United States history 2 paper

SPIRITUALITY AS PRESENTED IN VARIOUS RELIGIOUS CONTEXTS

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Upanishad is one of the founding book of Hinduism. Not only that, it is mostly the source of spiritualism and mysticism in the eastern part of the world. A book despite being 300-700 B.C old, is still revered by many people in the east as well as in the west. I have always doubted the existence of God, but always felt that there is a spiritual aspect of life. All the world religions as they are now have lots of superstitions that have one way or the other been debunked by science. For example Christianity says that the earth and everything in it was made by God in six days, but science has already proved that earth is billions of years old.

Similarly, Hinduism also has many rituals and beliefs that are generally baseless. Even Buddhism has evolved from its basic root. So, salvation (I don’t necessarily believe one can attain it) to me through world religion, as it is now, is not possible. Upanishads, however is filled with spiritual teachings that are untouched and pristine, ideas that developed in early stages of human civilization and that have captivated people for centuries ahead. Even though they might not be true, it does have some interesting things. So, I guess this is my attempt to further understand the spiritual aspect part of my life or to determine if there is any spiritual aspect of my life at all?

The Upanishads Religious Philosophy

The Hindu spiritualism is characterized by a diversity of worldviews. Some Upanishads have been considered monistic while others, for instance Katha Upanishad, have been deemed dualistic.[footnoteRef:1][footnoteRef:2] I find that the Maitri is one of the Upanishads who are more inclined towards dualism. As a result, they have a strong foundation in the classical Yoga and Samkhya schools of Hinduism. This is in contrast to the non-dualistic Upanishads who have a diversity of ideas. [1: Ariel Glucklich, The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008), 70. ] [2: Swami Paramananda, The Upanishads (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Divinity School, 1919), 22.]

Ever since they first appeared, the Upanishads have subjugated the Indian philosophy, life, and religion with their teachings. Personally, I have developed a lot of respect, mainly not because they are exposed (Shruti), but due to the fact that they have an inspiring way of presenting their ideas. Many people consider Upanishads as discourses of Brahman knowledge, which is deemed to be the knowledge of ultimate hidden reality. Further, the Upanishads’ presentation of philosophy postulates that if a person wants to seek the truth, he/she has to strictly use his/her effort. According to Radhakrishnan in Upanishads,(Can you find a way to present this idea without mentioning the writer or the book’s name and same for every other sentence) knowledge is an avenue to freedom. I also believe so, and that philosophy is a way of pursuing wisdom by a way of life.[footnoteRef:3] [3: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads (Beltsville, Maryland: George Allen & Co., 1951), 24.]

In Upanishads, I find several sections with texts which have been founded on the Indian traditional teachings. For instance, the texts have one of the oldest known affirmation that Ahimsa or non-violence is an ethical principle. Precisely, this precept is included in Chandogya Upanishad.[footnoteRef:4] Upanishad texts have also helped me familiarize myself with several other ethical principles such as charity, self-restraint (temperance), truthfulness, compassion, and non-hypocrisy, among others. Equally, the Karma creed is presented in one of the earliest Upanishads, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.[footnoteRef:5] [4: Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Part 1 (Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980), 114-115.] [5: Herman Wayne Tull, The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual (SUNY Series in Hindu Studies. Albany, N Y: State University of New York Press, 1989.), 28.]

The Vedas hymns underscore rituals while the Brahmanas serve as a ritual guide for those rituals. However, I like the fact that the Upanishad spirit is integrally opposed to rituals. One particular thing that I like about the older Upanishads is their increasingly intense attacks on those practicing rituals. According to them, any individual worshipping religion other than the self is referred to as the animal of the gods.

One of the Upanishads (Kaushitaki Upanishad) emphasizes that rituals such as Agnihotram, which is classified under the category commonly referred to as the “external rituals”, should be eliminated and replaced with the ritual of introspection or inner Agnihotram. Further, Upanishads assert that people should pursue knowledge but not rituals. I have a generally negative attitude towards rituals and this has been confirmed by Upanishads. I have always opposed the act of performing rituals due to the fact that people are promised false benefits and misled into offering sacrifices through rituals, pious works and oblations.

My opinion is just like Mundaka Upanishad’s assertion that the practice of rituals is frail and foolish. Those who follow and practice it are spiritually weak and without vision because do not make any difference in an individual’s life, now or in death. Performing rituals is likened to when a blind man is leading fellow blind men. This is a sign of vanity and lack of knowledge, an ignorance inertia similar to that of children. Several Upanishads have described the practice of rituals as an exercise in futility and that it is useless since it achieves nothing beneficial.

