million people suffer night blindness or total blindness from a lack of vitamin A (Academy of Natural Sciences 2004).

4? Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668 659

Table I Economic Costs of Diseases in the USA Environmentally Induced Infectious Diseases vs Behavioral Expenses

Environmental

Disease Financial cost (per year)

Intestinal infections Foodborne diseases Influenza

Antibiotic-resistant bac. infect. Tuberculosis

Malaria prevention Digestive diseases Asthma Smoking related costs Cancer Arthritis Total B eh a vi oral/geneti c

STDs (excluding AIDS) Hepatitis B virus infection Hepatitis C virus AIDS Cardiovascular

Inactivity Obesity Alcohol abuse Diabetes Total Combined total (conservative)

$23 billion (direct medical costs and lost productivity)^ $ 5-6 Billion in medical and productivity costs ($1 billion to E. coli b) $17 (pandemics could cost from $ 71 to $167 Billion0) $4 Billion in treatment costs and increasing (May be as high as $30 Billion)d $1 Billion0

$2 Billion1" (Target Budget for Africa?Actual is $545.5 million) $80 Billion ($27 billion more in first two items)s'h $14.5 Billion (2000 estimate up from $6.2 billion in 1990V $75-97 Billion^ $189.5 billion ($64.2 billion medical costs, $115.3 lost productivity)1 $86 billion ($51 billion in direct costs)1" -$500 Billion

$5-10 Billion ajl $154-720+ Million in direct and indirect costs a,n $5.5 Billion $20 Billion0

$329 Billion ($129 billion in lost productivity)p0 ($260 billion from heart disease and stroke)q $76.6 Billion $48 Billion (excluding $22 billion in related heart disease/ $100 Billion ($4.5 billion in direct medical costs of related diseases/ $132 Billion ($92 billion in direct costs)1 -660 Billion (rounding down for overlap) $1.16 Trillion

Association of Texas 2004

aNSTC 1995 bUSDA 2002 c WHO 2003a dNIAID2000 c American Lung fWHO2004f gNIH 1994 h Sandier et al 2002 'National Committee for Quality' Assurance 2001 j CDC 2004f k American Lung Association 2004 'NIH 2002 mUSCB2004 "NIAID 1998 ? Kaiser Family Foundation 2004 p WHO 2004b qCDC-OC 1997 rNutristrategy 2004 SUS Health and Human Services 2002 tNDIC2002

Similarly, iron intake per person has been declining during the past 10 years, especially in developing countries (WHO 2004g). Globally, from 4 to 5 billion people are iron deficient and 2 billion suffer from anemia (WHO 2004g). Worldwide, an estimated 9 million deaths can be attributed

to iron deficiency (WHO 2004g). In addition, about 1.6 billion people live in iodine-deficient environments and suffer from iodine deficiency disease (United Nations 2004). Iodine deficiency also causes mental disabilities in children (United Nations 2004).

Malnutrition, complicated by parasitic infections, is frequently found in poverty-stricken areas with inadequate sanitation. In developing nations, more than one third of the infectious disease burden is due to malnutrition (Mason et al 2004). For children, malnutrition increases their suscep tibility to infectious diseases and death by 42 to 57% (Pelletier et al 1994). Malnourished individuals, especially children, are seriously affected by parasitic infections because these infections also reduce nutrient availability. The presence of intestinal parasites frequently diminishes

Sy Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

660 Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668

appetite and food intake, and also increases the loss of nutrients by causing diarrhea and dysentery. Hookwomis, for instance, can suck as much as 30 ml of blood from an

infected person each day, gradually weakening individuals and lowering their resistance to other diseases (Hotez and Pritchard 1995). Latham et al (1990) measured the caloric gain that Kenyan schoolboys obtained once given treatment to eliminate their multiple helminth infections. Based on these data, it is possible to estimate the daily amount of food intake that is necessary to offset the helminth infections. The daily recommendation for children 9 to 13 years is about 2,000 kcal (Institute of Medicine 2002). The Kenyan schoolboys gained about 86 kcal per meal per day. At the average of three meals per day, this accounts for a gain of 258 kcal once the helminth infection was eradicated. Thus, prior to treatment, the schoolboys utilized between 12 and 14% of their daily food intake to offset the effects of their helminth infections which is probably average. We estimate the range of food lost to parasitic infections to be between 10 and 20% of an individual's

daily food intake.

Drug Resistance in Microbes

Drug resistance and rapid genetic changes in microbes contribute to global disease outbreaks, diminishing the ability of humans to successfully ward off or control illness (NIAID 2004b). Many microbe types have evolved resistance to antibiotics (Antibiotic Resistance 2004; Levy and Marshall 2004). The bacteria resistant to antibiotics cost the USA more than $4 billion in added treatments and lost productivity each year (Table I). The evolution of drug resistance in microbes can be surprisingly rapid. In 1979, only 6% of the European Pneumococcus strains were resistant to penicillin, but one decade later that percentage had grown to 44% (Platt 1996). Currently in the USA, more than 90% of the Staphylo coccus aureus, one of the most common disease-producing microbes, are resistant to penicillin and similarly effective antibiotics (American Society of Microbiology 1994). A study of 113 French pig fanners reported that nasopharyngeal carnage of S. aureus resistant to macrolide was more frequent in fanners than non-farmers. The large-scale antibiotic use associated with today's industrial livestock farming, in addition to antibiotic dnig resistance in bacteria gaining entrance to the human food chain, pose serious public health problems (CDC 2005). Rapid increase in drug resistance by disease organisms is caused by the widespread use and overuse of 300 antibiotics by the medical profession (ASM 1994). In addition, eight times more antibiotics are used in livestock production than are used to treat humans (UCS 2001). The concurrent overuse of antibiotics for both humans and livestock enhances selection for drug

resistant microbes, further exacerbating the problem of antibiotic resistance.

Reemerging Diseases

The worldwide increase in tuberculosis results from population crowding and drug resistance. Currently an estimated 2 billion people worldwide are infected with TB, with an estimated 3 million deaths annually (NIAID 2002b; WHO 2004b). In the USA, an estimated 10 to 15 million people (mostly foreign-born nationals) are infected with latent TB, but do not display the symptoms (NIAID 2002b).

Each year about 8 million people worldwide develop TB (NIAID 2002b). Drug-resistant TB strains and reduced

medical treatment account for this increase. TB infections

are further complicated by the use of illegal drugs and the rise of HIV infections, both of which help to spread the disease and lead to frequent reinfection. Tuberculosis is rapidly increasing in the Russian Federation. From 1990 to 2000, the number of reported cases per year has increased from 51 to 90 per 100,000 people (CDC 2004e).

Influenza or flu is one of the most serious virus diseases

in the world. From 300 million to 900 million people are infected with the flu which resulting in 250,000 to 500,000 deaths each year (WHO 2003a). In the USA, 200,000 people are hospitalized from the flu, with about 36,000 deaths each year (CDC 2004a). Another cause for concern is avian influenza, a highly pathogenic form of the flu virus that has passed from birds to humans in isolated cases, and represents a potentially serious threat as it is particularly deadly, with a mortality rate of 76% in recent human outbreaks in Southeast Asia (WHO 2005a).

