Thesis

2.1.1 Role theory

Role theory was postulated by Ralph Linton, an American Anthropologist, in the 1930s (Gordon, 1998). The theory was a means for analyzing social system, in which, roles were conceived as the dynamic aspets of societal recognized social positions or status. It is believed that individuals generally have many roles which they are expected to perform. Role theory suggests that within social settings, various social structures are formed (e.g., families, communities, work) that require various roles that individuals fulfill (Parsons & Shils, 1951). With each social role, there are certain duties, rights, norms, and behaviours expected (Biddle, 1986). Involvement in multiple roles (e.g., spouse, mother, father, manager, and worker) can lead to what is sometimes referred to as role conflict, role strain (Barnett & Baruch, 1985; Kopelman, Greenhaus, Connolly, & Thomas, 1983), or role overload (Baruch & Barnett, 1986). Role conflict occurs when a person is unable to fulfill the responsibilities within each of their roles. This perceived “conflict” can be a result of external constraints prohibiting an individual from fulfilling his multiple role responsibilities (Barnett & Baruch, 1985; Coverman, 1989; Kopelman et al., 1983).

Role strain has been defined by Goode (1960) as “felt difficulty in performing role obligations.” Role overload is often experienced as a result of having too little time to fulfill various role demands (Barnett & Baruch, 1985). Work-role conflict theory by Kahn, Wolfe, Ouinn, Snoek & Rosenthel (1964) suggests that as a result of multiple role (work and non-work) responsibilities, a conflict (work-family conflict) may be experienced when a worker is unable to fulfill various role obligations. These conflicts may be experienced either because the time available to fulfill one role obligation makes it difficult to fulfill other role obligations or because engagement in one role depletes energy and makes it difficult to meet other role obligations. In other words, limited resources in terms of time and energy to meet various role obligations, result in the experiences of time-based or strain-based work-family conflict. Some researchers posit that engaging in multiple roles may leave insufficient time to fulfill the various demands and responsibilities inherent to an individual’s roles, resulting in a depletion of time and energy (Coverman, 1989).

Role conflict and role overload have been shown to have negative effects on psychological well-being, job satisfaction, and marital satisfaction (Coverman, 1989). Competing demands may require additional time, energy, and resources, and thus can result in the experiences of strain and conflict, if the individual does not have enough resources to meet multiple demands (Goode, 1960). Using role theory, Goode (1960) developed the scarcity hypothesis to understand the conflict. The scarcity hypothesis states that people have limited time, energy, and resources. Involvement in multiple roles means responding to multiple role obligations. As such, accomplishing various role responsibilities requires time, energy, and various types of resources. The scarcity hypothesis posits that when the demands from these multiple roles exceed the supply of time, energy, and other resources that help to meet with various role responsibilities, strain may be experienced in form of role conflict or role overload (Coverman, 1989; Goode, 1960). The scarcity hypothesis was the basis for early studies of work-role and work-family conflict.

Greenhouse’s conceptualization of time-based conflict and strain-based conflict was used in this study because it helps to better understand the effects of job demands on non -academic staff experiencing work-family conflict. When workers are required to work for long hours at demanding jobs, they may be more likely to experience time-based and strain-based work-family conflict due to the challenges they would face in multiple role responsibilities. The role conflict theory which is the framework on which the study is anchored on explains that human beings only have a fixed amount of energy to be used for multiple roles. Role conflict results when an individual encounters tensions as a result of incompatible roles. It can also be seen as a form of social conflict which takes place when an individual is forced to do two different and incompatible roles at the same time. Previous studies on work-role conflict done by Kahn, Wolfe, Ouinn, Snoek & Rosenthel (1964) was rooted in role theory.

They found out that conflict arises as a result of various roles that an individual may assume: “Simultaneous occurrence of two (or more) sets of pressures such that compliance with one would make more difficult compliance with the other,” thus making it difficult for an individual to fulfill the responsibilities within one domain as a result of demands in another domain.The application of role conflict theory to this study, therefore suggest that there is strong indication that non-academic staff in Nigerian polytechnics may experinces conflicts in balancing their work and family responsibilities.For example, non-academic staff may find conflict between picking up his or her son from school as a result of extended academic board meeting which demand extra hours and attention. Resting on this theory also, it can be assumed that female married non- academic staff would experience role conflict in the process of occupying various status.For instance, role conlict would occur while trying to be a mother, wife in the family and no-academic staff at work.

For non-academic staff, literature suggests that they are likely to work long hours (Ajao, 2014). Peters (2010) observes that time-based and strain-based work to family conflict often affect the performance of workers in an organisation Thus, it is important to understand the experience of both of these types of work-family conflict among non-academic staff in order to prevent losses on the part of the organizations, workers and the country at large. Expanding on this idea of inter-role conflict and applying it to work-family domains, Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) define inter-role conflict as a form of role conflict in which participation in different roles leads to opposing pressures, and “role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect.

Based on work-role conflict theory, Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) identify the three specific types of work-family conflict previously discussed: time-based, strain based, and behaviour-based conflicts. Time-based conflict refers to the conflict that arises when time assigned to fulfill one role responsibility makes it hard to fulfill another role responsibility (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). For example, occurrence of an important work meeting at the same time as one’s child’s soccer match may stress the individual as he/she has to prioritize one event over the other. The individual is not able to fulfill both of the roles at the same time. Strain-based conflict refers to the stress experienced when the fulfillment of one role leads to a difficulty in the fulfillment of a role in another domain (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). An example of strain-based conflict is a working mother who finds it difficult to attend to the needs of her children because she is exhausted from her physically demanding job (Grzywacz et al., 2007). The third type of conflict, behaviour based conflict, refers to situations when an individual is expected to carry out diverse behaviours in different domains, and specific behaviour requirements in one domain may make it difficult to fulfill the role requirement in another domain (Greenhaus & Beutell 1985).

This experience is likely to cause conflict as the individual is unable to conform to the expected roles to be played in different domains. For example, a person may be expected to behave with impersonality, logic, and authority at work. At home, these very same behaviours may not be appreciated by family member.

2.2.0 Conceptual and Theorectical Review

2.2.1 Concept of Job Satisfaction

Spector, (1997) defines, job satisfaction as a measure of workers contendeness with their job, whetheror not they like the job or individual aspect or facets of jobs, such as supervision. Locke, (1976) defines job satisfaction as “pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences.” Job satisfaction can be seen within the broader context of the range of isues which affect an individual’s experience of work or their quality of working life (Illies & Judge 2003). Job satisfaction can be undersood in terms of its relationship with key factors, such as control at work, general well-being, stress at work, home-work interface and working conditions (Thompson & Phuma, 2012). Siang (2015) describes job satisfaction as the feelings regarding one’s job and how happy such a person feels within that job. This can be affected by many factors such as company policies and interpersonal relationships. Job satisfaction, as an organisational factor, is interconnected with various internal and external motivators (Ajobi, 2015). In the same vein, Olorunsola (2012) clarifies that job satisfaction is a compound of internal and external factors that employees consider. These factors refer to employees’ welfare in their private and social life. Job satisfaction, as an organisational factor, has different levels (high and low levels) that are determined by various motivators. Each of these levels illuminates the amount of employees’ feeling towards their job. It also, shows their reaction at workplace. In other words, high level of job satisfaction would lead to high level of productivity. In contrast, low level of job satisfaction leads to low turnover and absenteeism amongst employees (Wan, Ahmad, & Abdurrahman, 2015). Robin and Judge (2013) define job satisfaction as positive feelings about a job resulting from evaluation of its characteristics. A person with high level of job satisfaction holds positive feeling about his or her job, while a person with low level holds negative feelings.

Job satisfaction is the collection of feeling and beliefs that worker have about their current job. Worker’s levels of degrees of job satisfaction can range from extreme satisfaction to extreme dissatisfaction. Workers also can have attitude about various aspects of their jobs such as the kind of work they do, their coworkers, supervisors or subordinates and their salary (George & Jones, 2008). Job satisfaction is a yardstick for quality work experience. It is a positive emotional feeling, a result of one’s evaluation of his job experience by comparing what he expects from his/her job and what he actually gets. Generally, job satisfaction describes how happy employees are with their jobs and the feelings that they have towards the various aspects of their jobs. Job satisfaction has become a very significant feature in every organisation because of its importance to the behaviour of employees in the work place. Therefore, human resources managers tend to seek for total reward programme that could enhance employees’ job satisfaction and in turn increase organisational performance and productivity (Galanou, Georgakopoulos, Sotiropoulos & Dimitris, 2010; Mujtaba & Shuaib, 2010).

The most widely accepted theory of job satisfaction was proposed by Locke (1976) He defines job satisfaction as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (Locke, 1975). Job satisfaction is a very important part of an organisational job attitude which represents attitude and feelings about various aspects of their jobs such as their coworkers, supervisors or subordinates, work load and the salary of workers in an organisation. In an organisation many, people are working for the sake of money and profit.

Nguyen & Nguyen, (2011) affirm that an employee is a vital asset for an organisation. To them“employees own knowledge, skills and capabilities and companies do not own them”. Job satisfaction has emotional, cognitive, and behavioural components (Bernstein & Nash, 2008). The emotional component refers to job-related feelings such as boredom, anxiety, acknowledgement and excitement. The cognitive component of job satisfaction pertains to beliefs regarding one's job whether it is respectable, mentally demanding or challenging and rewarding. Finally, the behavioural component includes people's actions in relation to their work such as tardiness, working late, faking illness in order to avoid work. Bernstein & Nash, 2008). Job satisfaction refers to the positive attitudes or emotional dispositions people may gain from work or through aspects of work. Employees’ job satisfaction becomes a central attention in researches and discussions in work and organisational psychology because it is believed to have relationship with job performance.

There are essentially two types of job satisfaction based on the level of employees' feelings regarding their jobs. The first, and most analyzed, is global job satisfaction, which refers to employees' overall feelings about their jobs (e.g., "Overall, I love my job.") (Mueller & Kim, 2008). The second is job facet satisfaction, which refers to feelings regarding specific job aspects, such as salary, benefits, work hierarchy (reporting structure), growth opportunities, work environment and the quality of relationships with one's co-workers (e.g., "Overall, I love my job, but my schedule is difficult to manage." (Mueller & Kim 2008). Judge & Klinger (2008) assert that job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from appraisal of one’s job or job experiences. Chughati & Perveen (2013) define job satisfaction as one’s feeling or state of mind related with the work while Sypniewska (2013) confirms that it is an employee’s positive attitude towards the company, co-worker and finally, the job. Clearly, job satisfaction is an important aspect in the lives of employees and enhancing it can bring benefit for the organization as well. For instance, job satisfactions can moderately increase job performance. Moreover (Luthans, 2011) asserts that increasing job satisfaction of the employees can reduce occupational stress.

Thus, employers should rather be interested in how they can improve job satisfaction among their employees. For instance, having fair salaries and wages, benefits, and offering promotion opportunities have proved to be important factors enhancing job satisfaction (Luthans, 2011). Stride, Wall and Catley (2007) affirm that job satisfaction is an intuitive concept that consists of employee’s experience of emotional reactions. The evaluation of employees’ level of job satisfaction is of utmost importance both for individuals and for institutions. If an employee is not satisfied with his or her job, he or she experiences a decline in job satisfaction. Therefore, he or she decreases the efficiency of the institution due to low contribution along with the problems in his or her personal life. Aziri (2011) opines that when employees are adequately rewarded with what they feel is equitable they will be satisfied and it will likely result in greater performance. Olorunsola (2012) confirms that job satisfaction is a combination of internal and external factors that staff contact when doing their work and which change their attitudes and feelings toward their jobs.