I don’t see an explicit opposition to rituals in the oldest Upanishads. Once in a while, they make rituals symbolic and often give it a philosophical implication. For instance, Brihadaranyaka believes that the ritual of horse-sacrifice as a symbol that the over-lordship of the earth can be acquired by giving a horse as a sacrifice. Further, the author of this Upanishad text believes that spiritual freedom can only be attained by rejecting the universe which is perceived in a horse’s image.[footnoteRef:6] [6: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, History Of Western And Eastern Philosophy (Crows Nest, Australia: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1956) ]

Despite my doubt in the existence of God, I have always felt that there exists a spiritual aspect of life. This aspect is ever-present, and is with or around each and every human being or any living thing. Upanishad gods are known to be all-powerful, omnipresent, and an inmost being for everybody and all living creatures. According to these texts, having a close and personal relationship with God gives one peace and freedom both in this life and the life after death.

Going through the Upanishad texts, I have been able to identify two concepts that are in line with my way of thinking about the issue of religion and spirituality. These are the Atman (also mostly referred to as the individual self) and the Brahman (commonly known as the ultimate reality). Brahman is the term that is used to describe the utmost existence or outright reality. It is considered to be the substantial, formal, efficient, and the cause of all that is in existence.

Brahman is the genderless, universal, eternal truth, endless, and eternal truth and delight that never changes. However, Brahman is the reason why all changes occur. It is described as the boundless source, material, core, and the purpose of all what that is in existence, established or otherwise. Brahman is the concept upon which the universe has developed and established. I have always believed in the existence of things, starting from the universe and all that is within it. The idea is scientifically proven and also agrees with spiritual teachings.6

It is not easy or logical to ignore the existence of God. Even if people are convinced to believe that the concept that God exists does not have any reality in it and is just an idea, what forms the idea and endeavors to realize it is in itself a believe in God. Individuals’ sense of lack, yearning for perfection, desire for the perfect, and strive to achieve the consciousness of infinity, are the causes of divine exposure. These manifests themselves to some extent in all human beings.6

The fact that all human beings seek God is a clear indication and proof that we need Him and life is meaningless without Him. Thus, in addition to being the source of life, God himself is life and recognizing this fact brings spiritual consciousness.6

All along, I have always believed that people, animals, and even plants have an inner self, also known as the soul. This is called atman and is very vital in Upanishad sacred texts. I believe that the deepest core of any individual is the soul or self and not the physical body, the ego, or the mind. The soul, self or atman is the divine essence in all beings. It is their actual innermost essential being and is external and unchanging. Through one’s soul or self, he/she is able to experience his or her deepest level of existence.[footnoteRef:7] [7: Alice Bailey, The Soul and Its Mechanism (New York, NY: Lucis Publishing Companies, 1930), 82-83]

In my view, atman is among the most dominant topics discussed in Upanishad sacred texts. It can be observed that they convey two themes that are somewhat divergent and different. Some people are of the opinion that Brahman and atman are similar while others suggest that atman is a component of Brahman and that the two are not similar. This is an ancient debate and has given rise to dual and non-dual theories in Hinduism.

The two theories were regarded as different most especially during times of ignorance. However, in the innermost level and in the context of self-realization, Brahman and atman are two similar theories and are no different from each other. The concept stemming from the Upanishads regarding the similarity these two theories is one of the greatest contributions which have been made in the philosophy of the world.[footnoteRef:8] [8: Charles R. Lanman, The Outlook, Volume 56 (New York, NY: Outlook Company, 1897), 790. ]

Reading through Eastern Religion and Western Thought by Radhakrishnan(here too and instead include a foot note), I learn that in Hinduism, a rationalistic approach regarding religion is adopted. Here, the facts about human life are studied in a scientific manner. These includes the observable facts, the successes and conquests of people slumbering in what is known as spiritual oblivion. The approach also includes life’s innermost facts. Hinduism also teaches that religion is not so much of a revelation so that it can be attained by individuals.[footnoteRef:9] [9: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religion and Western Thought (Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press, 1940), 20-21 ]

The world’s religions can be differentiated into those that accentuate experience and those insist on the object. The second category of religions is characterized by an attitude of faith and behavior that is directed towards an external power. On the other hand, the first category of religions represents an experience to which people attach absolute value. The Buddhist and Hindu religions fall under this category.

I concur with these religions’ belief that religion is salvation. It can be described as more of a transforming encounter than a belief of God. Actual religion can prevail in the absence of definite notion of the deity. However, it cannot occur without the distinction between the profane and the spiritual, the secular and the sacred.9

Religion exists even in the most primitive cultures. The characteristic phenomenon in any religion, whether primitive or otherwise, is magic. It is good to note that religion does not necessarily have to be characterized by a belief in God. The most important thing in many theistic religious systems is the power of a god to bring transformation in humans rather than the actual existence of such a god.