The flu costs the USA about $17 billion per year in medical and lost productivity costs each year (Table I). Flu vaccine to treat one person costs about $10.40; thus, everyone in the USA could be treated at a cost of $3.1 billion (Stanford 2004). However, a flu pandemic in the USA could cost the nation from $71 to $167 billion in health care and lost productivity costs (WHO 2003a).

Brucellosis is another resurgent communicable disease. The causative bacteria, Brucella spp., infect cattle, sheep, goats, and some wild mammals worldwide and are harbored in an animal's udder. Humans usually contract the disease from infected animals or contaminated dairy products. Roth et al (2003) report that the number of cases of brucellosis is increasing, especially in developing countries, with about 360,000 cases reported per year.

Newly Emerging Diseases

Changes in biological diversity, evolution of parasites, and invasion by exotic species all frequently result in disease

<? Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668 661

outbreaks. Several new and emerging diseases are listed in Table I. For example, an emerging rodent-related disease that is related in part to increasing human numbers, is the hantavirus pulmonary syndrome; this disease is estimated to have caused approximately 227 deaths in children between 1995 and 2003 (CDC 2004d). By the end of 1994, 135 cases of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome were recognized in the U.S. and Canada, with a human mortality rate of 50% (CDC 1994).

A new disease introduced in 1999 into the USA is West

Nile vims, which is transmitted by our native house mosquitoes (CDC 2004b). Four years later the disease had spread to 46 states with 9,862 reported infections and 264 deaths (CDC 2004b). The West Nile reservoir host is birds but humans can be infected (Rappole et al 2000). In 2004, the number of West Nile infections had declined to about

1,400 cases with about 64 deaths per year (CDC 2004b). The reason for the decline in infections and deaths is

unknown. However, West Nile confirms that the spread of new diseases is now a major public health problem (Pimentel et al 2000; Epstein et al 2003).

In the USA, Lyme disease is the most widespread vector borne disease, with infections reported in 47 states (CDC 2001). The bacterium that causes Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi, is a spirochete similar to the one that causes syphilis in humans (National Center for Biotechnology Information 1999). It is thought to have existed in the USA

without incident until major ecological changes took place; suburban areas expanded, white-tailed deer populations exploded, along with increases in the deer mouse and deer tick populations (UNEP 2005). Spreading dramatically since the initial description of the disease in 1976, Lyme disease now infects nearly 24,000 people in the USA each year and the incidence of the infection continues to grow (Table II).

Another rapidly increasing disease is HIV/AIDS (Table II). The growing human population, especially the increased number of people in urban areas, has coincided

with the spread of HIV and AIDS (UNAIDS 2004). From 1979-1980, an estimated 115 people worldwide were infected with HIV, but by the year 2003, about 40 million were infected with HIV (UNAIDS 2004; Table III). In 2003, almost 5 million people became newrly infected with HIV, the greatest number in any one-year since the beginning of the epidemic (UNAIDS 2004). The total number of HIV/AIDS deaths during 2003 is reported to be 3 million (UNAIDS 2004; Table III).

HIV/AIDS infections are especially widespread in certain parts of the world. For example, from 25 to 28 million people are living with HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa and the epidemic is growing rapidly in Asia (UNAIDS 2004). In the USA, the number of new cases of AIDS peaked in 1993 at about 80,000 and has declined in 2002 to about 42,000 per year (CDC 2003e). The number of USA deaths peaked at about 50,000 per year and then declined by 2002 to about 17,000 per year (CDC 2003e). The worldwide costs of HIV/AIDS treatment are estimated to be $7 to $10 billion for low and middle-income countries

(Global Fund 2004). This figure, however, continues to rise, as an estimated $12 billion will be needed to effectively respond to the epidemic in 2005 and $20 billion in 2007 (Kaiser Family Foundation 2004; Table I). On average, worldwide AIDS carerelated expenses can amount to one third of a household's income and is a major contributor to poverty (UNAIDS 2004).

Currently there are five known hepatitis viruses that cause inflammation of the liver, although new hepatitis viruses are being discovered, such as F, G, and X. Hepatitis A and E are the most easily transmissible, yet the most serious hepatitis virus worldwide is HBV or hepatitis B

Table II Specified Number of Human Disease Cases in the USA (USCB 2003)

Disease 1990 2001 %growth

Botulism 92 155 68.5 Chlamydia 308,139a 783,000 254

Crytosporidiosis 2,566b 3,785 47.5 Escherichia coli 0157:H7 2,139? 3,287 53.7 Haemophilus influenza 1,180d 1,597 35.3

Lyme disease 11,700 24,000e 105 Rabies, animal 4,826 7,150 48.2

Whooping cough 4,600 7,600 65.2 Skin cancer 800,000f 1,000,000 25.0

aFor 1990, CDC (1990) bFor 1997 cFor 1995 dFor 1995 e For 2002, CDC (2003d) fFor 1995

? Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

662 Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668

Table III Human Public Health Problems and Deaths from Diseases Each Year Worldwide

Disease Number of affected people xlO6

Number of deaths xlO3

Diarrhea Tuberculosis Influenza Tobacco smoke Indoor smoke solid fuels

Asthma Measles Ascariasis Filariasis Schistosomiasis Malaria Trichuriasis

Dengue fever Onchocerciasis

(river blindness) Helminths Malnutrition

Japanese encephalitis HIV/AIDS Hepititis B Cancer Syphilis Typhoid

2,000a 2,000b 300-900d 1,300e 4,000g

100-150f 45h 1,000* 120k 2001 500n 800q 20-100r 18s

2,000' 3,700' 0.3-0.05v 40w 400x 10y 1L8Z 16aa

4,000a 3,000e 250-500d 4,907f 2,000f

2,100f l,100h 3j

15m-2001

l,200?-2,700p 3J

19*

18,000u 14J

3,000w 132j 6y 157j 600aa

aPalaniandy and Lucey (2002). bWHO (2004c) c NIA ID (2002b) dWHO (2003a) eWHO (2004h) fWHO (2002c) BBmce et al. (2002) hLayne (2004) 1 Medline Plus (2004) 'WHO (2004a) kWHO (2000a) 1TDR(2004) mWHO (2002a) "Nchinda (1998) and Breman et ai (2004) ?Breman et al (2004) pNchinda(1998) q CDC (2003c) rShepard??/?/. (2004) sWHO (2000b) 'Uotczet a!. (1996) UIGS(2001) VCDC (2003b) wWHO (2002b) xLin and Kircher (2004) y WHO (2004d) 2 WHO (2001) aaWHO (2003d)

(Palmer 2000). There are about 400 million carriers of HBV and more than 130,000 deaths per year worldwide (Lin and Kircher 2004; WHO 2004a). Hepatitis B infec tions in the USA cost the nation more than $720 million in

direct and indirect costs (Table I). Additionally, there are about 170 million earners of Hepatitis C or HCV with about 50,000 deaths per year (WHO 2004a).