Job satisfaction is one of the most studied concepts in industrial and organisational psychology and in the sociology of work and occupations (Mulinge, 2000). Job satisfaction is one of the factors that play a central role in the organisation. It has the potential to affect a wide range of behaviour in organisations and contribute to employees’ levels of well-being (George & Jones, 2012). According to Wann-Yin, and Htaik (2011), job satisfaction is one of the most widely studied and measured constructs in organisational behaviour and management literature. Job satisfaction deals with the feelings that an individual employee has about his/ her job. As such, ‘organisational behaviour research has revealed that individuals who express high satisfaction in their jobs are likely to be more productive, have higher involvement and are less likely to resign than employees with less satisfaction (Qasim & Syed, 2012).

There are various channels through which job satisfaction can affect productivity. Firstly there is direct impact on a person measuring the productivity of employees (supervisor ratings).This may be as a result of a lower tendency to slow down work concoiusly or unconciously. Secondly, satisfied employees may also exhibit more organizational citizenship and less counterproductive organisational behaviour. They may also have lower tendency to go on strike or engage in other industrial actions. Thirdly, there are positive productivity effects through decreased absenteeism. Employees that are not satisfied with their jobs may have a greater tendency to develop illness or even remain absent from work without illness. Fourthly, job dissatisfaction leads to quit intention and actual separations. Quit and subsequent replacement hiring create cost for firms that may show up as lower productivity, even when it is the least productive employee who leaves (Tella, Ayeni, & Popoola, 2007). Job satisfaction is an employee's general perception about the job or the compilation of attitudes toward various aspects of the job (Bakotic, 2014) and the level of contentment a person has with his or her job ( Lu, Barriball, Zhang &While (2012). In the broader context, job satisfaction is the emotional response that people have about their jobs, and the various aspects associated with their jobs (Spector, 1997).

Hajiha, Jasbi, and Ghaffari (2014) define job satisfaction separate from its facet definitions. Their opinion on job satisfaction is that it refers to a worker’s overall attitude towards his job. They contend that when an employee is satisfied with his job, he will have positive attitude on the job and vice versa. However, an employee may be satisfied with a particular facet and may be dissatisfied with another different facet of his job. In this case, an employee may be satisfied or dissatisfied with one or more other facets like the work itself, organizational policies, advancement, responsibility, and achievement, organizational policies, interpersonal relationship, pay, working conditions, supervision, job content and social readjustment. Moreover, job satisfaction reflects the extent to which workers are contended with their jobs and the sense of fulfillment that is derived from their job tasks (Griffin and Moorhead, 2007).

Onukwube (2012) opines that job satisfaction is the sense of well-being, good feeling and positive mental state that emerge in an employee when he obtains a reward consequent upon his performance. Factors such as working conditions, below competitive salary, lack of promotional opportunities and lack of recognition are some of the contributing factors to employee’s dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction of non-academic staff in higher institutions is important because it influences their motivation and performance which are very influential in delivering quality services within the institutions. Daft (2009) emphasise that managers of knowledge workers and other workers in an institution of learning rely on job satisfaction to keep both motivation and enthusiasm at high level when performing their duties. Job satisfaction has been defined simply as a workers’ positive or negative attitude toward ones job (Ucar & Otken, 2010).

Failure in designing appropriate reward has continued to have a negative effect on employees’ job satisfaction and overall effectiveness of many organizations (Neo, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, & Wright, 2006). Similarly, Chepkwony and Oloko (2014) assert that rewards and job satisfaction of employees currently remain a problem for most organisations. Extant literature has effectively shown the relationship between rewards and employees’ job satisfaction (Abayomi & Ziska, 2014: Nazir, Khan, Shah & Zaman, 2013, Kalleberg &Loscocco, 1983). Nevertheless, employees’ job satisfaction is critical for the success of any organisation as well as the quality of products or services provided by the organisation to their customers or clients respectively. According to Miao (2011), job satisfaction is an employee’s overall sense of well-being at work. It is an internal state based on assessing the job and job-related experiences with some degree of favour or disfavour. Job satisfaction is ones positive feeling about his or her job.

Also state that the assessment was based on an evaluation of the job characteristics (Robbins & Judge, 2007). Each individuals’ values, attitudes and expectations differ, thus, motivational factors can be quite different.

Researchers have found out that the most researched definition of job satisfaction is that by Hakkak, Gashti, and Nawaser (2014). In their study of the relation between job satisfaction and perceived organisational commitment, job satisfaction is divided into two categories, namely, internal and external satisfaction. External satisfaction is related to factors such as payment, promotion, admiration and interaction with colleagues; while employee’s satisfaction related to values, social status, position and professional res ponsibility indicate internal satisfaction (Robbins & Judge, 2007). Taylor & Westover (2011) assert that job satisfaction represents an interaction between workers and work environment and between what they want from their jobs, what they perceive and receive. Recent survey has identified job insecurity as one of the significant factors that drive workers to develop poor attitude and withdrawal tendencies in their organizations and reduce employees’ job satisfaction (Fapohunda 2012; Yih & Htaik 2011; Suleiman, 2013; Preuss & Lautsch, 2002). Furthermore, Fatimah, Noraishah, Nazir and Khairuddin (2012) assert that threat to employees’ job security negatively affects their job satisfaction and well-being as well as job performance.

Davis (2012) affirms that a perceived work element provides positive emotion and this process results in job satisfaction. However, Zhu (2013) posits that if the employees have negative and unpleasant feelings at work, their attitudes to work are defined as dissatisfaction. Lu, Barriball, Zhang &While (2012) assert that job satisfaction is an important variable that is often discussed in studies on organisational behaviour. Dessler and Hurt (2006) indicate that job satisfaction refers to the level of satisfaction with regards to personal safety, health, relationships, growth and esteem that could be obtained from work experience . Job satisfaction is also believed to be dispositional in nature. This dispositional view point assumes that measuring personal characteristics can aid in the prediction of job satisfaction (Staws and Ross, 1985). The disposition approach of job satisfaction is not a mirage and individual dispositions indeed affect job satisfaction (Staw and Cohen-Charash, 2005). Arokiasamy, Tat and Abdullah (2013) recognise that lack of promotion and mundane work has significantly contributed to employee’s lack of satisfaction and intention to leave the organisation.

Inadequate or lack of promotion opportunities into positions of higher responsibility has caused lack of satisfaction and negative consequences such as lower commitment, high employee turnover and absenteeism among employees. Similarly, those employees who remain in one position with no opportunities for moving to higher positions have been said to exhibit negative attitude towards their work and their organisations (Arokiasamy et al., 2013). Odinioha and Nwaeke (2015) conducted a research to examine the association between non-financial incentives and job satisfaction among hotel workers in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. The results of the study revealed that there was a significant relationship between promotion and employee job satisfaction. Job satisfaction in workplace is valuable to study for multiple reasons: increased satisfaction is suggested to be related to increase productivity, and promoting employee satisfaction has inherent humanitarian value (Smith, 1969)

In addition, Job Satisfaction is also related to other positive outcomes in the work place, such as increased organisational citizenship behaviour (Organ, and Ryan, 1995) increased life satisfaction (Judge, 2000), decreased counter productive work behaviours (Dalal, 2005), and decreased absenteeism (Hardy, Woods, and Wall 2003). Each of these outcomes is desirable in organisations and, as such, shows the value of studying and understanding job satisfaction. According to Spector (1997; 2008), facets that have been frequently studied include pay, promotion opportunities, fringe benefits, supervision, co-workers, job conditions, nature of the work, communication and security. According to Davey, Obst and Sheehan (2001), low job satisfaction is a result of inconsistent promotional opportunity and lack of organizational support including recognition from supervisors and peers. Job pressures, positive life changes, feeling life as whole and sources of biggest problems in life (Sanchez, Bray,Vincus,& Bann 2004), supportive work climate on board ship, teamwork and absence of feeling about disruption inter-personal life (Fairbrother & Warn, 2003) have also been researched.

Furthermore, workers have reported to have low job satisfaction in industrial relations, feedback, rate of pay, skill variety, organizational management, autonomy, promotion chances and supervisors (Blair & Phillips, 1983; Alpass, Long, Chamberlain, & Mac Donald, 1997).

2.2.2 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory comprises two factors namely hygiene factors and motivational factors. Hygiene factors include salary, interpersonal relations with superiors, subordinates and peers, organization policies and administration, supervision, status, job security, working conditions, and personal life. Motivational factors include achievement, recognition for achievement, advancement, responsibility, work and possibility of growth (Herzberg, 1968). This theory suggests that the presence of motivation factors can potentially create great motivation and greater job satisfaction while in the absence of motivators, dissatisfaction often does not occur. Also, the absence of hygiene factors will create great dissatisfaction and the presence of hygiene factors does not provoke high levels of job satisfaction. It is a known fact that compensation plays a vital role in job satisfaction of workers.

In a study conducted by Salisu, Chinyio and Suresh (2015), questionnaire was developed, pilot tested and administered to gather data on workers’ job satisfaction regarding four compensation variables namely; salary, allowance, gratuity and pension. A total of 260 employees were administered the questionnaire. The respondents were selected using the stratified random sampling technique. The study found that there was significant relationship between gratuity payment, which is part of fringe benefits, and job satisfaction of public sector construction workers in Jigawa State, Nigeria. This implies that when workers receive reasonable lump sum in form of gratuity it leads to the satisfaction of their various needs on retirement. However, salary paid in public sector workers in Nigeria has no significant relationship with job satisfaction. This has led to consistent agitation for salary review in the sector. Tomazevic, Seljak &Aristoumik (2014) suggest that to understand job satisfaction factor require review on well-being, stress at work, control at work, home and work interface, and working conditions.

A variety of factors affect job satisfaction. This is in addition to the experiences people have on the job (Thompson & Phua, 2012). From a business perspective, job satisfaction is important to enhance organisational performance (Ismail, Romle & Azmar 2015). For health care organi zations, job satisfaction directly relates to better job performance which results in optimized health care (Correia, Dinis & Fronteira, 2015). Because nurses play an important role in the care of patients, their job satisfaction is fundamental to health care organizations (Kaddourah, Khalidi, Abu- Shahem and Al- Tamir 2013). When job satisfaction is high, employees remain in the organization, when worker’s job satisfaction is low; the result is often employee turnover. Employee turnover occurs when an employee involuntarily quits or leaves an organization (Hom, Mitchell, Lee & Grifffeth, 2012). Results of previous studies revealed that nurses’ job dissatisfaction influences their intention to stay with the organization (Lu, Barriball, Zhang & While, 2012).