The followers of Buddha aim at attaining experience, enlightenment and perfection. Some religious systems within the Hindu religion like the Jaina and Samkhya do not believe in the existence of God. However, they uphold the veracity of the spiritual consciousness. Some other theists such as the Ramanuja believe that God can be known only through spiritual consciousness.9

One important thing that I have observed about Hinduism religions, whatever the denomination, is that they seem to agree that salvation is the only way of attaining an individual’s true status. Beliefs and behavior, ceremonies and rites, dogma and authorities, all are assigned an inferior place compared to the art of mindful self-discovery as well as contact with the godly. This uniqueness of the Hindu religion was witnessed even by the ancients. Some religious philosophers interested in the Hindu religion have even noted that while basically everyone wishes to live near God, it is only the Hindus who ensure that this happens2.

Confessing God’s existence is equivalent to saying that spiritual experience is achievable. The prospect of such experience comprises the most irrefutable proof that God’s veracity. The assurance that God actually exists is an accurate content of the divine experience. All other evidences regarding the existence of God can be seen from the perspective of definition and the language used. God’s facts are not dependent on sheer human authority or proof from alleged extraordinary happenings.2

The scripture’s authority, church traditions, or the justifications of theology scholars who claim but are not able to prove, cannot convince many scholars who depend on science and reason. Researchers who stand up to the fact of divine experience, which is basically positive, rely on factual and scientifically provable information to make conclusions regarding the question of spirituality. Theologies can be easily dismissed and disputed but facts cannot be denied.9

Whereas consciousness is the fact, the philosophy of truth is an inference. There is a distinction between contact/connection with the truth and the opinion about it. Similarly, there is a difference between belief in God and the mystery of divinity or godliness. It is quite possible for a person to know a lot in religion but yet lack in the spirit of religious conviction. According to the Hindu philosophers, it is dangerous to be rationalistically self-sufficient. This could be the reason why such thinkers believed that the learned are at more risk than those who are not.

Hindu theorists have suggested two ways through which we possibly mislead ourselves. These are: the simple way through which the uneducated see the world just as it is and the painstaking way through which the learned see the same world by establishing the reality of naturalism. In doing so, the educated are often deceived by the definite. The two ways successfully shut us away from the truth of our existence.9

The process of self-discovery does not result from intellectual examination but rather on the realization of human integrity achieved by a total mastery of nature. The ancient belief and reason that if we think rightly, then we will act properly is not true. Thus, acting rightly needs more than thinking.9

There are many religious contexts that I have learnt from Swami Vivekananda( same here and below don’t mention writer’s name instead foot note) regarding the Hindu religion and the belief about creation. In volume one of his books, Vivekananda(here too)writes that Vedas is the revelation through which the Hindus have received their religion. They maintain that the Vedas do not have a beginning or the end.[footnoteRef:10] This means that the collection of spiritual decrees discovered by various individuals in different times were in existence before they were discovered and will ultimately remain even if everybody forgets about them. [10: Swami Vivekananda, Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Volume 1 (Chicago: 1893), 8-15.]

Those who discovered religious laws in Hindu are commonly referred to as Rishis and we normally regard them as the most perfect things. Vivekananda suggests that some of the greatest Rishis were women. Here, he is trying to imply that the religious laws may not have and end but they definitely have a beginning. Reading the Vedas, I learn that creation has neither beginning nor end. According to science, cosmic energy always sums up to the same total. This attracts the question; if nothing existed at some point, there where was all this energy manifested?

It is commonly argued that all this energy was in potential form in God. This means that God is sometimes potential and other times kinetic, thus making Him changeable. Anything that is changeable is a compound and every compound undergoes change and can be destroyed at some point in time.10 This argument would lead to the absurd conclusion that God can be destroyed. Since this can never happen, it is logical to conclude that there was not time when there existed no creation.

I believe that the idea of a body is a combination of material substances, and that I am not the body, but rather I am the spirit that resides within the body. The body will die, but the spirit will persist forever. I also have a past, my soul was never created, since, according to its definition, creation means a combination, meaning that it will be dissolved or will come to an end at some point in time. Thus, since the soul was not created, it will not die.10 Some individuals are born with more privileges than others, for instance good health, perfect body, mental strength, and have all their needs supplied. However, other individuals are born hopeless, some with one or more body parts missing, and others are born with mental challenges or weaknesses, and only drag on an inferior existence.

Bibliography

Bailey, Alice. 1930. The Soul and Its Mechanism. New York, NY: Lucis Publishing Companies.

Deussen, Paul. 1980. Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Part 1. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass.

Glucklich, Ariel. 2008. The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Lanman, Charles R. 1897. The Outlook, Volume 56. New York, NY: Outlook Company.

Paramananda, Swami. 1919. The Upanishads. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Divinity School.

Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli. 1940. Eastern Religion and Western Thought. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press.

—. 1956. History of Western and Eastern Philosophy. Crow’s Nest, Australia: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.

—. 1951. The Principal Upanishads. Beltsville, Maryland: George Allen & Co.

Tull, Herman Wayne. 1989. The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual. Albany, N Y: State University of New York Press.

Vivekananda, Swami. 1893. Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Volume 1 . Chicago.