The 8,000 deaths per year in the USA from HCV outnumber the 6,000 deaths from HBV in both North and South America per year (WHO 2004a: National AIDS Treatment Advocacy Project 2003). There are more deaths due to HCV because there is no vaccine. Although the incidence of HCV is declining, only about 5% of the infected people know that they have HCV. Thus, HCV is sometimes termed the "silent epidemic" (Palmer 2000).

Conclusion

A growing number of people who lack basic needs, such as access to clean water and food, are more susceptible to diseases driven by malnourishment, and overpopulation, and air, water, and soil pollutants, further stresses humans and increases disease prevalence.

Our review confirms that many factors influence the increasing prevalence of human disease now occurring

worldwide. Currently, 40% of global deaths result from diverse environmental factors, including chemical pollu tants, tobacco smfloke, and malnutrition. Today, six infectious diseases cause 90% of all deaths worldwide.

Deaths due to several infectious diseases have also been

increasing in the USA, with a cost to the nation of several billions dollars each year.

To help prevent infectious diseases, people need to be educated, especially in dealing with water pollution and AIDS. For AIDS control, condoms and other protected sex have proven highly effective.

In addition, global climate change appears to be creating an environment more hospitable for some diseases and disease vectors. Climate change may also increase the susceptibility of food crops to some pests, which in turn could intensify problems of food shortages and malnutrition that already exist in the world.

To prevent disease, poverty and malnutrition from worsening, the growing imbalance between the escalating human population and the earth's environmental degrada tion and limited resources must be addressed. Thus, a comprehensive, fair population-limiting policy combined with an effective environmental management program is essential. Relying on increasing diseases and malnutrition to limit human numbers in the world diminishes the quality of life for all humans, and is a high risk policy.

Acknowledgements We wish to thank the following people for their helpful comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this paper: N. A. Ashford, Professor of Technology and Policy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA; R. Detels, M.D., Professor of

4y Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668 663

Epidemiology and International Health, University of California, Los Angeles, CA; P. Epstein, M.D., Center for Health and the Global Environment, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; A Ferguson, Senior Researcher, Optimum Population Trust, Manchester, UK; S. I. Hay, Professor of Zoology, University of Oxford, UK; L. Levitan, Environmental Risk Analysis Program, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; P. Martens, Professor of Sustainable Development, University of Maastricht, The Netherlands; J.A.T. Morgan, Professor of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA; N. Myers, Oxford University, Oxford, UK; J. Patz, Global Environmental Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI; J. Rappole, Smithsonian Conservation and Research Center, Front Royal, VA; M.E. Riley, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; S. Salmony, Chapel Hill, NC.

References

Academy of Natural Sciences. (2004). Part II, Food, Policies and Politics. (March 6, 2005; http://www/acnatsci.org?education/ kyje/nr/kye4152002.html.)

Alberini A, Simon N, Sharma PK, Cropper M. (1997). The Health effects of Air Pollution in Delhi, India, Working Paper # 1860. The World Bank.

Altekruse, S. F., Choen, M. L., and Swerdlow, D. L. (1997). Emerging Foodborne Diseases. Centers for Disease Control and Preven tion Vol. 3(3), Atlanta, July-September.

American Lung Association. (2004). Who We Are. (November 30, 2004; http://www.limgusa.org/ site/pp.asp?c^dvLlJK9O0E&b;:;41052.

Ashford, N. A., and Miller, C. S. (1998). Chemical Exposures: Low Levels and High Stakes. Wiley, New York.

Anderson, H. A., Hanrahan, L. P., Smith, A., Draheim, L., Kanarek, M., Olsen, J. (2004). The Role of Sport-fish Consumption Advisories in Mercury Risk Communication: A 1998-100 12 state Survey of Women 18-45. Environmental Research 95(3): 315-324.

Antibiotic Resistance. (2004). Antibiotic Resistance. CDC Study Docu ments Dangerous Rise. (November 17, 2004; http:/vhealthandenergy. com/antibiotic resistant _bacreria.htm).

Arsenic. (2005). The Arsenic Challenge. (December 16, 2005; http:/./ www /scarab. se/arsenic/arsenic_disaster.html.).

American Society of Microbiology (ASM). (1994). Report of the ASM Task Force on Antibiotic Resistance. American Society of Microbiology, Washington, (DC).

Breman, J. G., Martin, A. S., and Mills, A. (2004). Conquering the intolerable Burden of Malaria: What's New, WTiat's Needed: A Summary. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 71(Suppl 2): 1-15.

Bruce, N., Perez-Padilla, R., and Albalak, R. (2002). The Health Effects of Indoor Pollution Exposures in Developing Countries, World Health Organization, Geneva.

Canfield, R. L,, Gendle, M. H., and Cory-Slechta, D. A. (2004). Impaired Neurosychologicial Functioning in Lead-exposed Chil dren. Developmental Neuropsycholog)? 26(1): 513-540.

Carpenter, D. O., Arcaro, K. F., and Sprals, D. C. (2002). Understanding the Human Health Effects of Chemical Mixtures. Environmental Health Perspectives 110: 25-^42.

Caulfield, L. E., Richard, S. A., and Black, R. E. (2004). Undernu trition as an Underlying Cause of Malaria Morbidity and

Mortality in Children Less Than Five Years Old. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 71(Suppl 2): 55-63.

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (1990). Chlamydia. (February 20, 2005;hr4r.//wonder.cdcgovM\')nder/STD./RSTD3518/Table_3.htmL).

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (1994). Addressing emerging infectious disease threats: a prevention strategy for the United

States. Atlanta, G A: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Public Health Sendee, Report No. 52.

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2001). Lyme Disease. (March 4, 2005; http://wv^'wxdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/lyme/who_cc/mdex.htm.).

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2003a). Second National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia.

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2003b). Japanese Encephalitis Fact Sheet. (November 15, 2004; http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/ dvbid/jencephalitis/facts.htm.).

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2003c). Trichuriasis. (November 15, 2004; http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/Trichuriasis. htm.).

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2003d). Reports of Notifiable Diseases. MMR, 8 August 2003, 5(31): 741-750.

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2003e). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 2003. Volume 15. (February 21, 2005; http://www.cdc. gov/hiv/stats/'hasrlink.htm).

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2004a). Influenza (Flu) Fact Sheet. (September 22, 2004; http://www/cdc/gov/flu).

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2004b). West Nile Virus. (September 17, 2004; http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod7dvbidVcsmile/ survffecontrolCaseCount04_detailed.html).

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2004c). Chronic Disease Preven tion. Reducing Tobacco Use. National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.CDC, Atlanta, Georgia.

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2004d). CDC's "X-Files" Probes Mysterious Deaths. (November 14, 2004; http://www.cnn.com/ 2004/HELTH/03/02/mysterious.deaths.ap/).

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2004e). Emerging Infectious Diseases. (November 14, 2004; http://wwWcdc.gov/ncidod/eid/ vol7/netesov.html.).

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2004?). Chronic Disease Over view, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. (October 15, 2004; http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/ overview.).

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2004g). Lead: Topic Home. (December 1, 2004; http://www.cdc.gov/lead/.).