Poor job satisfaction has a negative influence on the intention of workers to stay with organisations, resulting in loss of profitability to the organization (Cimiotti, Aiken, Sloane & Wu, 2013). Effective job satisfaction measures are necessary for workplace retention (Gounaris & Boukis, 2013). Positive leadership affects the work environment and job satisfaction (Bhatti, Maitlo, Shaikh, Hashmi, & Shaikh, 2012; Spence-Laschinger & Fida, 2014) while tyrannical or negative leadership reduces subordinates’ job satisfaction (Skogstad, Assland, Nielson, Hetland &Einarson 2014). Authentic leadership significantly and positively influences staff nurses' structural empowerment, which increases job satisfaction and self-rated performance (Wong & Laschinger, 2013). Hocine, Zhang, Song and Ye (2014) found that subordinates of supportive leaders expressed higher job satisfaction and demonstrated more trust to the company management than subordinates of leaders who were not supportive. Girma, (2016) states that supportive leadership directly influences an employees’ job satisfaction.

Leadership trust relates indirectly to job satisfaction because it facilitates transformational leadership, and transformational leadership has a positive effect on job satisfaction (Yang, 2014) an assertion supported by another study (Khan, Asghar, & Zaheer, 2014). Scholars believe that instrumental leadership and individual empowerment influence job satisfaction (Mulki, Caemmerer, & Heggde, 2015; Wagner, Warren, Cummings, Smith, & Olson, 2013). Regardless of the style of leadership, ethical leadership exerts a profound positive influence on employee (Yang, 2014). Frankel and PGCMS (2017) posit that workers’ roles have become more specialized, and therefore require autonomy. Empowering employees (i.e., autonomy, responsibility, information, and creativity) has a positive effect on job satisfaction (Abraiz, Tabassum, Raja, & Jawad, 2012). In general, empowerment contributes to job satisfaction (Ivey & Vance, 2014; Roberts-Turner, Hinds, Nelson, Pryor, Robinson, & Wang, 2014). Workers with a higher degree of autonomy have a higher level of job satisfaction (Kaddourah, Khalidi, Abu-Shaheen & Al-Tannir 2013).

Galbany-Estragués and Comas-d’Argemir (2016) found that autonomy is important in health care because care has become technologised and bureaucratised.

Roberts-Turner et al. (2014) found that nurses with more influence over their work environment felt empowered and more satisfied with work. Teams with high levels of organisational tenure diversity serving under transformational leaders demonstrate greater organisational commitment, engage in creative behaviour, and have higher job satisfaction (De, Poel ,Stoker and Vander-Zee,-2014). The leader-member exchange demonstrates the connection between leaders and followers. An integral component of the leader-member exchange is communication. The frequency of communication affects job satisfaction in the low client leader relationship (Vidyarthi, Erdogan, Anand, Liden, & Chaudhry, 2014). In contrast, job satisfaction is higher when direct supervisors provide employees with concrete feedback than when hierarchically distant leaders share their abstract views (Berson & Halevy, 2014). Relationships within the workplace play a role in job satisfaction with findings suggesting supervisor subordinate relationships. Team member relationships also play a role in job satisfaction (Malik, 2013).

Gender, age, and education also play a role in job satisfaction. Women tend to be more satisfied at work than their male colleagues are. Differences in job satisfaction exist because of an employees' age. More educated employees are more satisfied at work than their less educated counterparts (Bakotic, 2014). Finally, income affects job satisfaction, despite the lack of reporting detailing the cause (Bakan & Buyukbese, 2013).

2.2.3 The Effect of Job Satisfaction

The amount of effort put into work is an important factor that determines individual performance. When an employee is satisfied with his/her job, there is a spur up or motivation to put on greater amount of effort than before and this enhances performance and productivity. This will invariably rub off on the overall performance and productivity of the organisation. Thus, it can be affirmed that a satisfied employee is critical to the success of the organisation. Job satisfaction is a multifaceted concept which can mean different things to different people. However, it is an innate thing or attitudinal in nature. Social factors (i.e relationship with co-worker s, group working and norms and opportunity for interaction) cultural factors (i.e attitude, beliefs and values).organisational factors (i.e nature and size, formal structure, personnel policies and procedures, employee relations, nature of the work, supervision and styles of leadership, management system, and working conditions). Environmental factors (i.e economic, social, technical and governmental influences. Thus, an individual overall job satisfaction is the cumulative result of comparisons that he/she makes between what the job provides and what he or she desires in various areas.

2.2.4 Benefits of Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction has tremendous benefits to an organization when all conditions are fulfilled by the management of the organisation. When all conditions by the management are geared towards satisfying an employee, the wholesome outcome will rub off well on the organisation, though there are other conditions when not put in place that can results, in employee’s dissatisfaction and low work output. High job satisfaction may lead to improved productivity, decreased turn over, improved attendance, reduced accidents, less job stress and less unionisation. Job dissatisfaction on the other hand produces low morale, absenteeism, grief and depression at work and so on. The benefits of job satisfaction are explained as follows:

Job satisfaction enhances productivity: - when a worker is happy, he will be productive as condition of service put in place by the management motivates employees to do his or her best for the organisation. This motivation or rewards, which are both intrinsic and extrinsic in nature and value, make the employees feel satisfied which invariably lead to greater job performance and productivity.

- It also influences employee turnovers: - In every organisation, high employee turnover is a matter of concern for the management as it disrupts and punctures the normal operations. Continuous replacement of employees, who leave the organisation, is costly and technically undesirable. This is precipitated by employees' job dissatisfaction. In this view, the employer tries all possible best to keep the employees satisfied on their jobs to minimize the turnover.

- Job satisfaction discourages absenteeism: - When there is high job satisfaction in an organisation, absenteeism and commitment to work is low but on the other hand when satisfaction is low, absenteeism and worker's morale is high. When an employee's dissatisfied, he/she will be absent from work overtimes due to obvious and avoidable reasons.

- Job satisfaction de-emphasises union activities: When employees are satisfied with work, t hey will not be interested in union activities. Job dissatisfaction is a major cause of unions in workplace because an individual employee cannot sufficiently fight his or her battle or influence changes individually.

- Job satisfaction promotes safety: - When there is gross dissatisfaction in an organisation or company, supervisors and the employees are prone to avoidable accidents. The dissatisfaction takes an employee’s mind away from tasks or duties which results into losses for the organisation. However, a satisfied worker will always be careful and pay attention to task and duties which help reduce avoidable accidents.

Locke (2012) refers to job satisfaction as “a pleasurable or a positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience,” Job satisfaction can be viewed as an employee’s observation of how well their work presents those things which are very important to them. It is an attitude people have about their jobs. Balzer (2012) defines job satisfaction as “the feelings a worker has about his or her job experience in relation to previous experience, current expectations and available alternatives.” Elaborating on this, Camp (2010) defines job satisfaction with reference to the needs and values of an individual and the extent to which these needs and values are satisfied in the work place.

Brief and Weiss (2002) refer to job satisfaction as the pleasurable and positive emotional state realised from an appraisal of the employee’s job experiences. Hence job satisfaction is a situation where an employee is contented with the affairs of his job. Hajiha, Jasbi and Ghaffari (2014) define job satisfaction separate from its facet definitions. Their opinion on job satisfaction is that it refers to a worker’s overall attitude towards his job. They contend that when an employee is satisfied with his job he will have positive attitude on the job and vice versa. For example, an employee may be satisfied or dissatisfied with one or more other facets like the work itself, organisational policies, advancement, responsibility, and achievement, organisational policies, interpersonal relationship, pay, working conditions and supervision.

In their contribution, Greenberg and Baron (2003) define job satisfaction as a worker’s affective, cognitive, and evaluative emotional reactions regarding their jobs. Moreover, job satisfaction reflects the extent to which workers are contended with their jobs and the sense of fulfillment that is derived from their job tasks (Griffin and Moorhead, 2007). Similarly, Griffin and Morehead (2007), and Greenberg and Baron (2003) definitions view job satisfaction cumulatively that is the overall reaction of an individual to his job. Robbins (2001) defines job satisfaction as a worker’s general attitude towards his job. In parallel to these explanations, Mohammad, Quoquab, Habib, & Alias (2011) describe job satisfaction as an agreeable emotion that originates from work experience and is generated by diverse motivators. In reality, job satisfaction includes worthy feelings and emotions that employees consider within their work environment. Peretomode (2006) sees job satisfaction as fulfillment acquired in terms of job experience, activities and rewards. He states further that job satisfaction is the feeling about responses to the aspects of the work environment. A recent definition of the concept of job satisfaction is from Hulin and Judge (2013), who have noted that job satisfaction includes multidimensional psychological responses to an individual’s job, and that these personal responses have cognitive (evaluation), affective (or emotional), and behavioural components. Job satisfaction scales vary in the extent to which they assess the affective feelings about the job or the cognitive assessment of the job. Affective job satisfaction is a subjective construct representing an emotional feeling individuals have about their job.

Hence, affective job satisfaction for individuals reflects the degree of pleasure or happiness their job in general induce. Cognitive job satisfaction is a more objective and logical evaluation of various facets of a job. Job satisfaction can also be seen within the broader context of the range of issues which affects an individual’s experience of work, or the quality of working life. From previous studies it can be concluded that job dissatisfaction is associated with many negative structural outcomes, which includes high labour turnover rated, diminished work performance and low assurance level towards the corporate entities. (Rahman et al., 2017; 2018). Job satisfaction can be understood in terms of its relationships with other key factors, such as general well-being, stress at work, control at work, home-work interface, and working conditions.

2.2.5 Concept of Well-being

Worker ‘well-being’ refers to the extent to which workers perceive that their lives are going well. It incorporates the degree to which they enjoy good physical and mental health and are resilient. Well-being involves workers’ level of engagement in living and involvement in a broad range of human activities including intellectual endeavours, social relations and emotional attachment (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). From this perspective, worker’s well-being stems from feeling stimulated, rewarded and secured (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Campbell, 1976; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016; Ryff & Singer, 1998; World Health Organization Quality of Life Assessment Group, 1995). At the core of these perspectives is a focus on the individual’s perception of their life circumstances and expectations (Veenhoven, 2010).

2.2.6 The Emerging Field of Worker Well-being

Over the recent years, changes have occurred in our understanding of worker well-being: Worker well-being has multiple determinants. Historically, workplace health and well-being-related activities have focused on a single illness, risk factor or behaviour change (e.g., stress management heart disease prevention, smoking cessation). Increasingly, more holistic approaches to worker well-being are being adopted and more comprehensive approaches that acknowledge the combined influence of personal, environmental, organisational policy, community and societal factors on employee well-being are being employed (World Health Organisation 2016). Worker health and workplace injury link state that the relationship between health-related behaviours problems and workplace injuries are now better understood. For example, obesity is associated with an increased rate of workplace injury (Dong, Wang, & Largay, 2015). Enhancing the well-being of workers is not only a worthy aim in its self, it can also reduce the risk of injury. Worker resilience refers to the ability to maintain personal and professional physical and emotional well-being in the face of on-going work stress and adversity (McCann et al., 2013).

Resilience-promoting work environments for health and welfare workers can reduce the negative, and increase the positive outcomes stemming from working in potentially demanding environments (McCann et al., 2013). It is well established in literature that employees with high level of psychological well-being are better, more committed and more productive than employees with low level of psychological well-being (Wright and Bonett 2007, Wright and Cropanzano, 2004). Employees are likely to have higher well-being if they are satisfied with their work and organisation and they perceive their quality of work life positively, that is when an employee’s experiences in the workplace have influence on his or her health and psychological well-being (Chan &Wyatt (2007); Srivastava (2007); Aziri, (2011).

