Essay for 6 to 7 pages

Philosophical Theories

E thical Theory:        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ixIoDYVfKA0   Patrick Lin  Self Driving Cars

I.   Modern ethical theories fall under 2 broad categories: 

1. teleologicalgoal end.  The rightness or wrongness of an action depends on whether it brings about the end in question (e.g. happiness) and

2. deontological  actions are intrinsically right or wrong and it does not depend on the consequences.  This stresses duty and obligation (Kant).  p. 60 in EP- overview

3. Difference between ethicists and moralists  p. 42 Tavani

·      Utilitarianism:   Mill and Bentham:  Ethics of Consequence in your book.  P. 48. [Tavani p 53]  the end is the greatest good for the greatest number. A moral calculus:  you add up the benefits and the costs for ALL the stakeholders.

a.       For utilitarians decisions are made on a strict cost/benefit analysis.  Each alternative to a particular scenario is evaluated in terms of both direct and indirect costs and benefits.  Based on this analysis, the one that produces the greatest net benefits for the widest community is the choice.

Mill's principle of utility: People desire happiness for its own sake:  It is an intrinsic good.

Social Utility:  (social usefulness of an action) measured by the amount of happiness it produces. 

                 *  Act Utilitarianism:  An action is right or wrong to the extent that it increases (or 

                   decreases) the total happiness of the affected parties (quinn p.74)

                 * Rule Utilitarianism:  We ought to follow those moral rules which if followed

                    by everyone, will lead to the greatest increase in total happiness (Quinn, p. 79)

                 *  "A rule untilitarian applies the principle of utility to moral rules, while the act

                    utilitarian applies it to individual moral actions."(Quinn, p. 79)

b.       Difficulties :  hard to objectively calculate the diffuse consequences of an action and to weigh them.

  i. Could be used to inflict pain on a small # of people for the sake or the benefits of the majority.

                                       ii. There are no intrinsically unjust or immoral acts and this poses a problem when human rights conflict with utility.

                                      iii. This theory lacks sensitivity to justice and human rights. p. 55   scenario 2-3

                                iv. We are using a single scale to measure different kinds of consequences.  We have to put things in the same units to add them up.

·       Moral Duty (Kant) Deontology Tavani p. 56

.     Duty based, deontological framework

.    Consequences are morally irrelevant.   Actions have moral worth only when they are done for the sake of duty.

                                       i. Our duty is simple:  follow the moral law which must be rational and universal.  Expressed as the  Categorical Imperative:  I should never act except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become a universal moral law.  Categorical means no exceptions.---moral compass for a consistent correct course of action. Tavani p. 58 eg  scenario 2-4   p. 60 Prima facie duties are absolute.  Apply to all without exception.  

                                * Categorial Imperative (first formulation)  Act only from moral rules that you

                                                    can at the same time will to be universal moral laws. (Quinn, p. 70)

·  ii. Perform only those actions that can be universalized.

·  iii.  Kant believed that there are rational constraints on all we do.

 iv. Suggests the following question:  what  if everyone were doing what you were doing?

                                * Categorigal Imperative (second formulation)  Act so that you always treat both yourself and others as ends in themselves, and never only as a

                                                        means to an end. (Quinn, p. 70)

                                     v. Kant believes that we cannot exploit other human beings and treat them exclusively as a means to our ends or purposes.                                              

One's projects cannot supercede the worth of other human beings.  Notion of respect for others who are free and rational persons.

vi.Difficulties::  very rigid-no exceptions to moral laws.  Lying is always wrong even if you do it to save a life.                                                                  p. 60  Conflicting duties

 vii.      EP  p. 48 ethics of principle  p. 56

·       Aristotle:  Virtue Ethics     character based.  Descriptive

a.       Flourishing depends on knowing  who you are. 

b.      Human flourishing  happiness. Rules get in the way of kindness and generosity. E.g. Huck Finn sees his duty to turn in Jim the runaway slave.  But, his deeper moral action grows out of his character---feeling of friendship.

.    Moral decisions not made in a vacuum.  Not enough to do something out of obligation.  Must do it for the right reason in the right time and place.

.      What you want to do should be the same as what you do.  Integration of desires and actions from the inner resources of good character.

.       Develop skills.  Life is an apprenticeship of learning to be moral.  Our actions are integrated into our lives.  Wanting to be a ballerina doesn?t make you one.