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2005). Get Smart: Know When Antibiotics Work. (March 6,2005; http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance// community/).

Center for Disease Control (CDC-OC). 1997. Facts About Cardio vascular Disease, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia, 27 June 1997.

Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). (1996). Environmental Quality. Executive Office of the President, Washington, DC.

Coluzzi, M. (1994). Malaria and the Afrontropical Ecosystems: Impact of Man-made Environmental Changes. Parasitolog?a 36: 223-227.

Cox, C. (1995). Indiscriminately From the Skies. Journal of Pesticide Reform 15(3): 14-20.

Curtis, C, F. (2002). Should the Use of DDT be Revised for Malaria Vector Control? Biomedica 22(4): 455-461.

D'Souza, R. M. (1997). Housing and environmental factors and their effects on the health of children in the slums of Karachi, Pakistan. Journal Biosocial Science 29(3): 271-281.

Daily, G. C, and Ehrlich, P. R. (1996). Impacts of Development and Global Change on the Epidemiol?gica! Environment. Environ ment, Development and Economics 1: 311-346.

DeJong, R. J., Morgan, J. A. T., Paraense, W. L., Pointier, J. P., Amarista, M., Ayeh-Kumi, P. F. K., Babiker, A., Barbosa, C. S., Bremond, P., Canese, A. P., de Souza, C. P., Dominguez, C, File, S., Gutierrez, A., Incani, R. N., Kawano, T., Kazibwe, F., Kpikpi, J., Lwambo, N. J. S., Mimpfound, R., Njiokou, F., Poda, J. N., Sene, M., Velasquez, L. E., Yong, M., Adema, C. M., Hotkin, G. M., and Loker, E. S. (2001). Evolutionary Relationships and Biogeography of Biomphalaria (Gastropoda: Planorbidae) with

? Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

664 Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668

Special Implications Regarding its Role as Host of Bloodfluke, Schitosoma mansoni. Molecular Biology Evolution 8: 2225 2239.

DeKoning, S. L. (1985). Biomass Fuel Combustion and Health. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 63(1): 11-26.

DeWaal, C. S., Alderton, L., and Jacobson, M. J. (2000). Outbreak Alert! Closing the Gaps in Our Federal Food-Safety Net. Center for Science in the Public Interest, Washington, (DC).

Eaton, L. (2003). World Cancer Rates Set to Double by 2020. British Medical Journal 326(7392): 723-728.

Eddy, N. (2004). India's Wastewater Treatment. (January 2, 2005; http://.nesc.wvu.edu/nsfc/Articles/SFQ/SFQ_su04_PDF/ India_su04 .pdf).

Energy Information Agency. (2003). United States Department of Energy, Country Analysis Briefs. China: Environmental Issues. (November 30, 2004; http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/ cabs/chinaenv.html).

(EPA) US Environmental Protection Agency. (1992). Respiratory Health Effects of Passive Smoking (Also Known as 'Exposure to Secondhand Smoke or Environmental Tobacco Smoke?ETS'). Office of Research and Development, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC, EPA/600/6-90/ 006F, 1992.

(EPA)US Environmental Protection Agency. (1998). Environmental Impacts of Animal Feeding Operations, Appendix IV. Environ mental Data Summary. Preliminary Data Summary, Feedlots Pointsource Category Study. December 31, 1998. U.S. Environ mental Protection Agency. Office of Water Standards and Applied Science Division.

(EPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. Water Quality conditions in the United States, (December 11, 2004; http://www. epa.gov/3 05 b/2000report/factsh eet.pdf. )

Epstein, P., Ford, T, Puccia, C, and Possas, C. D. A. (1994). Marine Ecosystem Health. Implications for Public Health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 740: 13?23.

Epstein, P R., Diaz, H. F., Elias, S., Grabherr, G., Graham, N. E., Martens, W. J. M., Mosley-Thompson, E., and Susskind, J. (1998). Biological and Physical Signs of Climate Change: Focus on Mosquito-borne Diseases. Bulletin of the American Metero logical Society 79(3): 409-417.

Epstein, P. R., Chivian, E., and Frith, K. (2003). Emerging Diseases Threaten Conservation. Environmental Health Perspectives 111(10): A506-A507.

Evans, N. (ed). (2004). State of the Evidence: What are the Connections between the Environment and Breast Cancer? (October 6, 2004; http://www.breast.cancerfund.org/atf/cf7 (DE68F7B2-5F6A-4B57-9794AFED27A3CFF)/sov_high'.pdf.).

Ezzati, M., and K?mmen, D. M. (2001). Quantifying the Effects of Exposure to Indoor Air Pollution From Biomass Combustion on Acute Respiratory Infections in Developing Countries. Environ mental Health Perspectives 109: 481-484.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). (2002). The State of Food Insecurity in the World. United Nations, FAO, Rome.

Gjeick, P. H. (1993). Water in Crisis. Oxford University Press, New York.

Global Fund. (2004). Fighting AIDS. (February 20, 2005; http://www. theglobalmnd.org/eii/about/aids.).

Global Water Issues. (2002). Waterborne Disease in the U.S. (December 30, 2004; http://www/geog.umb.eduAvdripps/GWS/ disease.html.).

Griffin, D. W., Kellogg, C. A., and Shinn, E. A. (2001). Dust in the Wind: Long Range Transport of Dust in the Atmosphere and its Implications for Global and Public Ecosystem Health. Global Change & Human Health 2(1): 20-33.

Grigg, D. B. (1993). The World Food Problem. Blackwell, Oxford (UK).

Guaasekasan, K., Sab, S. S., Jambulingan, P., and Das, P. K. (2005). DDT Indoor Residual Spray, Still an Effective Tool to Control Anopheles Flunatitis?Transmitted Plasmodium falciparan in India. Tropical Medicine Health 10:160-168.

Guelph University. (2005). Foodborne Illnesses. (January 24, 2005; http://www.eatw,elleatsafe.ca/illness/fdborne.html.).

Hay, S. I., Guerra, C. A., Tatem, A. J., Atkinson, P. M., and Snow, R. W. (2005). Urbanization, Malaria Transmission and Disease Burden in Africa. Nature Reviews Microbiology 3(1): 81-90.

Health Link. (2004). Skin Cancer Cases, Often Preventable, are on the Rise, Medical College of Wisconsin. (November 17, 2004; http:// healthlink.mcw.edu/article/10280436646.htmL).

Hotez, P. J., and Pritchard, D. T. (1995). Hookworm Infection. Scientific American 272(6): 68?74.

Hotez, P. J., Hawdon, J. M., Cappello, M., Jones, B. F., Ghosh, K., Volvovitz, F., and Xiao, S. (1996). Molecular Approaches to Vaccinating Against Hookworm Disease. P?diatrie Research 40: 515-521.

(ICAITI) Central American Research Institute for Industry. (1977). An Environmental and Economic Study of the Consequences of Pesticide Lise in Central American Cotton Production. ICAITI, United Nations Environment Programmme, Guatemalla City, Guatemala.