Kaur (2013) opines that well-being refers to how people evaluate their lives. These evaluations may be in form of cognitions or in form of affect. The cognitive part is an information based appraisal of one’s life, that is, when a person gives conscious evaluative judgments about one’s satisfaction with life as a whole. The affective part is a hedonic evaluation guided by emotions and feelings such as frequency with which people experience pleasant/unpleasant moods in reaction to their lives. The assumption behind this is that most people evaluate their life as either good or bad, so they are normally able to offer judgments. Furthermore, people invariably experience moods and emotions which have a positive effect or a negative effect.Thus, people have a level of subjective well-being even if they do not often consciously think about it, and the psychological system offers virtually a constant evaluation of what is happening to the person. Well-being is not just the absence of disease or illness. It is a complex combination of a person’s physical, mental, emotional and social health factors (Kaur, 2013).

Well-being is measured as happiness or satisfaction with life. The search for happiness is often confused with the pursuit of pleasure, but well-being is about more than living the good life. It is about having meaning in life, about fulfilling our potential and feeling that our lives are worthwhile (Bond, 2003). A few other terms like subjective wellbeing, quality of life, mental health and life satisfaction have been used as being synonymous with psychological well-being (PWB). Psychological well -being is a multi-dimensional concept. Results of factor analysis done by researchers confirm this and instruments have been produced to measure it. Cheerfulness, optimism, playfulness, self-control, a sense of detachment and freedom from frustration, anxiety, and loneliness has been accepted as indicators of psychological well-being by certain researchers (Sinha & Verma, 1992).

Employees’ psychological well-being is a state of happiness at workplace. It is a predictor of worker’s performance. According to Fisher and Hanna (2016) employees’ well-being is responsible to a much greater extent for labour turnover than is commonly realised. Wright (2010) emphasises the importance of the more recent and expanded research which shows that there is a significant relationship between employee well-being and psychological well-being on the one hand and Job performance and staff retention on the other. Psychological well-being is very important in the workplace to reduce the number of turnover intention or the intention to leave, especially in the higher educational sector. Well-being at work is a changeable term (Hone, Schfield & Jarden, 2015). However, it has often focuses on attributes of individuals at work rather than incorporating the work environment, the role of the regulatory environment or other external influences affecting employee well-being (Ravenswood, 2011). The focus of individual well-being and mental health has identified factors such as positive work relationships (Roche, Haar & Luthans 2014), relationships (Diener et al., 2010) and trust in leadership (Roche et al., 2014) as well as individuals’ resilience.  

Measures of employee well-being have included fatigue, job-induced stress, job satisfaction and work-life balance (Macky & Boxall, 2008). Fewer studies have connected individual attributes with the context within which employee well-being takes place (Baptiste, 2008). However, some have included aspects of work environment such as supportive management (Gilbreath, & Benson, 2004; Hone, Jarden, & Schfied, 2015; Wood & de Menezes, 2011) and supportive colleagues (Hone et al., 2015) and physical factors such as green spaces (Lottrup, Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2013). The organisation of work can also be crucial with workload and deadlines impacting on people’s well-being and ability to gain adequate sleep (Moen, Kelly, Tranby, & Huang, 2011), and their ability to detach from work. Employment relations research into well-being has often focused on employee control (or lack of it) and voice in the workplace. Control over work and its flexibility has been found to be a vital key in employee well-being (Wood & de Menezes, 2011). This voice or control extends to organisational policies; for example, how patterns of work are decided, the predictability or un-predictability of work commitments and the timing of work (Wooden, Warren, & Drago, 2009).

It is often the collective process in which these decisions are made that makes the difference in how employees view the policies (Bailyn, 2011). However, this research often fails to take a gendered analysis of employee well-being at work. The one key area that broadly relates to gender and well-being has centered upon work-life balance (Gröpel & Kuhl, 2009) and the burden of care work that women still carry: women spend more time on domestic work and child care tasks than men (Walsh, 2013; Statistics New Zealand, 2015). Attempts to reconcile domestic and care work with paid work can backfire for women who may ‘choose’ occupations that are more flexible (such as within the medical professions – Walsh, 2013), and women may be judged more harshly than their male counterparts and seen as less committed to their jobs when they ask for flexible work (Allen, 2005).

2.2.7 Theory of Psychological Well-being

Carol Ryff’s model of psychological well-being theory is considered a powerful means of organizing one’s life as well as generating ideas about how to live better. It is scientifically validated and the model includes medical, biological and philosophical consecrations (for instance Aristoltle, Mill, Abraham Maslow and Carl Jung.) It has six criteria of well - being which are summarily discussed as follows:

 Self-acceptance

•High self-acceptance:- positive attitude towards oneself; accept multiple aspects to oneself (both good and bad); feel positive about your past life.

•Low self-acceptance:- dissatisfied with oneself; disappointed about what has occurred in the past; troubled by certain personal qualities; wish to be different than what you are.

 Personal Growth•

Strong personal growth:- a feeling of continued development; see yourself as growing and expanding; open to new experiences, sense of realizing your potential; changing in ways that reflect more self-knowledge and effectiveness.

•Low personal growth: - a sense of personal stagnation; lacking a sense of expansion or improvement over time; feel bored (uninterested with life; feel unable to develop new attitudes or behaviours about life; see improvement in yourself and your behaviour overtime.

 Purpose in Life

• Strong purpose: - have goals and a sense of direction; feel there is meaning in the past and present life; hold beliefs that give life purpose; have aims and objectives for living.

• Weak purpose: - lack a sense of meaning or direction in life; few goals or objectives; do not see any purpose in your own life in the past or presently; no out look or belief that gives life meaning.

 Positive Relations with Others

• Strong positive relations:- Warm, satisfying, trusting relationships with others; once read about the welfare of others; capable of strong empathy, affection and intimacy with others; understands the give and take of human relationship

• Weak relations:- few, close trusting relationships with others; find it difficult to be warm, open and caring/ concerned about others ; isolated and frustrated in inter- personal relationships; not willing to make compromises to sustain important ties with others.

 Environmental Mastery

• High environmental Mastery:- possess a sense of competence, able to control a complex array of external circumstances; make effective use of external opportunities; create contexts suitable to personal needs and values

• Low environmental mastery:- have difficulty in managing everyday affairs; feel unable to improve or change surrounding contexts; unaware of surrounding opportunities; lack a sense of control over the external environment.

 Autonomy

•High autonomy:- self-determination and independence; resist social pressures; regulate behaviour from within; environment its self by personal standards.

•Low autonomy:- concerned about expectation and evaluation of others; rely on judgment of others.

2.2.8 Enhancing Worker Well-being

Employer responsibilities organisations have a role to play in worker well-being. This may be on moral, ethical or compassionate grounds recognizing that supporting good mental health has significant benefits to both the business and workers alike. Organizations also have legal responsibilities to ensure workplaces do not cause harm to the health of employees. Under the Health and Safety at Work Act 2015 (HSWA), Persons Conducting a Business or Undertaking (PCBUs) ‘have a primary duty of care to provide a work environment that is without risk to health and safety, so far as it is reasonably practicable. While focus is typically given to reducing the risk of physical harm, HSWA defines health as being both ‘physical and mental. Work safe New Zealand, the government body enforcing workplace health and safety legislation provides a range of information and guidance about health and safety in the workplace. It sets expectations of organizations to have effective systems of protecting the physical and mental health of workers from work-related factors and activities to promote general health and wellbeing.

2.2.9 Contemporary Approaches to Worker Well-being

• Enhancing the physical safety of workers

• Enhancing the physical welfare of workers

• Reducing the impact of psychological risks

• Worker-focussed health promotion

• Supportive environments to encourage positive health-related behaviour change.

2.3.0 Concept of Job Demand

Job demand represents the total quantity of work required from employee (Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2003). This is the extent to which an employee has to work under time and pressure and the degree to which an employee is expected to complete conflicting demands (Karasek, 1979). When an employee is unable to fulfill the job duties, work assignment and responsibilities that are assigned to him or her then he or she feels the job stress as a result of job demand. Ismail and Hong (2011) state that employees suffer from higher level of job-related stress if there are existences of job related demand factors are more in the working environment. Job demand factors are work load, long working hours, having no information about the work assignment, role ambiguity, unsupportive supervision and not good relationship with colleagues and supervisors. If these factors are not resolved by organisations then they lead to job stress and reduce the employee commitment to the organisation. Akinmade (2015) opines that job demand is the work pressure and work load experienced on the job. General (2008) asserts that the problems of job stress arise because of differences between employee job demand and the amount of control over gathering these demands.

Ajobi (2015) views job demand as a multidimensional concept that comprises three salient characteristics; role ambiguity, role conflict and role-overload. Firstly, role ambiguity manifest when an employee does not have clear information about his or her work objective, work scope, supervisor’s expectations and responsibilities of his or her job w hich may lead to higher job related tension. Secondly, role conflict usually occurs when an employee feels that there are traces of dilemma with his or her job demand; doing things he or she does not want to do, or doing things that are not considered to be part of his or her job. Being in between these two things requires an individual to make decision and making decision under conflicting demand is demanding and strenuous. Finally, role-overload normally refers to when an employee associates with heavy work burden which is beyond his ability to cope with and which often results in stress which usually affects the physical, psychological and emotional being of an employee.

Ogungbamila (2013) found out that work demand is a predictor of emotional, physical and psychological exhaustion. If nothing is done to reduce or moderate these demands, employees may become mentally and physically exhausted (Bakkers, Demerouti, Schaufeli, 2003). This may result to health problems such as Occupational Overuse Syndrome (Bakkers, Demerouti, Schaufeli, 2003), which may lead to job dissatisfaction and high turnover intention (Sarooj & Nazia, 2008: Kabungaidze, Mahlatshana, & Ngirande, 2013). In a study conducted by Noraani, Aminah, Jegede, and Khairuddin (2010) among a sample of single mothers in Malaysia, it was reported that there is posive relationship between job demand and intention to leave an organisation. It is not out of place to say that workers experiencing higher job demands have higher tendencies to quit their job.

Voydanoff (2005) posits that job demand is a structural and psychological claim associated with role requirements, expectations and norms, which individuals are required to respond to by utilizing physical and mental ability to meet the job requirement. Bakker & Geurts (2004) assert that job demand includes anything pertaining to the physical and psychosocial aspects of work in an organisation that require mental and physical efforts at the same time related to the cost associated with physiological and psychological costs. Examples of job demand include time pressure, physical and psychological demands that are related to individual responsibility for certain jobs, role overload and unfavourable environmental conditions. Mauno, Kinnunen & Rukolainen (2006) posit that job demand can deplete resources, for example, time, energy and emotions that are needed to perform. Excessive job demand leads to strain reaction, for example burnout and stress which result in increasing number of absenteeism and turnover intention. Mauno et.al (2006) define job demand as physical, psychological, social and organisational features of the job requiring physical or psychological efforts and energy from employee and are consequently related to physiological and psychological costs.

Job demand has also been categorized into physical, social and psychological demands (Schaufeli &Baker, 2004). Bakker and Demerouti (2007) confirm that job demand is not necessarily negative affirmation that when employees fail to meet their job demands it will lead to a negative outcome such as work-family conflict, job strain, burnout, and turnover intention. The physical job demand encompasses aspects of job that affects employee tasks directly (for example, task duration and frequency), the instrument used in a task, or the intensity of the labour during task execution. An example of this is when employees find it hard to keep up with the pace of work, when their time is too limited, or when there is just too much work to do (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Reactions to workload include negative emotion (Miles, Borman, Spector, & Fox, 2002) fatigue and other feelings such as anger and frustration. Other psychological strains are depression, work anxiety, and decreased job satisfaction. (Spector,2006).