.     Making choices doesn?t make them good choices.  Some things have more significance than others.  Look at your actions against some moral horizon. 

g.       Choose moral mentors.  Who are your heroes?  Why?

h.       Find fulfillment in living the good life.  Have you lived the well-lived life? You can only tell after you are dead.  What do you want to be known for? 

i.       Difficulties:  limited to polis;  what are the virtues?

j.       If Aristotle Were a Computing Professional

1.    1.  What is the "computer sprawl" to which James Moor refers in this article?  How does it affect computer ethics?

2.  What is the ethics gap and what causes it?

3.  What would Aristotle admire about computer technology? 

Ethics of Purpose:  EP p.  54-55  What should the agent become? Tavani p. 64-65

k.      Look at Tavani chart p. 67

·    Contract Rights    p. 57-58 EP p. 61 Tavani

a.       Moral issues viewed from the viewpoint of what human rights might be at stake.

                                                                           i.      A right is a claim to something.

·      Negative rights  mean that one is free from external interference in one?s affairs?right to free speech, property, privacy.  Because we have a right to privacy within home, state can?t arbitrarily tap our phone.

·        Positive Rights -requires that the holder of this right be provided with what he/she needs to pursue it.  E.g. right to education?State has a duty to educate children through grade 12.  If everyone had a right to the Internet, it would be the duty of the governmentt to provide it.

d.      Rights have a philosophical basis.

·                                                                            i.      Locke, Rousseau and John Rawls claim that we have basic rights by virtue of an implicit social contract between individual and society.

·                                                                          ii.      We are guaranteed rights as long as we obey the laws and regulations of civil society.

·                                                                         iii.      Rights-based approach to ethics focuses on the need to respect an individual's legal, moral and contractual rights as the basis of justice and fairness.

e.        Difficulties:   no criteria for resolving disputes when rights are in conflict.  What rights take priority?  Only minimalist morality.  Behave morally only when a social contract exists.  Do no harm as opposed to doing good.  (E.g. Kitty Genovese Tavani  p.62)

f

. Rawls:  Principles of Justice :  Blindfold of Justice

1.     First principle of justice states that each person may have a fully adequate number of rights and liberties as long everyone else has a claim to the same ones:  e.g. freedom of thought, freedom of speech, right to own property etc.

1.   Second principle acknowledges that there are social and economic inequities.  That is ok as long as everyone has a fair and equal opportunity to assume these positions.  The second part is called the difference principle:  to justify a social or economic inequality is to show that the overall effect provides the most benefit to the least advantaged in society.  e.g. graduated income tax. 

1.

.    Natural Rights: 

2.     How firm is the social contract? Is there another way to look at rights?

2.     Natural Rights theorists argue that human beings have fundamental natural rights grounded in their human nature.

2.        Human flourishing is the final goal of existence.   One's ultimate goal is to realize his/her potential as a human person to the fullest extent possible.

d.      So we ask if policies foster and respect human well-being and and contribute to human flourishing.  St Thomas Acquinas and Finnis.

·     Aquinas had 7 irreducible premoral goods that are the key to flourishing: life and health, knowledge, play, aesthetic experience, friendship, religion and practical reasonableness that includes autonomy.

·      A requirement of practical reasonableness is that it is unreasonable to choose directly against any basic value.

·     Finnis critics question how he comes up with the list of premoral goods.  Says he needs an underlying ontology.

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. Modern Theory  James Moor  Just Consequentialism -- based on consequentialism

3.      Combines consequences of actions with duties, rights and justice.

3.      Want an ethical theory that supports:

                                        i.      Do no harm

                                        ii.      Supports justice and rights

                                        iii.      Want others to keep promises and fulfill obligations

                                                                         How do we decide what to do? 

         

2 stage process

·       deliberation stage: consider the various possible policies for action from an impartial point of view.   ?what is the rule governing the situation irrespective of who you are or what role you play in the situation: veil of ignorance or blindfold of justice

·     selection stage:    If a policy passes the impartiality test then we need to weigh the good and bad consequences of the remaining policies?which one is best and try to rank them

a.       we may disagree on the ranking but eventually some consensus may be reached.      EP  Comparison chart    p. 60   P. 66-69  Examples of using the theories to support your proposal.

 Quinn, M (2006) Ethics for the Information Age, 2nd ed.  Boston:  Addison Wesley Publishers.