(IDRC) International Development Research Centre. (2004). Leading Cause of Blindness, (December 3, 2004; http://archive.idrsc.ca/ books/reports/1997/04-0 le.hrml.).

(IGS) Institute of Governmental Studies. (2001). Global poverty" the gap between the world's rich and poor is growing, and the dying continues. Institute of Governmental Studies, Public Affairs Report, University of California, Berkeley, Vol. 42, No. 2, Summer 2001. (September 21, 2005; http://www.igs.berkeley. edu/publications/par/summer2001 /poverty.html).

(IOM) Institute of Medicine. (2002). Dictar)? Reference Intakes for Energy?, Carbohydrate, Fiber Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and A mino Acids. Institute of Medicine (IOM), National Academy of Sciences, National Academies Press.

Jenkins, C. N., Dai, P. X., Ngoc, D. H., Kinh, H. V, Hoang, T. T., Bales, S., Stewart, S., and McPhee, S. J. (1997). Tobacco Use in Vietnam: Prevalence, Predictors, and the Role of the Transna tional Tobacco Coiporations. Journal of the American Medical Association 277(21 ): 1726-1731.

Jeyarathnam, J. (1990). Acute Pesticide Poisoning: A Major Global Health Problem. World Statistics Quarterly 43: 139-144.

Jones, R. L,, Sinks, T, Schober, S. E., and Pickett, M. (2004). Blood Mercury Levels in Young Children and Childbearing-aged Women?United States, 1999-2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 53(43): 1018-1020.

Kaiser Family Foundation. (2004). The Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic. (January 27, 2005; http://www.kff.org/hivaids/cfin'?url=commonspot/ security/getfi1e.cfin&Pagen>49626).

Keeler, G. J., Dvonch, T., Yip, F., Parker, E., Isreal, B., Marsik, F., Morishita, T, Barres, J. A., Robins, T. G., Brakefield-Caldwell, W., and Sam, M. (2002). Assessment of Personal and Commu nity-level Exposures to Particulate Matter Among Children With Asthma in Detroit, Michigan, As Part of Community Action Against Asthma. Environmental Health Perspectives Supple ments 110(N. S2): 173-181 (April 2002).

Kegley, S. E. A., Katten, A., and Moses, M. (2003). Secondhand Pesticides: Airborne Pesticide Drift in California. Pesticide Action Network, California Rural Legal Assistance Foundation, Pesticide Education Center, Californians for Pesticide Reform, San Francisco.

Kleihues, P., and Stewart, B. (2002). World Cancer Report. ?ARC, International Agency for Research on Cancer. World Health Organization, Geneva.

Klein-Schwartz, W., and Smith, G. S. (1997). Agricultural and Horticultural Chemical Poisonings: Mortality and Morbidity

4y Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668 665

in the United States. Annals of Emergency Medicine 29: 232-238.

Kreutzer, R., Neutra, R. R., Lashuay, N. (1999). Prevalence of People Reporting Chemical Sensitivities to Chemicals in a Population based Survey. American Journal of Epidemiology 150(1): 1-12.

Lambert, P. H. (2004). Malaria Past and Present. (October 9, 2004; http:// www.riobelprize.org/rnedicine./educational/ malaria/readmore/history. html).

Latham, M. C, Stephenson, L. S., Kurz, K. M., and Kinoti, S. N. (1990). Metrifonate or Praziquantel Treatment Improves Physical Fitness and Appetite of Kenyan Schoolboys with Schistosoma haematobium and Hookworm Infections. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 43(2): 170-179.

Layne, S. P. (2004). Principles of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, UCLA School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology.

Lederberg, J., Shope, R. E., and Oaks, S. C. (1992). Emerging Infections: Microbial Threats to Health in the United States, National Academy Press, Washington, DC. (October 4, 2004; http://www. ph. ucla.edu/epi/layne/Epidemiology%2022 0/01 .intro .pc.).

Levy, S. B., and Marshall, B. (2004). Antibacterial Resistance Worldwide: Causes, Challenges and Responses. Nature Medicine 10: S122-S129.

Lilley, B., Lammie, P., Dickerson, J., and Eberhard, M. (1997). An Increase in Hookworm Infection Temporarily Associated with Ecological Change. Emerging Infectious Diseases 3(3): 391-393.

Lin, K. W, and Kirchner, J. T. (2004). Hepatitis B. American Family Physician 69(1): 75-82.

Litovitz, T L, Schmitz, B. F., and Bailey, K. M. (1990). 1989 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers National Data Collection System. American Journal of Emer gency Medicine 8: 394-442.

Liberty Science Center (LSC). (2004). (October 20, 2004; http://www. lsc.org/tobacco/manufacmring/Hnn-o_manufacturing.html).

Lucier, G. W., and Schecter, A. (1998). Human Exposure Assessment and the National Toxicology Program. Environmental Health Perspectives 106(10): 623-6627.

LungUsa. (2004). Smoking 101 Fact Sheet. (February 6, 2005; http:// www/lungusa.org/site/pp.asp?c=dvLUK900E&b=39853).

Lvovsky, K. (2001). Health and the Environment. Environmental Strategy Papers no. 7, The World Bank, Washington, DC.

MacDonald, R. (2001). U.K. Strategy to Help Increase Clean Water Supplies Worldwide. British Medical Journal 322: 756.

Martens, P., and McMichael, A. J. (2002). Environmental Change, Climate and Health: Issues and Research Methods. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Martens, W. J. M. (1995). Modeling the Effect of Global Wanning on the Prevalence of Schistosomiasis, The Netherlands National Institute of Public Health and Environmental protection, Report

Number 461502010. Bituoven, The Netherlands. Mason, J. B., Musgrave, P., and Habicht, J. P. (2004). At Least One-Third

of Poor Countries' Disease Burden is due to Malnutrition. (November 7, 2004; http://www.eldis.org/cf/search//disp/docdisplay. cfin?doc=DOC 14676&resource=fl ).

McCampbell, A. (2002). Pesticide sensitivities. In Pimentel, D. (ed), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 606-609.

McDonalds, H. (2005). China's Bid to Clean the Air. The Age, Australia. February 12, 2005.

McKenzie, R. L,, Bjorn, L. O., Bais, A., Ilyasd, M. (2003). Changes in biological Active Ultraviolet Radiation Reaching the Earth's Surface. Photochem Photobiological Science 2(1): 5-15.

McMichael, A. J. (1993). Planetary Overload: Global Environmental Change and Health of the Human Species. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

McMichael, A. J. (2001). Human Frontiers, Environment, and Disease. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK.

Mead, P. S., Slutsker, L,, Dietz, V, McCaig, L. F., Bresee, J. S., Shapiro, C, Griflm, P. M., and Tauxe, R. V (1999). Food-related Illness and Death in the United States. Emerging Infectious

Diseases 5(5): 110-116. Medline Plus. (2004). Ascariasis. ( November 15, 2004; http://www.

nlm.nih.gov/medlmeplus/ency/article/000628.htm). Miller, H. (2004). Prominent Physicians Group Issues Report Linking

Common Household and Industrial Chemicals to Behavioral and

Learning Disabilities: over 80% of Americans, Including Chil dren Have Evidence of One or More Harmful Pesticides in Their

Bodies. (October 5, 2004; http://www.preventingharm.org/pdf mediakit.pdf).