Social job demand is considered to be the stress that the employees experience based on their working relationship with others in the organization. Work relationship may be sources of anxiety. When they are strongly emotion-laden and marked by high levels of interpersonal conflict is an example of social job demands as it refers to negatively charged interactions with others in the work place (Spector &jex, 1998). Emotional demand is a psychological job demand which refers to the degree to which a job requires employees to comply with specific display rules governing their emotional expressions in order to influence their clients’ feelings, attitudes and behaviours (Grandy & Fisk, 2005, Heuven, Bakker, Schaufeli & Huisman 2006). (Meng and Liu, 2008) affirm that the job demand of teaching profession as researchers is too much to the extent that it has negative impact on their well-being. Fajana (2006) affirms that learning organisations now take better care of their employees. They have realized that employees’ value perceiving them as stakeholders and partners with whom long terms goals are achievable rather than a mere “factor of production” from classical perspective.

Meng and Liu, (2008) affirm that the job demand of the teaching profession as researchers is too much to the extent that it has negative impact on their well-being. Akinde and Alamutu (2016) assert that the consequences of job demand include sickness, absence from work and work disability. Salleh (2008) confirms that the effects of job demand and job pressure are not only destructive to the individual employee but also to the organisation. Many employees are experiencing long working hours, intensified workloads, constant changes in work practices and job insecurities (Haworth & Lewis, 2005). Working long hours has been associated with high levels of anxiety and low levels of job satisfaction resulting in employees not trusting their co-workers to do their jobs well (Jex & Gudanowski, 1992). Employee health is affected not only by a job’s physical environment, but also by its psychological environment (Gilbreath, 2004). It has been found that job demand, an aversive or unpleasant emotional and physiological state (Judge, & Colquitt, 2004). Individuals who experience chronic work stress as a result of job demand have been found to be positively associated with an increased risk of atherosclerotic disease (Kang, et al., 2010.

Job demands, together with role conflict, make up role strain, which refers to persistent conditions within various roles of participation that require daily re-adjustments and repeatedly threaten to interfere with performance in other role-related activities. Pealin, 2003) confirms that if job demand is not control it threatens to interfere with performance in other role-related activities. Perceptions of job demand serve as a chronic stressor for non –academic staff, defined by Lazarus and Folkman, (2004) as physical and social environmental conditions that the average person could perceive as actually or potentially threatening, damaging, harmful or depriving. Bird & Ford (2005) view job demand as an intrinsic phenomenon of their existence, although past research has explored the perceived daily role conflict aspect of role strain more in depth. As workers are allocated too many tasks to accomplish without sufficient time, there is a constant sense of rushing and hurrying that takes place on a daily basis.Some researchers have argued that role strain increases with the amount of activities associated with family and non-family (work, social) involvements.

(Burr; 2003) contend that there are advantages of multiple role involvements as a result of increasing resources and contacts (Burn, 2003). Recent job demand research trends have evolved from focusing on people's deficits and vulnerabilities to placing increasing emphasis on adaptive strategies and constructive action during job demand periods. This study assumes a combination of positive personal impact on non -academic staff as a result of participation in both work and family roles, as well as the acknowledgement of the difficulty of living with the increased stress associated with job demand. Previous research has demonstrated that job demands such as long work hours, work role ambiguity, work role conflict, shift work, and physical and psychological effort contribute to job strain which results in role overload and feeling overwhelmed which contributes to work–family conflict. High demand at work increases the risk of experiencing work family conflicts (Chung, 2011; Fagan and Walthery, 2011).

2.3.1 Concept of Work-family Conflict

Work and family roles are indispensable for people nowadays. Once an individual experiences a high level of work and family conflict, it will definitely influence his job satisfaction and well-being. When work role conflicts with a non-work role occurs, it will reduce the role satisfaction (Boyar, Maertz, Pearson, & Keough, 2003; Zhao & Namasivayam, 2012). Work-family conflict takes place when one is forced to handle two different and incompatible roles at the same time (Gearson, 2011). For instance, there may be conflict when a person finds it hard to strike a balance betwee n his or her role and the role as an employee especially when his or her child’s demand for time and attention distracts him or her from fulfilling the role for which he or she is employed. Zhao and Namasivayam (2012) demonstrated that when a hotel employee felt that his job interfered with his role at home, his job satisfaction reduced.

In addition, Boyar et al. (2003) pointed out that when an individual experience their work interfering with non-work, it would reduce job evaluation, and result in the reduction of job satisfaction. In other words, when family roles which do not belong to the range of work roles are influenced by the job, it may lead to the reduction in job satisfaction. Some work arrangements, such as shift work, overtime, and working on holidays can reduce or deprive an individual’s family time or deprive them of the opportunity to be with their family (Tsaur, Liang, & Hsu, 2012). As a consequence, employees may feel dissatisfied with their work because aspects of their work factor make it impossible for them to fulfill their familial demands. Some researchers have also proved that non-work role aspects interfering with work role could also reduce job satisfaction. Zhao and Namasivayam (2012) pointed out that when the requirements of the family role of an employee made him unable to effectively achieve his job objectives, he would become frustrated, and thus feel dissatisfied.

Boyar et al. (2003) believed that when a non-work role interferes with a work role, an individual would blame the company system for causing such uncomfortable feelings, and the individual’s job satisfaction would be reduced. In other words, when the work role is interfered with by the family role, when the family interferes with the work, it will also reduce the employee’s job satisfaction. When an individual spends more time and effort on his family role, it will definitely reduce the time and effort he invests in his work (Tsaur et al., 2012). Therefore, an individual may not be able to obtain the expected feedbacks and respect from his work, and will gradually become dissatisfied with his work

Changes in the demographic make up of the work force and family structures have created a situation where a significant number of employees have difficulties in joggling work and family responsibilities.Work and family issues have been long discussed in academic and practices where work often affects family and personal life and vice versa. Greenhaus & Beutell (1985) define work–family conflict as “a form of inter-role conflict in which the role pressures of the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect. That is, participation in the work (family) role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family (work) role. The conflict of work and family could lead to positive or negative consequences to employees such as satisfaction (Rathi and Barath, 2013). Work – family conflict is a form of inter-role conflict in which work and family demands are mutually incompatible. (Higgins, Duxbury, & Lyons, 2007).

Work-family conflict is experienced when an employee has difficulty in balancing work and family demands (Aryee, Luk, Leung, & Lo, 1999; Ahmed & Masood, 2011; Carmeli, 200; Noor, 2003) or when performing work roles reduces the time and energy needed to successfully performs family responsibilities (Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999; Jawahar, Stone, & Kisamore, 2007). For example, the inflexible long working hours in the higher institutions in Nigeria may prevent non-academic staff from picking his or her child from school based on the fact that non–academic staff ought to be at their duty post from 8.30am till any time they close from work. This always brings about work-family conflict. Work-family conflict (WFC) is a type of inter-responsibility clash in which the responsibility demands from the occupational and family spheres are unable to mutually coexist in such manner that involvement in the occupational (or family) role is made additionally hard by virtue of involvement in the family (or occupational) role (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985).

This definition proposes a bidirectional facet in which the sphere of work can meddle with the sphere of family and vice versa (Koekemoer & Steyl, 2011).

Therefore, if an employee is experiencing high levels of family-work role conflict, their roles and responsibilities in family life are interfering with the work domain. Meanwhile, because the employee is more committed to the welfare of the family, this will take priority, reducing or minimizing the resources of time and energy to be spent in the work domain. Thus, employees who experience high family role conflict should experience less affective commitment to the organization. Work-to-family conflict occurs when the domain of work interferes with the family demands and vice versa for work-family conflict (Ajiboye, 2008).

According to Boyars, Maetz, & Carr (2008) there exists a relationship between lengthy working periods, obligations, and heavy labour on work-family conflict. In the recent times, arguments on work-family role conflict as it affects workers` behaviour at workplace pervade existing literature. Various researchers have investigated the relationship between work-family role conflict and organizational efficiency and productivity. In most of these studies, it was found that a significant relationship exists among work-family role conflict and managerial efficiency of the managers (Popoola, 2008; Akinjide, 2006; Collins and George, 2004; Akinboye, 2003). Similarly, Poele (2003) reported that efficiency in managing organizational resources for results could be better guaranteed when various variables other than one, such as leadership style, self-efficiency, personality, work-family role conflict, job satisfaction and motivation are jointly combined by the managers in work organizations. The finding of the study is very unique because it establishes the relevance of work-family conflict as an important factor in the consideration of effective management of organizational resources for results.

Initially, scholars focused on work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict. Hughes & Bozionelos (2007) assert that the issue of work–family conflict is more complicated owing to changes in economic, globalization and equal employment opportunities. Allen (2012) suggests that work-family conflict consists of two constructs, work family conflict and family work conflict. Work and family roles are indispensable for people nowadays. Tsaur, Liang &Hsu (2012) affirm that when an individual spend more time and effort in his family role, it will definitely reduce the time and effort he invests in his work. They assert that some work arrangements, such as shift work, overtime, and working on holiday can reduce or deprive an individual family. Consequently, employees may feel dissatisfied with work because some aspects of their work factor make it impossible for them to fulfill their family demand. Cesnauskas & Lazauskaite-Zabielske, (2014) opine that work–family conflicts appear when the needs of work and family do not correlate with the needs of family and work. The nature of such conflict contains negative consequences for all – an employee, his/her family and organization to which he or she belongs.

Outlasting conflict causes stress, depression, as well as increases sickness rate or decreases self-satisfaction with work accomplished, or even family life. Simultaneously, an organisation is affected by inadequate employees’ involvement in the implemented activities, increased intention to change working place, decrease in quality of the achieved results.Therefore, executives and administration of diverse organizations attempt to decrease work-family conflict by the different means creating flexible work schedules, supporting maternity/paternity leave or child care services (Moen, 2003;Kempe & Otonkorpi-Lehtoranta, 2006; Vuga & Juvan, 2013; Cesnauskas & Lazauskaite-Zabielske, 2014). Beauregard (2006) claims that it is natural and widespread to witness the extra time spent in the job sphere unavoidably result in less time on hand to be spent at the home domain, making it exceedingly difficult to meet family obligations. From the study of Alam, Sattar and Chaudhary (2011) conducted in Dhaka, it was exposed that prolonged office hours influenced work family balance directly and off springs were the most awful sufferers of this work-family conflict.

Work–family conflict constitutes a major source of stress with adverse effect on employee’s well-being and attitudes (Matthew, Winkel and Wayne, 2014; Nohe and Sonntag, 2014) as well as on families and organisations in terms of diminished family and organisational performance (Nohe and Sonntag, 2014; Van – Steenbergen and Ellemers, 2009.) Result of the analysis of Komarraju (2006) puts forward that dual-career workers who experienced their family commitments interfering with their job activities were likely to face job dissatisfaction. Recently, the findings of Wang, Fu and Wang (2012) attested to the fact that work interfering family conflict and family interfering work conflict were positively related with emotional exhaustion and cynicism among Chinese female nurses.

2.3.2 Effort-recovery Model and Work-family Conflict

The effort-recovery model (E-R Model) proposed by Meijman (1989) asserts that employees build up negative load effects during the week day. This does not necessarily lead to negative consequences for employee’s health and well-being as long as employees are given sufficient time to recover from these effects. If the individual does not have ample private time to recover, load effects built up at work resulting from long hours, cause health problems. Furthermore, due to a lack of recovery time, the demands made in the private situation, such as domestic and private tasks, may add to the work-non-work interference. Therefore, individuals need sufficient unwinding time to recover from strain and tiredness carried from the work environment. The relevance of the effort-recovery model to the work-home interface is clear. It is plausible that high levels of job-related effort and over-commitment to the job role might result in perceived conflict between work and home. It is also likely that employees will believe that their efforts and achievements at work are not counter balanced by the rewards which they receive. It may be less likely to tolerate an intrusion into their home lives rather than those who work under more equitable conditions.

Moreover, previous studies have found out that the effort-reward imbalance may lead to negative affective reactions (Van Vegchel, De Jonge, Bosma, & Schaufeli, 2005 as cited in Kinman & Jones, 2007) as perceived inequality could also manifest itself as strain-based work-family conflict.

2.3.3 Concept of Social Support

Employee relationship at work and at home is very important for satisfaction and wellbeing. A consistent body of research has emerged over recent decades to show that close relations with family, friends, and significant others is a protective factor that helps guard against the deleterious mental and health effects of unemployment (Bjarnason & Sigurdardottir, 2003). Thus, lack of social support is positively related to depressive and anxious symptomatology, both in the general population (Siedlecki, Salthouse, Oishi & Jeswani 2014) and among the unemployed population (Rey, Extremera & Pela´ez-Ferna´ndez, 2015). Social support is an informal social network that provides individuals with expressions of emotional concern or empathy, practical assistance, informational support or appraisal (Etzion, 1984).

Mc–Terman, Dollard, Tuckey & Vandenberg, (2016) affirm that social support may aid in preventing the stress response by functioning as a resource that provides alternate means to address the stressor. Increased social support (both by work and non-work sources) is related to increased health and well-being (Adams, King, & King, 1996). Individuals with different sources of support (ex-coworkers, community and financial resources) create a buffering effect that helps individuals deal with work-family conflict (Martins, Eddleston & Veiga, 2002; Cinamon & Rich, 2010). Social support can be regarded as important factors in dealing with job as it provides a supportive work environment to reduce the level of stress in the lives of their employees. This can be done formally by recognising the importance of an employee’s family and supporting other activities not directly related to career success (Boles, Johnston & Hair, 1997).

Social support refers to “an interpersonal transaction that involves emotional concern, instrumental aid, information, or appraisal” (Carlson & Perrewé, 1999). It is also defined as the help or care from other persons that individuals can accept, feel or notice (Wang, Cai, Qian & Peng, 2014). Good social support can help in maintaining a good emotional experience and protect an individual who is under stress (Maulik, Eaton & Bradshaw, 2011). Previous research on work pressure done by Cohen and Wills (1985) emphasizes that social support can play a vital role in a workplace pressure environment. The researchers highlight that employee may be less affected by stressful workplace event if they feel organisationally supported. Supporting this view, Hur, Moon and Jun (2013) emphasise the importance of employees’ perceptions about their organisational support to ensure the success of business operations and how organisational support may influence workers, who often feel they are under stressful conditions.

Van-Daalen (2006) asserts that social support is the exchange of resources between at least two persons with the goal of helping the person who receives the support a supportive work environment and providing the employee with emotional resources such as understanding, advice and recognition. Several studies have also found evidence to link negative work conditions to increased levels of stress at home, less satisfying family relationship, poorer mental well-understanding, advice and recognition. Gillespie and Grzywacz (2001) found out that social support from colleagues at work was reported by half of the academic staff in their study as valuable in moderating stress, and that many reported the importance of support from their manager and senior management. Martins, Eddleston and Veiga (2002) found that it is very important for employers that would like to develop a motivated and committed workforce to fully understand the contributing factors that can influence their employee’s satisfaction in their caree. Such employer should provide social supports to its workers so that they could cope with the multiple roles they performed.

According to Seiger and Wiese (2009) social support helps individual to retain existing resources and gain new resources. With an increasing number of women in the workforce, Maxwell and Dougall (2004) found that organisations are more likely to offer more work-life balance programmes due to individual’s home responsibilities. Boden (1999) suggests that employers should seek to create working conditions that are more accommodating of workers personal lives by creating flexible work schedules. In providing work-life balance programmes, there is the potential to better support employees (Milliken, Martins & Morgan, 1998). Research has demonstrated that supportive work-family culture and informal support have a greater effect on work-family conflict than do formal family-friendly organizational policies (Major & Lauzun, 2010). The supervisor can determine how satisfying a job can be by influencing how demanding is the job (Gilbreath & Benson, 2004). Support from supervisors has been reported to reduce work role conflict, role ambiguity, and resultant work-family conflict (Major& Lauzun, 2010).

When supervisors are perceived to be supporting employees, there will be improvement in employees “commitment to the organization (Thornhill and Saunders, 1998) and reduced reported levels of stress and work-family conflict (Cinamon and Rich, 2010; Judge and Colquitt, 2004).Working mothers with supportive bosses report being less irritable and experience reduced stress levels. This also determines how much autonomy the employee has in the job and the sense of achievement that comes from doing the job (Purcell & Hutchinson, 2007). The relationship between front line managers and their own managers is important and has been shown as the most influential variable explaining front line manager’s own levels of affective commitment and job satisfaction (Purcell & Hutchinson, 2007).

It has been explained that a supervisor’s support expands individual’s psychological resource base, such as confidence, which may enhance performance in the family domain (Baral & Bhargava, 2010). Hossam, Asayesh, Ghorbani, Shariati & Nasiri (2011) investigated the association between perceived social support, mental health and life satisfaction among Shahed students in state universities in Gorgan. Social support, as a very important source in both work and family life can reduce the negative effects of job and family stressors. Generous, Parasuraman, and Greenhaus (1992) argue that social support, as an adjustment source, can play a significant role in the face of job and family stressors. First, social support can directly affect pressure and other negative consequences of these stressors in different spheres of life and reduce pressure level experienced. Also, social support can moderate the effects of stressors on individuals’ health profiles and welfare in both family and career life.

A review of studies on the relationship between social support and work-family conflict shows that lack of social support in both work and family life leads to higher levels of work-family conflict (Matthews, Bulger, Barnes & Farrell, 2010; Cortes, Colombo, & Gilsiri, 2010, Blanch & Aluja, 2012; Seeger & Weiss, 2009). In explaining the components of the two variables under study, it should be noted that if a person receives sufficient support from family, friends, and others (such as peers in the workplace), he can effectively manage time-based work interference with family, debilitation-based work interference with family, behaviour-based work interference with family, time-based family interference with work, debilitation-based family interference with work, and behaviour-based family interference with work.)

2.3.4 Social Support Theory

The theoretical perspective on social support research indicates that the availability of social support contributes to overall well-being (Lakey & Cohen, 2000). More commonly, social support has been operationalised and conceptualised in perceptual, dynamic, and structural terms. The perception that one is loved for, cared for, and valued are examples of perceptual social support variables (Cobb, 1976) whereas the exchange of resources to enhance the well- being of recipient has been identified as dynamic process of social support (Schumaker & Brownell, 1994). Four categories of social support in terms of emotional social support (for example, empathy, love, caring, trust, etc.), appraisal social support (for example affirmation, feedback), informational social support (for example, guidance, suggestion, direction, etc.) and instrumental social support (e.g., help in terms of time, in-kind assistance) have been recognized as structures and categories of social support (House, 1981; Nelson & Quick, 1991). The strain-reducing effect of social support changes with its theoretical placement in the model. Social support has been used as an independent, intervening, antecedent, moderating, and mediating variable (Carlson & Perrewé, 1999).

With the assertion that social support promotes coping by reducing the effects of stressors on the strain experienced, the proposition is that the strain which is experienced in form of work-family conflict as a result of increased job demands (stressors) can be reduced with the availability of social support. This suggestion about the relationship between job demands, work-family conflict and social support purports that there is an indirect relationship between social support and work-family conflict. Although some studies indicate that social support mediates the relationship between job demands and work - family conflict (Anderson, Coffey & Byerly, 2002; Frone, Yardley & Markel, 1997; Warren & Johnson, 1995) a few studies have examined social support as antecedent to job demand variables (Fisher, 1985; Frone, Yardley and Markel 1997). Social support has indirect and intervening relationship with job demands and work-family conflict. Another possible way in which the availability of social support may influence the level of work-family conflict experienced is through direct effect whereby its presence is associated with reducing the negative consequences of work-family conflict (Thomas & Ganster, 1995).

2.3.5 Empirical Review

2.3.6 Job Demand, Job Satisfaction and Well-Being

Tsai, Chang & Chang (2010) conducted a study to investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and job demand. The study included 604 employees from 13 well-known hospitality companies in Taipei City, Taiwan. The path coefficients of the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis showed that job satisfaction was positively related to job demand. In another study, Gunlu, Aksarayi & Percin (2010) also extended research on work related attitude to the hospitality industry by examining the effect of job satisfaction on organizational commitment among 123 hotel managers in Turkey. The finding from multiple regression analysis indicated that overall job satisfaction was positively related to both normative and affective commitment. However, overall job satisfaction did not significantly have relationship with continuance commitment. They emphasised that the non–significant relationship between job satisfactions was due to mobility characteristics of the hospitality where employees find it much easier to work in many different hotels.

Similarly, Tella, Ayeni & Popoola (2007) investigated the relationship among work motivation, job satisfaction and organisational commitment among 200 library personnel in academic and research libraries in Oyo State, Nigeria. The finding of this study revealed that both perceived work motivation and job satisfaction were significant predictors of organizational commitment. Rita, Atindanbila, & Abepuoring (2013) conducted a study among the nurses of two different Ridge and Pantang hospitals of Ghana to identify the level of job satisfaction and job demand. The study proves that different factors of job demand have impact on job satisfaction. 105 nurses were selected from both hospitals as a sample. The results showed that the level of job demand and job satisfaction is same in both hospitals. The result also shows that the level of workload was higher in Ridge Hospital and there was weak negative relationship between job demand and job satisfaction among these two hospitals.

Hans, Mubeen, & Saadi (2014) conducted a study on job demand, job satisfaction and well- being among the headmasters of Building School in Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. Simple random sampling technique was used to select the participants. They took 40 headmasters of that school as sample. The result of the study showed that the headmasters of the Building School felt high level of job satisfaction in their challenging work and were more likely to experience stress at their work which affected their well-being. Another study on the influence of wage on job satisfaction found that changes in wage correlated with job satisfaction. “The Impact of Wage Increases on Job Satisfaction – Empirical Evidence and Theoretical Implications” by Grund & Sliwka (2001), found out that job satisfaction “strongly depends on the relative wage increase as well as the absolute wage level,” (Grund et al., 2001). The goal of Grund & Sliwka’s (2001) study was to establish the idea that job satisfaction depended on wage level.

Grund & Sliwka also analyzed both absolute and relative wage, something that most other studies did not do. Grund & Sliwka included change in wage in its empirical analyses. It was argued that perceived utility was not only dependent on absolute wage but relative wage. Both studies found similar results; change in wage was positively correlated with job satisfaction.

2.3.7 Work- family Conflict, Job Satisfaction and Well-being

. Boles, Howard, & Donofrio, (2001) investigated the relationship of work-family conflict and different facets of job satisfaction (i.e., satisfaction with pay, work itself, co-w orker and supervision). They attempted to identify the direction of conflict that was more important as a predictor of job satisfaction. They found that both WFC and FWC were significantly related to all aspects of job satisfaction. They also found that WFC could be more important and powerful to use as predictor of various aspects of job satisfaction. Previous studies work –family conflict shows that work-family conflict has negative relationship towards job satisfaction (Boles et al. 2001; Anderson et al.2002) and organizational commitment (Carlson, et al, 2000). In the study conducted by Wright and Cropanzano (2000) on job satisfaction and psychological well-being as a predictor of job performance, report that psychological well-being had a predictive effect upon job performance; however, psychological well-being had no predictive effect upon the job satisfaction.However, In the study conducted by Witte (1999) on 336 iron workers, He found out that there is a strong relationship between unreliability against the job and psychological well-being of the workers.

Also in another study conducted by Terry, Nielsen and Perchard (1993) carried out on 153 public workers, found out that job stress have a negative effect upon the psychological well-being and job satisfaction. Several organisational researchers have identified a number of possible antecedents to job satisfaction. This is because job satisfaction is an important workplace construct and one that is of great concern for effective management. Some of the antecedents of job satisfaction include a variety of perceptions and attitudes. For example, supportive supervision is related to job satisfaction. Johansson (2002) and Anafarta (2011) claimed that there was a reciprocal link between work family conflict and family work conflict and that work family conflict had an authority on determining job satisfaction while family life conflict did not have an effect on job satisfaction. Beauregard (2006) claimed that it was natural and widespread to witness that the extra time spent in the job sphere unavoidably resulted in fewer time on hand to be spent at the home domain, making it exceedingly difficult to meet the family obligations.

Anafarta and Kuruüzüm (2012) found out that the degree of work family conflict experienced by both men and women was soaring, and there was no statistically significant difference between their averages. In both men and women, the WFC was negatively associated with education. However, in men work family conflict was negatively related with marital status whereas, in women it was positively related with it. Namayandeh, Juhari and Yaacob (2011) concluded that work family conflict among wedded female nurses in Shiraz (Iran) was associated with work satisfaction and family unit satisfaction. Nadeem and Abbas (2009) found from their research that occupational strain coupled with work life conflict resulted in variation in the work satisfaction of the workers. Work to family intervention, family to work intervention and strain were negatively connected with work satisfaction.

Job independence and work burden is positively related with job satisfaction. The relation between work-family conflict and the big five individuality model was investigated by Blanch and Aluja (2009) and it was uncovered that work requirement, work and family unit encouragement and neuroticism were the most crucial factors which meddled with work life. Noor and Maad (2008) looked at the association between work-family conflict, strain and turnover intentions experienced by Pakistani employees working in marketing area. They found that work-family conflict and strain had positive liaison with employees’ turnover intentions. Dealing with work and family roles involves emotional labour, and this is taxing making conflict between the two domains inevitable (Daalen et al., 2009). Several researches have attested to the fact that employees who experience work-family conflict are more vulnerable to job burnout (Burke, & Greenglass, 2001; Anand, Nagle, Misra & Dangi, 2013). Montgomery, Panagopolou, Wildt, and Meenks (2006) for example, found that work-family interference had a significant effect on burnout among workers in a Dutch government organisation.

Noor and Zainuddin (2011) reported that work-family correlated positively and significantly with emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. Recently, the findings of Wang, Chang, Fu, and Wang (2012) confirmed that work interfering family conflict and family interfering work conflict were positively related with emotional exhaustion and cynicism among Chinese female nurses. Work-related demand has been linked to a host of physical illness (such as heart disease, cancer, and pain), emotional and psychological distress (e.g., depression, anxiety) and several negative work attitude and behaviours such as job dissatisfaction, burnout, poor commitment and high turnover intention among service workers (Jamals & Bada, 1992; Jamal & Bada, 2000;Alves, Chor, Faerstein, & Werneck, 2004). In the Nigerian context, Salami (2011) found that job stress increased lecturers’ vulnerability to emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment.

Recently, Ogungbamila & Nwankwo, (2013) found that workload predicted emotional exhaustion among bank employees. Therefore, it is not out of place to posit that non- academic staff in Nigerian polytechnics that experience work-family conflict and high level of job demand are likely to be more vulnerable to lack of job satisfaction.

2.3.8 Social Support, Job Satisfaction and Well-being

Several theoretical models attempt to explain the process through which social support may impact job satisfaction and well-being of workers. The main-effects model posits that social support has important implications for individual’s job satisfaction and well-being regardless of the presence or absence of life stress (Cohen, Underwood, & Gottlieb, 2000). They compared social support of physically battered and verbally abused women recruited from shelters and other community settings cross-section ally and found that women’s perceived support had positive effects on job satisfaction and well-being regardless of the type of abuse experienced, despite the initial hypothesis that social support is a protective, buffering factor.

Ogunyemi and Awoyele (2014) investigated the buffering effects of critical life event, organisational climate and social support on Subjective Well-Being (SWB) of bank workers. The participants were five hundred and forty (540) bank workers (mean age 35.4) selected from 108 banks through stratified and simple random sampling techniques from the 18 senatorial districts in the six states (Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ondo, Ekiti, Lagos) of Southwest Nigeria. Four instruments, subjective happiness scale, impact of event scale, organizational climate descriptive questionnaire and Duke- UNC functional social support questionnaire were utilised for data generation. The data collected were analyzed using multiple regressions (stepwise) and t-test statistics. Findings showed that the three predictor variables (critical life event, organisational climate and social support) combined and individually, predicted the criterion variable (SWB). Finding also indicated that critical life event was the most potent contributor to the prediction of SWB of bank workers. The implications of these findings for the government, policy makers and employers of labour, who may be interested in effective functioning and general well-being of workers, were discussed.

Research has demonstrated that the availability of social support at work helps to reduce the negative experience of work –family conflict (Andrson et al 2002; Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1986; Thomas & Gaster, 1995). A study by Karatepe and Kilic (2009) found that supervisor support reduced wor –family conflict among frontline employees in Northern Cyprus Hotel and this was comfirmed by empirical data. This finding was supported by the study of Frye and Breaugh (2004), which indicated that the supervisor support gave important consequences to work–family conflict and reduced work-family conflict. Muse and Pichler (2011) suggested that the supervisor support and family support were the key predictors to work –family conflict. Edwins, Buffardi, Casper, & Brien (2001) also suggested that social support can be seen as a resource that has been found to be associated with reduced work- family conflict. Findings of Wadworth and Owen (2007) in public organization sectors in two western cities in the U.S.A confirmed that social support, especially from work sources, reduced the possibility of work interference with family, which was one of the directions of work- family conflict.

Lai (2011) in his study among hotel employees in Beijing and Hong Kong reported that family support can reduce work-family conflict among Chinese family, which is known by its Confucian ideology and familistic collectivism society. The familistic collectivism society study revealved that support from family was more effective in reducing work–family conflict by employees than support from work Jo and Shim (2015) found that work related characteristics, especially coworkers and supervisors support, significantly affect police officer’s job satisfaction. They also found out that neither demographics nor community characteristics influenced job satisfaction. The study once again proved that a positive relationship exists between job satisfaction and managerial support. Jonjil and Choi (2017) investigated how and whether different sources of social support influence quality of life and job satisfaction among teachers. The findings revealed that director-colleague support predicted job satisfaction. The results proved that managerial support is of the utmost importance in job satisfaction among teachers. Pohl and Galleta (2017) investigated supervisors’ emotional support as a strong determinant of job satisfaction.

The results showed that cross-level interactions were significant for job satisfaction. The employees with high levels of work engagement showed high level of job satisfaction and this relationship was stronger when the supervisors’ emotional support at group level was high. This also proved that managerial support is very important for job satisfaction among employees.Unavailability of social support from supervisors has been associated with higher incidence of work-family conflict, job dissatisfaction (Anderson et,al. 2002) Increased supervisor’s social support and co- worker’s support have been associated with lower incidence of work-family conflict, and lack of social support has been related to higher level of work–family conflict.( Greehaus et al., 1987; Stephenss & Sommer 1995). Garcia-Izquierdo, Albar-Marin and Garcia-Ramirez (2008) investigated the role of three sources of social support in a sample of 210 nurses at three hospitals in Seville. Each of the three sources of social support (family, co-workers and supervisor) had significant relationships with emotional exhaustion. Albar Marin and Garcia-Ramirez (2005) in a sample of 210 nurses from hospitals in Seville, reported that higher levels of social support were associated with lower levels of emotional exhaustion.

Meadows, Kaslow, Thompson, and Jurkovic (2005) found that social support was negatively related to the likelihood of suicide attempts for women with histories of abuse. Coker, Smith, et al. (2002) found that social support was beneficial for women’s overall mental health. Social support has also been theorized as a moderator, or buffer for people experiencing stress (Cohen et al., 2000). For survivors, this model suggests that social support functions as a protective factor, mitigating the impact of abuse on women’s well-being. Thus, abuse may have a differential impact on women’s well-being, depending on their perceived level of social support. Several researchers have cross examined the buffering effects of social support on survivors’ mental health, job satisfaction and well- being. Kaslow et al. (1998) investigated social support, abuse, and suicidal behaviour among African American women recruited from a public health care system, finding that abused women with greater social support were less likely to attempt suicide than those with low levels of support.

Carlson, McNutt, Choi, and Rose (2002) examined social support and other protective factors (self-esteem, education, income, employment, and good health) as buffers against negative mental health impacts of recent IPV, lifetime IPV, and child abuse among women from primary care settings. When coupled with other protective factors, social support moderated the relationship between abuse and anxiety but not in the expected direction. The buffering effects were less pronounced at higher levels of lifetime abuse, suggesting that protective factors such as social support may be insufficient for women experiencing the most severe abuse. The underlying theoretical construct is the demand control/support model which suggests that the demands of work can be balanced by the level of control experienced as well as by the level of social support (Dollard, 2001; Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998). Ismail et al. (2012) carried out a study to scan the association between the humanistic social support from workplace and work-family conflict. The results explained that the willingness of supervisors and colleagues to sufficiently present material and moral cooperation in performing jobs had lessen the work-family conflict faced by workers.

Most employees spend majority of their lives at the work place and by extension tend to form interpersonal relationships and friendships at the workplace. Most research studies have reported the importance of recognition and feedback for retaining valuable employees (Allen, Shore & Griffeth, 2003; Morrow, 2011). Jongil and Choi (2017) investigated how and whether different sources of social support influence quality of life and job satisfaction among teachers. The finding revealed that the director-colleague support predicted job satisfaction of teachers. Some research studies have demonstrated that a positive relationship exists between job satisfaction and supervision (Smucker, Whisenant & Pedersen, 2003; Mafini & Dlodlo, 2013). Robbins (2003) reveals that supervision forms a critical role in relating to job satisfaction. This satisfaction may arise from the supervisors’ ability to provide emotional and technical support and guidance on work related duties.

Some study findings have indicated that supervision is a predictor of job satisfaction (Labedo, 2008 cited in Mafina & Dlodlo, 2013). Mafini & Dlodlo (2013) reported a positive and moderate association between supervision and job satisfaction. It was further revealed that supervision is a statistically significant predictor of job satisfaction. Tabassum (2012) had proposed and analyzed a research model that attempted to investigate the relationship between social support and job satisfaction. The results of her study revealed that support from family and cooperations from colleague were negatively allied with job satisfaction. However, no negative association was noticed between supervisor and colleague support and job satisfaction. Researchers identified the relationship between social support at work and employee’s health and well-being (Nabavi & Shahriari, 2012). Studies by McCall, Lombardo and Morrison (1998) found out that supervisor support facilitates employee’s job satisfaction, staff development, on the–job learning and organisational commitment. According to Boyar and Monley (2007) the support of the immediate supervisor has a central impact on the experience and perception of workplace well-being.

Diriwaechter and Shvartsmana (2018) analysed how individual job satisfaction is affected by salary changes. The results showed that wage increase have statistically significant positive effect on job satisfaction for up to four years after increase. The study proved that salary plays an important role in job satisfaction. Also Thies and Serratt (2018) found that factors that contributed to nursing degree faculty job satisfaction were interpersonal interaction, professional status, autonomy, dissatisfaction associated with salary, organisational policies and the workload. These authorss findings proved that professional status which can be linked to great growth and promotional opportunities, often lead to better satisfied employees.

2.3.9 Gender, Staff Cadre, Job Satisfaction and Well-being.

. French-Canadian sample of physical therapists and psychologists, Senecal, Vallerand, and Guay (2001) found no differences between male and female persons in their levels of work family conflict. Gender differences in job satisfaction have attracted attention of researchers. Greenhaus, Parasuraman and Wormley (1990) found no significant differences in gender but they justified this outcome explaining that all the male participants have a higher position (managerial professional jobs) than female, who had more clerical jobs.

Liu and White (2011) reported that the primary determinants of job satisfaction were intrinsic factors that the work that they did made employees to be satisfied and that gender, job positios, educational level, work experience and hospital size were not siginificant in determining job satisfaction. Fu and Shaffer (2001) observed gender differences with women displaying higher levels of FWC and men more WFC. Matai, Nishikido and Murashima (2008) reported no significant gender difference in the total level of WFC, and that the level of work interference with family was significantly higher in male than female and the level of family interference with work was significantly higher in female. Many researches have been carried out to examine the job satisfaction of non–academic staff with effect of sex differences. Findings regarding sex differences are inconsistent. Some studies (Nadjla & Hasan, 2009; Ogunlana, Okunlaya, Ajani, Okunoye& Oshinaike 2013; Wahba, 1975) reported that male are more satisfied than female, but some studies (Amune, 2014) reported that female are more satisfied that male.

Some researchers (Ghaisi & Limoni, 2015; Onuoha, Samuel & Ojo, 2014; Mirfakhai, 1991; Somvir & Kaushik, 2012) have reported that there are no differences between sexes regarding job satisfaction. Results in a study by Ansari (2011) indicate no significant gender difference with regard to work-family interference and family-to-work interference. Research conducted by Carrillo-Garcia, Carmen Solano-Ruiz, Marinez-Roche and Gomez-Garcia (2013) emphasise the relationship between job satisfaction and gender differences. They found a significant relationship between the two variables. The sample consisted of 246 health care professionals at a university hospital in Murcia. Remarkably, they observed that women expressed more satisfaction than men (Carrillo-Garcia et al, 2013). Likewise, Kim (2005) found the same outcomes of Carrillo-Garcia and colleagues’ study; women experienced a higher level of job satisfaction than men despite the fact that, according to the researcher, they were recompensed with lower salaries. Moreover, he emphasised the datum that women also received less autonomy and promotional opportunity be compared to male subjects (Kim, 2005).

A study of bank employee in the U.K by Emslie, Hunt & Macintyre (2004) found that whilst there were no significant gender differences in perceptions of work-home conflict, there were gender differences in predictors of this conflict. Having children and working in a senior position were found to be a predictor of work-home conflict for women but not for men, while working unsociable hours was a stronger predictor of work home conflictfor men than women. Sangeeta, Bhatnagar and Jain (2014) examined the impact of the demographic variables on the work-life balance of software professionals in metro cities. Data were collected from 100 employees of five Information Technology companies of Delhi and CR, using questionnaire. There is evidence from the analysis that there is significant indifference between age, marital status and work load, but there is significant difference between gender and work load of Information Technology professionals and there is significant indifference between gender, marital status and losing of temper. There is also significant difference between age and losing of temper of Information Technology professionals.

The study suggests that Information Technology companies should take care of employee’s work load to balance the work-life. The Information Technology companies should consider every individual as unique and precious and should give time for their own personal needs. The Information Technology companies should increase work-life balance programme to reduce family-work conflict and promote well-being of its workforce. Another study that delved on the details that could be behind the significant relationship between job satisfaction and gender was the one conducted by Kifle and Desta (2012). They found out that male persons are more satisfied that female with the hours of work, promotion opportunities and workload. They found out that the relationship with co-workers and the contribution to society was associated to women’s satisfaction. Therefore, they drew the conclusion that male are satisfied with intrinsic dimensions of job satisfaction; women, instead, are more satisfied with extrinsic aspects of job satisfaction (Kifle and Desta, 2012). Conversely, Ghazzawi (2010) and Gumbang, Suki and Suki (2010) found a no significant relationship between gender and job satisfaction.

Rajadhyaksha and Ramadoss (2012) reported that of the various work-to-family conflict variables examined, there was a significant difference between men and women in work-to-parent conflict and energy-based strain but not in work spouse conflict, work-leisure conflict or work homemaker conflict. Matai, Nishikido and Murashima, (2008) remarked that some research studies found no gender difference, while other studies found that female reported higher levels of some dimensions of work-family conflict and that several studies carried out in Japan showed that female workers experienced higher work interfering with family and family interfering with work than male worker. Osagbemi (2003) found out that there is no significant difference between men and women in terms of expectations on pay, fringe benefit and nature of job. Malik (2011) revealed that overall gender differences can be seen as women do not have high expectations on pay, fringe benefit, nature of job e.t.c. Some studies found that the overall job satisfaction of hotel employees is related to age with a positive linear function (Frye and Mount, 2007; Sarker, et al., 2003).

Maturity, work experience and tenure advantages can lead the employee to adjust his/her work expectations to a more realistic level. Other empirical studies posited that there is no significant relationship between gender and job satisfaction among hotel industry employees (Frye and Mount, 2007; Jabulani, 2001; Shinnar, 1998). In a study conducted by Owoeye (2014) on emotional intelligence on job satisfaction of employees in Oyo State found out that there is no significant difference in job satisfaction of male and female senior and junior, as well as between single and married employees but there is a significant difference in job satisfaction of old and new employee. Furthermore, Hasnain, Ansari, & Sethi (2011) found significantly greater life satisfaction and lower self-esteem for working women than- for non- working women. It, therefore, becomes pertinent to explore the gender-differences in job satisfaction, well-being vis-a-vis job demand, work-family conflict and social support. The study of professional employees in Canada by (McElwain, Korabik, & Rosin, 2005) found that while there were no gender differences in family-work conflict, women experienced higher levels of work-family conflict.

Some of the studies examining gender and work-family conflict used general population samples. However, due to the gender structure of the labour market, gender comparisons within general population samples are problematic as they do not tend to compare with findings (Lundberg, 1996;Emslie et al., 2004; Winslow, 2005; Emslie & Hunt, 2009). Some studies have found evidence of gender differences in work-family conflict. The predominant finding is that women experience higher work-to-family conflict than men (Berntsson, Lundberg & Krantz, 2006; Burke, Lundberg, Mardberg, & Frankenhaeuser, 1994; Duxbury, Higgins, & Lee, 1994; Greenglass, Williams & Alliger, 1994; Marshall & Barnett, 1993). However, a study of employed people in the Netherlands (Jansen, Kant, Kristensen, & Nijhuis, 2003) and a study of working students in the United States (Eagle, Icenogle, Maes, & Miles, 1998) found that men experience significantly higher levels of work-to-family conflict than women. Bond (2003) stressed that wellbeing is often measured as happiness or satisfaction with life.

The search for happiness is often confused with the pursuit of pleasure, but wellbeing is about more than living ‘the good life; it is about having meaning in life, about fulfilling our potential and feeling that our lives are worthwhile. Sinha & Verma, 1992 and McCulloch (1991) have shown that satisfaction, morale, positive affect and social support constitute psychological wellbeing. Olatunde and Odusanya (2015) conducted a study on job satisfaction and psychological wellbeing among mental health nurses. The researchers made use of systematic random sampling technique in selecting 110 mental health nurses in Neuro-psychiatric Hospital, Aro Abeokuta. A well-structured questionnaire was administered to collect data from the nurses. Data collected were analysed with the use of Chi-Square statistical analysis. The findings from the study revealed that job satisfaction had a positive significant relationship with psychological wellbeing. Job satisfaction also significantly relate to older age of respondents. The result also shows that there is no cadre difference in job satisfaction and well –being of nurses. There was a significantly positive relationship between job satisfaction and psychological well-being.

The researchers concluded that continuous efforts should be made to examine other factors in the work environment that can impact positively on the psychological wellbeing and job satisfaction of mental health nurses. Lisa (2014) also conducted a study on the employees who worked in several fields ranging from customer service, accounting and finance, administration, information technology, marketing, underwriting and also sales and claims. It was found out that management and supervisor support (supportive work- family culture) effectively reduce perceptions of work-family conflict, which helps to reduce some of the negative effects of work–family conflict on employees’ well-being. Duxbury and Higgins, (2003) examined cadre as a predictor of job satisfaction and well-being. It was established that employees in managerial and professional positions report higher level of work–family conflict than those working in non- managerial and non-professional position. Carnicer, deLuis, Sanches, Perez & Jimenez (2004) discovered that there were differences in the job category level with respect to work- family conflict.

Hurlbert (1991) found that social support do has some effect on job satisfaction, but the results were not “overwhelming.” There is an increase in job satisfaction of members which are benefiting from co-worker’s suport.

2.4.0 Appraisal of Literature

Despite numerous opinions and research findings by several authors and researches, job satisfaction and well-being problems appear to be worsening among workers. Although attempts have been made by scholars to identify the factors contributing to this problem and to proffer solution, the problem of lack of job satisfaction and well-being among non-academic staff still prevails. Certain important variables have been largely ignored. In particular, available literature relating to job demand, work-family conflict and social support on job satisfaction and well-being among non - academic staff is scanty although many studies have been carried out on the impact of job involvement and workload. Yet little has been said about job demand, its relationship with job satisfaction and well-being among non- academic staff.

Almost all literature sources are from studies carried out in countries outside Sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria in particular. Most of the research problems were undertaken in the developed and developing countries. The literature reviewed revealed that job demand, as well as work-family conflicts and social support, have been identified as potential independently influential factors in workers’ job satisfaction and well-being. job demand, in particular, is described as essential factor which has attracted the attention of researchers and owners of organizations because it is believed that reduction in job demand of workers will not only promote their well-being, it will go a long way in the realisation of the organisational goal and maximising profit,similarly,work-family conflict as potential influential factors in job satisfaction and well- being has been described as the incompatibility of family demand and job demand of workers. Even, social support is reported to be critical to workers’ job satisfaction and well-being.

2.5.0 Conceptual Model

Independent Variables Moderating Variables Dependent Variable