Morgan, J. A. T., Dejong, R. J., Snyder, S. D., Mkoji, G. M., Loker, E. S. (2001). Schistosoma mansoini and Biomphalaria: Past History and Future Trends. Parasitology 123: S211-S228.

Myers, N., and Kent, J. (2001). Food Hunger in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Environmentalist 21: 41-69.

National AIDS Treatment Advocacy Project (NATAP). (2003). Notes on Hepatitis C. National AIDS Treatment Advocacy Project Conference. Portland, Maine, August 21, 2003.

National Cancer Institute (NCI). (2004). The Majority of Cancers are Linked to the Environment. (November 17, 2004; http://www. cancer.gov/newscenter/benchmarks/page 1 ).

National Committee for Quality Assurance. (2001). Use of Appropri ate Medications for People with Asthma, National Committee for Quality Assurance. The State of Managed Care Quality, 2001. (November 17, 2004; http://www.ncqa.org/somc2001/asthma/ somc_2001 _asthma.html).

National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). (1999). What do Lyme Disease and Syphilis have in common? (March 4, 2005; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv/fcgi?rid=coffeebrk. chapter 14.).

Nchinda, T. C. (1998). Emerging infectious disease. (November 3, 2004; http://.wwrw.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol4no3/nchinda.htm.).

National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse (NDIC). (2002). Na tional Diabetes Statistics. NIDDK, National Institutes of Health. (November 30, 2004; http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/ statistics/#14.).

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (MAID). (1998). Sexually Transmitted Diseases Statistics, NIAID Fact Sheet: NIAID, Washington, DC, December 1998.

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). (2000). Antimicrobial Resistance, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. NIAID Fact Sheet: NIAID, 2000.

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). (2002a). Foodbome Diseases. (November 15, 2004; http://www. niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/foodbomedis.htm).

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). (2002b). Tuberculosis. (January 2, 2005; http://www.niaid.nih. go v/factsh eets/tb. htm. ).

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). (2004a). NIAID Research on Severe Acute Respiratory Syn drome (SARS). National Institutes Health, Washington, DC. (November 20, 2004; http://w\\jwVniaidnih.gov/fectsheets/sars.htm.).

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). (2004b). The Problem of Antibiotic Resistance, NIAID,

Washington, DC. National Institute of Health (NIH). (1994). Digestive Diseases in the

United States: Epidemiology and Impact. Publication No. 94 1447, 1994. (November 10, 2004; http://www.wrongdiagnosis. com/d/digest/basics.htm. ).

National Institute of Health (NIH). (2002). Cost of Cancer. American Cancer Society. (November 30, 2004; http://www.cancer.org/ docroot/MITcontent/MIT 3_2X_ Costs_of_ Cancer.asp).

Nord, M., Andrews, M., and Carlson, S. (2003). Household Food Security in the United States, 2002. Food Assistance and

<Q Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

666 Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668

Nutrition Research Report Number 35. US Department of Agriculture, October 2003.

National Science and Technology Council (NSTC). (1995). Infectious Diseases?A Global Health Threat. NSTC, Committee of International Science, Engineering, and Technology, Working Group on Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases. Washington, DC, Sept. 1995.

Nutristrategy. (2004). Costs of obesity. (November 11, 2004; http:// www.nutristrategy.com/econcost.htm).

Obasanjo, S. (2004). 350,000 kids delivered with mental impairment. Daily Champion (Lagos, Nigeria), October 29, 2004.

One World Health. (2004). Diarrheal Disease Fact Sheet. (November 12, 2004; http://ww.oneworldhealth.org/pdf/Diarrheal%20Disease% 20Facr%20sheetpdf).

Ourplanet. (2004). Population and Atmosphere. Atlas of Population and Environment, American Association for the Advancement of Science. (November 12, 2004; http://www.ourplanet.com.aaas/ pages/atmos03 .html).

Palaniandy, K., and Lucey, D. R. (2002). Shistosomiasis visit. (October 14, 2004; http://www.emedicine.eom//topic2017.htm.).

Palmer, M. (2000). Hepatitis Liver Disease, What You Need to Know. Avery Publishing Company, Garden City7 Park, NY.

Patz, J. A. (2002). A Human Disease Indicator for the Effects of Global Climate Change. (February 10, 2005; http://users.ipfw. edu/virtue//int/Patz%202002.pdf.).

Patz, J. A, Graczyk, T. K., Geller, N., and Vittor, A. Y. (2000). Effects of Environmental Change on Emerging Parasitic Diseases. International Journal of Parasitology 30: 1395-1405.

Pearce, F. (2002). Big City Killer: If Cigarettes Don't Get you the Traffic Pollution Will. New Scientist, March 9, 2002, p. 8.

Pelletier, D. L., Frongillo, E, A., Schroeder, D. G., and Habicht, J. P. (1994). A Methodology for Estimating the Contribution of

Malnutrition to Mortality in Developing in Developing Countries. Journal of Nutrition 124(10 Suppl): 2106S-2122S.

Pimentel, D. (1997). Techniques for Reducing Pesticides: Environ mental and Economic Benefits. Wiley, Chichester, UK.

Pimentel, D. (2005). Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides Primarily in the United States. Environment, Development and Sustainability 7: 229-252.

Pimentel, D., and Pimentel, M. (2003). World Population, Food, Natural Resources, and Survival. World Futures 59: 145-167.

Pimentel, D., Tort, M., D'Anna, L., Krawic, A., Berger, J., Rossman, J., Mugo, F., Doon, N., Shriberg, M., Howard, E, S., Lee, S., and Talbot, J. (1998). Ecology of Increasing Disease: Population Growth and Environmental Degradation. BioScience 48: 817? 826.

Pimentel, D., Lach, L., Zuniga, R., and Morrison, D. (2000). Environmental and Economic Costs of Non-indigenous Species in the United States. BioScience 50(1): 53-65.

Platt, A. E. (1996). Infecting Ourselves: How Environmental and Social Disruptions Trigger Disease, WorldWatch Institute, Wash ington, DC.

Population Resource. (2004). The Globalization of Infectious Disease. (October 2, 2004; http://www.prcdc.org/summaries/disease/disease. html).

Population Reference Bureau (PRB). (2005). Patterns of World Urbanization. (February 5, 2005; hnp:^www/prb.org/Content/ NavigatorMenu?PRB,/E-ducators/T-Iuman_Population/Urbanization2/ Pattems_ofWorldUbamzation.htm.).

Population Reference Bureau (PRB). (2006). World Population Data Sheet, Population Reference Bureau, Washington, DC.

Prier, M. D., and Solnick, J. V. (2000). Foodborne and Waterborne Infectious Diseases. Postgraduate Medicine 107(4): 44-53.

Rappole, J. H., Demckson, S. R., and Hubalek, Z. (2000). Migratory Birds and Spread of West Nile Virus in the Western Hemisphere. Emerging Infectious Diseases 6(4): 319-328.

Richter, E. D. (2002). Acute Human Pesticide Poisonings. In Pimentel, D. (ed), Encyclopedia of Pest Management, Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 3-6.

Robbins, R. H. (2000). The Political Economy of Twinkies: An Inquiry into the Real Cost of Things. (March 6, 2005; http:// faculty.plattsburgh.edu/richard.robbins/political_economy_of_ twinkies.).

Roth, F., Zinsstag, J., Orkkhon, D., Chimed-Ochir, G., Hutton, G., Cosivi, O., Canin, G., and Otte, J. (2003). Human Health Benefits from Livestock Vaccination for Brucellosis: Case Study. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 81(3): 51-62.

Sachs, J. D. (2000). The Horrific Disease Burden of the Poorest Countries?Claiming Millions of Lives Every Year and Billions of Days in Sickness?is Fundamental Barrier to Economic Improvement of the World's Poorest People. Bulletin Medicus

Mundi Nr. 79, 4 pp. Samet, J., Dominici, F., Curriero, F., Coursac, I., and Zeger, S. (2000).

Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality in 20 U.S. Cities 1987-1994. The New England Journal of Medicine 343(24): 1724-1749.

Sanborn, M. D., Coale, D., Ablesohn, A., and Weir, E. (2002). Identifying and managing adverse environmental health effects: 4. Pesticides. Canadian Medical Association Journal 166: 1431? 1436.

Sandier, R. S., Everhart, J. E., Donowitz, M., Adams, E., Cronin, K., Goodman, C, Gemmen, E., Shah, S., Avdic, A., and Rubin, R. (2002). The Burden of Selected Digestive Diseases in the United States. Gastroenterology 122(5): 1500-1511.

Seager, J. (1995). The New State of the Earth Atlas. Simon & Shuster, New York.

Sharpe, R. M., and Irvine, D. S. (2004). How Strong is the Evidence of a Link Between Environmental Chemicals and Adverse Effects on Human Reproductive Health? British Medical Journal 328(7437): 447-451.

Shapiro, A. (2004). DDT Still Has a Role in the Fight Against Malaria. Nature 432: 439.

Shepard, S., Hinfey, P., Shoff, W. (2004). Dengue Fever. (November 15, 2004; http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic528.htm.).

Shettler T, Stein J, Reich F, Valenti M. 2000. In Harm's Way?toxic Threats to Child Development. (October 5, 2004; http://www. foxriverwatch. com/toxic_cheild_pcbs. html. ).

Snow, R. W., Guerra, C. A., Noor, A. M., Myint, H. Y., and Hay, S. I. (2005). The Global Distribution of Clinical Episodes o? Plasmo dium falciparum Malaria. Nature 434(7030): 214-217.

SoRelle, R. (2004). Avoid the Bum: Prevent Skin Cancer. Baylor College of Medicine. (November 17, 2004; http://www.bcmf?ndings.net/ voll/is5/03may ii2.htm.).

S tailings, J. H. (1964). Phosphorus and Water Pollution. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 22: 228-231.

Stanford. (2004). Stanford Researcher Shows Flu Shot Benefits Outweigh Costs in Healthy Young Adults. (October 19, 2004; http://www.mednews.stanford.edu.).

Stephensen, C. B. (2001). Vitamin A, Infection, and Immune Function. Annual Review of Nutrition 21: 167-192.

(TDR) Research and Training in Tropical Diseases. (2004). Schisto somiasis. (September 6, 04; http://www7wh0.Int/tdr/dw/ schisto2004.htm.).

The Economist. (2004). China's Environment: WiW Pollution Under mine Economic Growth? The Economist, August 21, 2004.

Thornton, J. W., McAlly, M., and Houlihan, J. (2002). Biomonitor ing of Industrial Pollutants: Health and Policy Implications of the Chemical Body Burden. Public Health Reports 117: 315? 323.

Thu, K. M. (2000). Neighbor Health and Large Scale Swine Production. (October 12, 2004; http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/ dOO 1701 -dOO 1800/d001764/dOO 1764.pdf).

? Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668 667

Thu, K. M. (2002). Public Health Concerns for Neighbors of Large scale Swine Production Operations. Journal of Agriculture Safety and Health 8(2): 175-184.

Tyree, J. S. (2006). Fish Mercury Spawns Questions. (March 28, 2007; http://www.pryordailytimes.com/business/cnhinsenvironment_ story_0...030.html?keyword=topstory).

UCS (2001). 70 Percent of all Antibiotics Given to Healthy Livestock, Press Release. Union of Concerned Scientists. Washington, DC, 8 January 2001.

(UCS) Union of Concerned Scientists. (2004). Clean Vehicles. (February 10, 2005; http://ww\v^ucsusa.oig/clean_vehicle&/?rchive/page.cfm? page?D-207.).

(UNAIDS) Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS. (2004). 2004 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. (February 21, 2005; http:// www.unaids.org.).

(UNEP) United Nations Environmental Programme. (2005). The Global Environment Outlook Year Book 2004/2005. (February 25, 2005; http://www.unep.org.).

(UNESCO) United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2004a). Water for People, Water for Life. The United Nations Water Development Report, World Water Assessment Programme. (October 18, 2004; http://unescodoc. org/images/0012/00129/12955e.pdf:).

(UNESCO) United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2004b). Tobacco or health. Ad hoc Inter-Agency Task Force on Tobacco Control. (February 10, 2005; http://www. un.org/esa/coordination/ecosoc/Tobacco.Rpt.2004.pdf.).

United Nations. (2001). Population, Environment, and Development: The Concise Report. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2001), New York. (February 12, 2005; http:// www.un.org/esa/population/publications/concise2001 /C2001 English. pdt).

United Nations. (2003). Critical importance of water issues for the least developed countries, A report from the UN High Commis sion on LDCs. (April 5, 2005; http://www.un.org/special-rep/ ohrlls/ohrlls/Waterissiiesreport.pdf).

United Nations. (2004). Iodine deficiency, a main cause of mental disabilities, will be eliminated. (November 17, 2004; http://www. vwcdexpo.com/newsread. cfm?nid=n748 8 903. ).

US Census Bureau (USCB). (2003). Statistical Abstract of the United States 2002. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

US Census Bureau (USCB). (2004). Statistical Abstract of the United States 2003. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). (2002). Economics of Foodborne Disease: E. coli, Economic Research Service. 1 Feb. 2002. (November 17, 2004; http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/ FoodbomeDisease/ecoli/).

US Health and Human Services. (2002). Costs of Diseases Related to Substance Abuse. US Department of Health and Human Services, 3 July 2002. (November 10, 2004; http://pamways urses.samhsa.gov/ aaap/aaap8 pg20.htm).

Van Loveren, H., Steerenbergy, A., and Vos, J. G. (1995). Early Detection of Immunotoxicity: From Animal Studies to Human Biomonitoring. Toxicology Letters 77: 73-80.

Von Schimding, Y, Bruce, N., Smith, K., Ezzati, M., Lvovsky, K., and Ballard-Tremeer, G. (2000). Addressing the Impact of Household Energy: Indoor Pollution on the Health of the Poor, WHO/USAID Conference for Commission on Macroeconomics and Health in Washington, DC, May, 2000.

Vosters, H. (2003). Partial chronology of Union Carbide's Bhopal disaster. 28 March, 2007; http://www.coipwatch.org/article.php? id=6768).

Walker, K. R., Ricciardone, M. D., and Jensen, J. (2003). Developing an International Consensus on DDT: A Balance of Environmen tal Protection and Disease Control. International Journal of

Hygiene and Environmental Health 206(4-5): 423-435.

Wamae, C. N., and Mwanza, J. (2000). Palmar pallor as an indicator for anthelminthic treatment among ill children aged 2-4 years? Western Kenya, 1998. Journal American Medical Association 283(22): 2925-2926.

Weiss, R. A., and McMichael, A. J. (2004). Social and Environmental Risk Factors in the Emergence of Infectious Diseases. Nature Medicine 10: S70-S76.

Whitty, C. J. M., Allan, R., Wiseman, V., Och?la, S., Nakyanzi Mugisha, M. V., Vonhm, B., Mwita, M., Miaka, C, Oloo, A., Premji, Z., Burgess, C, and Mutabingwa, T. K. (2004). Averting a Malaria Disaster in Africa?Where Does the Buck Stop? Bulletin of the World Health Organization 82: 381-384.

Wrorld Health Organization (WHO). (1999). Principles and Methods for Assessing Allergic Hypersensitization Associated with Expo sure to Chemicals. Environmental Health Criteria, World Health Organization, Geneva.

World Health Organization (WHO). (2000a). Lymphatic Filiariasis Factsheet. (November 15, 2004; http://www.who.int/mediacentre/ tactsheets/fsl02/en/).

World Health Organization (WHO). (2000b). Blindness: vision 2020? control of major blinding diseases and disorders. (November 15, 2004; http://vvww.who.int/mediacentTe/factsheets/fs214/en/).

World Health Organization (WHO). (2000c). Fact Sheet No. 206. Bronchial Asthma, Wrorld Health Organization, Geneva.

World Health Organization (WHO). (2001). Global prevalence of selected curable sexually transmitted diseases. (January 3, 2005; http ://www. who. int//emc-documents/STIs/docs/whocdscsredc200110. pdf).

World Health Organization (WHO). (2002a). Prevention and Control of Schistosomiasis and Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis, Report of a WHO Expert Committee, WHO Tech Rep Ser no.912, World Health Organization, Geneva.

Wrorld Health Organization (WHO). (2002b). Scaling up the response to infectious diseases: a way out of poverty. (September 3, 2003; http:////.w7ho.int/infectious-disease-report'/2002/pdf\'ersion/ ChOIntroduction .pdf. ).

WHO (2002c). Reducing Risks, Promoting Life. World Health Report, World Health Organization, Geneva.

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2002d). Food-Borne Diseases Emerging, Fact Sheet NI24, World Health Organization, Geneva.

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2002e). Foodborne Diseases. Fact Sheet 237. (November 20, 2004; http://www.who.int/ mediacentre/factsheets/fs237/en/).

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2003a). Influenza. (September 22, 2004; http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs211/en/ print, html.).

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2003b). Consultative Meeting to Review Evidence and Research Priorities in the Management of ART, World Health Organization, Geneva.

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2003c). Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses. (November 26, 2004; http://wwrw.who.int/globalchange/climate/en/ccSCREEN.pdf.).

World Health Organization (WHO). (2003d). Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals. (January 3, 2005; http://www.who.mt/vaccines/ en/typhoid. sh tml. ).

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2003e). Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses. In McMichael, A. J., Campbell-Lendrum, D. H., Corvalan, C. F., Ebi, K. L., Githeko, A., Woodward, J. D. (eds.), World Health Organization, Geneva.

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2004a). World Health Report. (October 1, 2004; http://www.who.int/whr/2004/).

(WHO) World Health Organization. 2004b. Wrong Diagnosis. WrongDiagnosisTM. Copyright at 2000-2004 Adviware Pty Ltd. Last updated 27 August 2004. (September 21, 2004; http:// www. wrrongdi agnosis, com).

<? Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

668 Hum Ecol (2007) 35:653-668

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2004c). Tuberculosis: Infection and Transmission. Fact Sheet. (November 3, 2004; http://www. who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs 104/en/).

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2004d). Facts and Figures and Causes of Cancer. (March 15, 2005; http://www.who.int/entity/ cancer/media/en/7 8 8 .pdf. ).

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2004e). Impact of Plague. (November 15, 2004; http://www.who.int/csr/disease/plague/impacl/en/).

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2004f). US $1.5 to S2.5 Billion Needed Annually to Prevent and Control Malaria in Africa, World Health Organization Press Release, Regional Office for Africa Brazzaville, Geneva. 2 Nov. 2004. (November 11, 2004; http://allafrica.com/stories/200411020379.html.).

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2004g). Battling Iron Deficiency Anemia. (November 20, 2004; http://www/who.int/nut/ida.htm.).

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2004h). Air Pollution. (February 10, 2005; http://ww^who.int/ennty/heca/m^ pdf).

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2005a). Cumulative Number of Confirmed Human Cases of Avian Influenza A/(H%N1) since 28 January 2004. (February 15, 2005; http://Svwjw.who.int/csr/disease/ aviaii_influenza/country/case_table_2005_02_02/en/.).

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2005b). Global Tobacco Treaty Enters into Force with 57 Countries Committed. Press Release.

24 February 2005, World Health Organization, Geneva, World Health Organization Framework Convention.

(WHO) World Health Organization. (2005c). World Health Report on Infectious Diseases, Removing the Obstacles to Healthy Devel opment, World Health Organization, Geneva.

World Health Organization and the United Nations Environmental Programme (WHO/UNEP). (1990). Public Health Impact of Pesticides Used in Agriculture, WHO/UNEP Working Group, Geneva, World Health Organization.

World Health Organization and the United Nations Environmental Programme (WHO/UNEP). (1992). Urban Air Pollution in

Megacities of the World. Published on behalf of World Health Organization and the United Nations Environmental Programme, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK.

(WTO) World Resources Institute. (1998). Environmental Change and Human Health. Joint publication of the World Resources Institute, United Nations Environmental Programme, United

Nations Development Programme, and the World Bank. World Bank. (1993). Hidden Hunger II - Micronutrient Malnutrition.

Human Resources Development and Operations Policy. World Bank, Washington, DC.

Zeeman, M., Smrchek, J., Nabholdz, J., and Rodier, D. (1996). U.S. EPA/OPPT and Sediments: Screening New and Existing Chem icals for Potential Environmental Effects. Environmental Protec tion Agency, Washington, DC, Office of Pollution, Prevention and Toxics.

Zimmerman, T, Lawrence, S. V, Palmer, B. (1996). China Takes a Deep Breath. U.S. News & World Report 121(10): 36-39.

4y Springer

This content downloaded from 128.195.64.2 on Tue, 13 Dec 2016 06:41:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms