anatomy

PHAR 110G APP-1

Anatomy, Physiology & Pathophysiology I

8-17-2020

Desuo Wang, PhD

Critical Thinking Questions to Discuss

1. Describe the levels of body organization and relate it to pharmacy

practice

2. How the body maintains its homeostasis

3. Describe the anatomic position

4. How many types of tissues the body has

5. Compare between serous membrane and mucous membrane

6. Distinguish between exocrine and endocrine glands

Learning Objectives: Organization and General Plan of the Body

 Name the levels of organization of the body

 Name the human organ systems and their major Organs

 Relationship between organ systems: homeostasis

 Describe the anatomic position

Name the body cavities, their membranes, and some organs

within each cavity

 State the anatomic terms for the parts of the body

 Describe the anatomic sections of the body or an organ

 Use proper terminology to describe the location of body parts with

respect to one another

 Describe the four quadrants of abdominal regions and name organs

in the areas

Anatomy: to dissect the body to learn its structures (names, location, size, shape, color, and composition

Physiology: to study how the body functions.

Activity: Describe the relationship and connection between Anatomy and Physiology

Pathophysiology: to study the abnormality related to diseases. Deals with any disturbances of body functions caused by diseases

Activity: Describe the relationship and connection between Anatomy/ Physiology and Patholophysiology

Pharmacology and Therapuetics: Drug action to the body and use the drugs to treat diseases

Introduction

From chemicals to organism

Urinary system

Organization of the Human Body

Molecular (drug target)  

Cellular 

Tissue 

Organ  

Organ system  

Whole body (symptoms)

Activity: relate to pharmacy practice

Which of the following is a correct order of organization of human

body? (99%/-0.02) A. Molecular_Cellular_Tissue_Organ_Organ system_Whole body

B. Molecular_Tissue_Cellular_Organ_Organ system_Whole body C. Molecular_Cellular_Tissue_Organ system_Organ_Whole body D. Whole body_Organ system_Tissue_Organ_Cellular_Molecular

11 Human Organ systems

11 BODY ORGAN SYSTEMS System Description and Functions Organs (examples)

Integumentary · Is a barrier to pathogens and chemicals · Prevents excessive water loss

skin, subcutaneous tissue

Skeletal · Supports the body · Protects internal organs and red bone marrow · Provides a framework to be moved by muscles

bones, ligaments

Muscular · Moves the skeleton · Produces heat

muscles, tendons

Nervous · Interprets sensory information · Regulates body functions such as movement by means of

electrochemical impulses brain, nerves, eyes, ears

Endocrine · Regulates body functions such as growth and reproduction

by means of hormones · Regulates day-to-day metabolism by means of hormones

thyroid gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, adrenal gland

Circulatory · Transports oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removes

waste products heart, blood, blood vessels

Lymphatic · Returns tissue fluid to the blood · Destroys pathogens that enter the body and provides immunity

spleen, lymph nodes

Respiratory · Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and blood lungs, trachea, larynx, diaphragm

Digestive · Changes food to simple chemicals that can be absorbed and

used by the body stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas

Urinary · Removes waste products from the blood · Regulates volume and pH of blood and tissue fluid

kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra

Reproductive · Produces eggs or sperm · In women, provides a site for the developing embryo-fetus

Female: ovaries, uterus Male: testes, prostate gland

Which of the following statement is correct? (97%/0.18) A. Kidney is an organ system B. Kidney is an organ in respiratory system C. Kidney is a tissue in urinary system

D. Kidney is an organ in urinary system

Definition: a type of regulation in biological systems in which the end product of a process in turn reduces the stimulus of that same process.

Negative feedback

Activity: describe the importance of negative feedback mechanism in the maintenance of body internal environment stable (homeostasis)

Examples: Hyper/Hypothyrodism

Discussion points

Anatomic position

Definition: A subject who is standing upright facing forward, arms at the sides with palms forward, and the feet slightly apart

Body parts and Areas

BODY PARTS AND AREAS Term Definition (Refers to)

Antebrachial forearm

Antecubital front of elbow

Axillary armpit

Brachial upper arm

Buccal (oral) mouth

Cardiac heart

Cervical neck

Cranial head

Cutaneous skin

Deltoid shoulder

Femoral thigh

Frontal forehead

Gastric stomach

Gluteal buttocks

Hepatic liver

Iliac hip

Inguinal groin

Lumbar small of back

Mammary breast

Nasal nose

Occipital back of head

Orbital eye

Parietal crown of head

Patellar kneecap

Pectoral chest

Pedal foot

Perineal pelvic floor

Plantar sole of foot

Popliteal back of knee

Pulmonary lungs

Renal kidney

Sacral base of spine

Scapular shoulder blade

Sternal breastbone

Temporal side of head

Umbilical navel

Volar (palmar)

palm

BODY PARTS AND AREAS Term Definition (Refers to)

TERMS OF LOCATION AND POSITION Term Definition Example

Superior above, or higher The heart is superior to the liver.

Inferior below, or lower The liver is inferior to the lungs.

Anterior toward the front The chest is on the anterior side of the body.

Posterior toward the back The lumbar area is posterior to the umbilical area.

Ventral toward the front The mammary area is on the ventral side of the body.

Dorsal toward the back The buttocks are on the dorsal side of the body.

Medial toward the midline The heart is medial to the lungs.

Lateral away from the midline The shoulders are lateral to the neck.

Internal within, or interior to The brain is internal to the skull.

External outside, or exterior to The ribs are external to the lungs.

Superficial toward the surface The skin is the most superficial organ.

Deep within, or interior to The deep veins of the legs

Central the main part The brain is part of the central nervous system.

Peripheral extending from the main part Nerves in the arm and leg

Proximal closer to the origin The knee is proximal to the foot.

Distal farther from the origin The palm is distal to the elbow.

Parietal pertaining to the wall of a cavity The parietal pleura lines the chest cavity.

Visceral pertaining to the organs within a cavity The visceral pleura covers the lungs.

Body cavities (lateral view from the left side)

Which of the following is not a body cavity? (96%/0.06) A. Thoracic cavity B. Abdominal cavity C. Pelvic cavity D. Cranial cavity

E. Stomach cavity

(A) Planes and sections of the body.

(B) Cross-section and longitudinal section of the small intestine.

(C) Transverse section through the upper abdomen.

Anatomic Planes and sections

A plane is an imaginary flat surface that separates two portions of the body or an organ.

Frontal (coronal) section, a plane from side to side separates the body into front and back portions.

Sagittal section, a plane from front to back separates the body into right and left portions. A midsagittal section creates equal right and left halves.

Transverse section, a horizontal plane separates the body into upper and lower portions.

Cross-section, a plane perpendicular to the long axis of an organ.

Longitudinal section, a plane along the long axis of an organ.

The liver, for example, is located in the epigastric and right hypochondriac areas.

Division of the abdomen Area

Four quadrants Nine regions

The liver, for example, is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen area. Or:

 Name the four types of body tissues

 Describe the functions of the subtypes of epithelial tissues

 Describe the functions of the connective tissues

 Compare between skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle

 Describe nerve tissue

 Describe the locations of the pleural membranes, the pericardial membranes, and the peritoneum-mesentery. State the function of serous fluid in each of these locations.

 State the locations of mucous membranes and the functions of mucus.

 Explain the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands, and give an example of each.

Learning objectives of Body Tissues

http://www.arthursclipart.org/medical/humanbody/cell%20types.gif

Tissue: is a group of cells with similar structure and function.

Four types of body tissues: Epithelial

Connective Muscle Verve

Examples: mucous membrane, lamina propria, skeletal muscle, neurons

EPITHELIAL TISSUE Found on surfaces as either coverings (outer surfaces) or linings (inner surfaces). Many

epithelial tissues are capable of secretion (glands).

There are three types of epithelium (based on shape): squamous cells are flat, cuboidal cells are cube shaped, and columnar cells are tall and narrow. "Simple" is the term for a single layer of cells, and "stratified" means that many layers of cells are present.

A

B

C

D

SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM:

Small intestine villi and microvilli: folds greatly increase the surface area for absorption; the goblet cells secrete mucus (intestines and trachea).

Intestinal microvillus

Intestinal villi

CILIATED EPITHELIUM: cilia on their free surfaces to sweep materials across the cell surface

e.g., nasal cavities, larynx, trachea, and large bronchial tubes lining of the fallopian tubes (sweep the ovum toward the uterus)

Bronchiole epithelium

Table 4-1. TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Type Structure Location and Function

Simple squamous

One layer of flat cells Alveoli (gas exchange) Capillaries (exchanges of materials)

Stratified squamous

Many layers of cells; lower layer undergoes mitosis

Epidermis, Lining of esophagus, vagina (barrier to pathogens)

Transitional Many layers of cells; surface cells change from rounded to flat

Lining of urinary bladder (permits expansion without tearing the lining)

Cuboidal One layer of cube-shaped cells Thyroid gland (secretes thyroxine) Salivary glands (secrete saliva) Kidney tubules (reabsorption)

Columnar One layer of column-shaped cells Stomach (secretes gastric juice) Small intestine (secretes enzymes and absorption, microvilli)

Ciliated One layer of columnar cells with cilia on their free surfaces

Ttrachea (sweeps mucus and dust to the pharynx) Fallopian tube (sweeps ovum toward uterus)

GLANDS: cells or organs that secrete chemicals that has a function either at that site (exocrine) or at a more distant site (endocrine and hormones).

Unicellular glands: Goblet cells found in the lining of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Their secretion is mucus.

Parietal cell: HCL; Chief cell: pepsin; G cell: gastrin (a hormone)

Multicellular Glands

Exocrine: with ducts (tubes): eg, salivary glands,

sweat glands gastric glands

Endocrine glands: ductless, hormones for target organs. eg, thyroid gland

adrenal gland pituitary gland

Islets of Langerhans

acini

Pancreas: an organ with both exocrine and endocrine glands.

Exocrine: digestive enzymes to duodenum

Endocrine: insulin and glucagon

CONNECTIVE TISSUE (cells + matrix) Areolar, adipose, fibrous, and elastic tissue, blood, bone, and cartilage Connetive tissure matrix: a fibrous network, or minerals, or bio-solution

1. BLOOD belongs to connective tissue: cells + plasma (matrix) Red bone marrow, hemopoietic tissue (blood-forming tissue), Red blood cells Platelets White blood cells (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes). Proteins: albumin, IgG, enzymes, ……

Drug distribution: PO, IM, IV administration and plasma distribution to target organs.

http://visualsonline.cancer.gov/details.cfm?imageid=2129 (NCI/NIH

2. AREOLAR (loose) CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Collagen (strong) and elastin (elastic) Fibroblasts Mast cells WBCs (infiltration or self-locomotion)

Location: beneath the dermis beneath the epithelial tissues

Protective cells Mast cells White blood cells Phagocytic cells: macrophage

3. ADIPOSE TISSUE (adipocytes): store fat, energy sourse triglycerides subcutaneous organ cushions Fibers

Adipocytes

4. FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE: parallel collagen fibers + few cells strength flexible protective e.g., tendons and ligaments

Poor blood supply: difficult access for drug therapy. The dermis is different from other fibrous connective tissue in that it has a good blood supply.

Tendon

5. ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE: elastin fibers; stretched –recoil Eg, Aorta and alveoli

6. BONE: osteocytes. + matrix calcium + collagen Haversian systems (osteons). Red bone marrow (hemopoietic tissue)

7. CARTILAGE: Chondrocytes + matrix of cartilage without precipitation of calcium salts firm, yet smooth and flexible eg, joint surfaces, tip of the nose, external ear, wall of the trachea and bronchi, discs

of inter-vertebrae.

When cartilage is damaged, the repair will take place very slowly or not at all. Why?

7. CARTILAGE: Chondrocytes + matrix of cartilage without precipitation of calcium salts firm, yet smooth and flexible eg, joint surfaces, tip of the nose, external ear, wall of the trachea and bronchi, discs

of inter-vertebrae.

When cartilage is damaged, the repair will take place very slowly or not at all. Why?

Table 4-2. TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Type Structure Location and Function

Blood Plasma (matrix) and red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

Plasma--transports materials RBCs--carry oxygen WBCs--destroy pathogens Platelets--prevent blood loss

Areolar (loose)

Fibroblasts and a matrix of tissue fluid, collagen, and elastin fibers

Connects skin to muscles; WBCs destroy pathogens Mucous membranes (digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive tracts) WBCs destroy pathogens

Adipose Adipocytes that store fat (little matrix)

Stores excess energy Produces chemicals that influence appetite, use of nutrients, and inflammation Cushions

Fibrous Mostly collagen fibers (matrix) Tendon and ligament-- movement of joints

Elastic Mostly elastin fibers (matrix) with few fibroblasts

Arteries--maintain blood pressure Alveoli in lungs--exhalation

Bone Osteocytes in a matrix of calcium salts and collagen

Bones-- Support, Protect, storage (Ca2+) Contain and protect red bone marrow

Cartilage Chondrocytes in a flexible protein matrix

Trachea-- airway open Surfaces of bones--prevent friction Tip of nose and outer ear-- Support Between vertebrae-- Absorb shock

Which of the following is not a connective tissue? Which of the following location does not have cartilage tissue?

1. SKELETAL MUSCLE: striated, voluntary, multi-nuclei

Skeletal muscle are attached to bones, supplied with motor nerves, and thus move the skeleton.

They produce heat to maintain the body temperature. Neuromuscular disorders

MUSCLE TISSUE: Contraction

2. SMOOTH MUSCLE: involuntary, visceral muscle. a single nucleus, and no striations. Intestine: peristalsis blood pressure

3. CARDIAC MUSCLE: (myocardium, pump). one or more than nucleus striations intercalated discs

TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

Type Structure Location and Function Effect of Nerve Impulses

Skeletal Striated cells and multiple nuclei each

Attached to bones Movements and produces heat

contraction (voluntary)

Smooth tapered cells with no striations and one nucleus each

Arteries--blood pressure Stomach/intestines-- Peristalsis Iris of eye—pupil size

Bring about contraction or regulate the rate of contraction (involuntary)

Cardiac Branched cells with faint striations and one nucleus each

Walls of the chambers of the heart-- Pumps blood

Regulate only the rate of contraction

neurons + neuroglia

Axon Dendrites Synapse Neurotransmitters.

NERVE TISSUE

Which of the following are paired correctly regarding a tissue type and a

tissue? (74%/0.22) A. Epithelial / Blood B. Connective / Striated skeletal muscle C. Muscle / Endothelium

D. Nervous / Neuron

Table 4-4. NERVE TISSUE

Part Structure Function

Neuron (nerve cell)

Cell body Contains the nucleus Regulates the functioning of the neuron

Axon Cellular process (extension) Carries impulses away from the cell body

Dendrites Cellular process (extension) Carry impulses toward the cell body (dendrodendritic synapses)

Synapse Space between axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the next neuron

Transmits impulses from one neuron to others

Neurotransmitters Chemicals released by axons Transmit impulses across synapses

Neuroglia Specialized cells in the central nervous system

Form myelin sheaths and other functions

Schwann cells Specialized cells in the peripheral nervous system

Form the myelin sheaths around neurons

 Locate

 Pleural membranes

 Pericardial membranes

 Peritoneum-mesentery

 State the function of serous fluid and relate it to inflammation

 Locate

 Mucous membranes

 State the functions of mucus

Body Membranes

Learning Objectives

Definition: sheets of tissues that cover or line surfaces or that separate organs or parts (lobes) of organs from one another.

Two types of body membranes: 1. Epithelial membranes 2. Connective tissue membranes.

EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES: Secreting 1. Serous 2. Mucous

Serous fluid vs Mucus

Mucous Membranes: line respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts. The mucus secreted by these membranes keeps the lining epithelial cells moisturized.

Serous Membranes: Simple Squamous Epithelium Location and names

Pleural membranes: parietal pleura visceral pleura Serous fluid: to reduce friction when lungs expand and recoil

Pericardium (pericardial membrane) Parietal pericardium (lines the fibrous pericardium) Visceral pericardium Serous fluid

Peritoneum: Parietal; Visceral; Fluid Mesentery membrane:

Pleura cavity Peritoneal cavity Pericardial cavity

Differ these cavities from body cavities

1. dura mater 2. arachnoid mater 3. pia mater

Meninges

1 2 3

Which of the following is not a layer of meninges membrane?

(99%/0.28) A. Dura mater B. Arachnoid mater

C. CSF D. Pia mater

Table 4-5. CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES

Membrane Location and Function

Periosteum Covers each bone; contains blood vessels that enter the bone Anchors tendons and ligaments

Synovial Lines joint cavities; secretes synovial fluid to prevent friction when joints move

Meninges Cover the brain and spinal cord; contain cerebrospinal fluid

Fibrous pericardium Forms a sac around the heart; lined by the serous parietal pericardium (cardiac tamponade)

CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES

Examples of disease: Synovitis and Meningitis

Which of the following types of body fluid lubricates diarthrosis

(movable) joints? (99%/0.17) A. Serous

B. Synovial C. Mucus D. CSF

Learning Objectives

 Name the major layers of the skin and the tissues in each layer.

 Describe the location and function of keratinocytes and melanocytes.

Integumentary System

Integumentary system (Skin and its accessory organs)

Skin: three layers a. Epidermis b. Dermis c. Hypodermis

Accessory organs: a. Hair b. Nails c. Glands

• Skin thickness variable, normally 1-2 mm • Skin cells continually renew themselves

Keratinocytes

 Most abundant cells  Produce keratin  Living keratinocytes synthesize antimicrobial peptides called defensins  Involved in Vitamin D synthesis

Melanocyte • Produces melanin for protection from UV radiation. • Responsible for skin color.

Epidermis

Langerhans Cell • Also called dendritic cells • Phagocytoses foreign material • Triggers immune response • Cells involved in autoimmune dermatitis

J. Immunol. 181: 7468–7472 (2008)

Merkel cells Receptors for sense of touch Associated with sensory nerve

endings for touch

Vitamin D is synthesized in which of following skin cells? (83%/0.35) A. Melanocyte B. Keratinocyte C. Merkel cell D. Langerhans cell

Summery of Epidermis

EPIDERMIS

Part Function

Stratum corneum (keratin)

• Prevents loss or entry of water • If unbroken, prevents entry of pathogens and most chemicals

Stratum germinativum (stratumbasale)

• Continuous mitosis produces new cells to replace worn-off surface cells • Produces antimicrobial defensins • Cholesterol is changed to vitamin D on exposure to UV rays

Langerhans cells • Phagocytize foreign material and stimulate an immune response by lymphocytes

Merkel cells • Receptors for sense of touch

Melanocytes • Produce melanin on exposure to UV rays

Melanin • Protects living skin layers from further exposure to UV rays

Types of sweat glands

• Eccrine Most numerous

True sweat: 99% water, some salts, traces of waste

Open through pores (temp. control)

• Apocrine Axillary, anal and genital areas only

Ducts open into hair follices

Give individual odor (fatty stuff)

• Modified apocrine glands Ceruminous – secrete earwax

Mammary – secrete milk

Dermis

Type of Sensory Receptors

• Most sensory receptors for the cutaneous senses are in the dermis

• Sensory receptors: touching, pressure, heat, cold, nociceptive

• The sensitivity of area of skin is determined by how many receptors are present

• The more receptors, the larger cerebral cortical representation

Brain cortical homunculus representation

Part Function

Papillary layer • Contains capillaries that nourish the stratum germinativum

Hair (follicles) • Eyelashes and nasal hair keep dust out of eyes and nasal cavities • Scalp hair provides insulation from cold for the head

Nails (follicles) • Protect ends of fingers and toes from mechanical injury

Receptors • Detect changes that are felt as the cutaneous senses: touch, pressure, heat, cold, and pain

Sebaceous glands • Produce sebum, which prevents drying of skin and hair and inhibits growth of bacteria

Ceruminous glands

• Produce cerumen, which prevents drying of the eardrum

Eccrine sweat glands

• Produce watery sweat that is evaporated by excess body heat to cool the body

Arterioles • Dilate in response to warmth to increase heat loss • Constrict in response to cold to conserve body heat • Constrict in stressful situations to shunt blood to more vital organs

Summary of dermis

Summery of Hypodermis Function

Part Function

Areolar connective tissue

• Connects skin to muscles • Contains many WBCs to destroy pathogens that enter

breaks in the skin • Contains mast cells that release histamine, leukotrienes,

and other chemicals involved in inflammation

Adipose tissue

• Contains stored energy in the form of true fats • Cushions bony prominences • Provides some insulation from cold • Contributes to appetite • Contributes to use of insulin • Produces cytokines that activate WBCs

Describe the levels of organization of the body

Name the human organ systems, their major function and the major organs in a system

Relationship between organ systems: homeostasis and regulation (Negative feedback)

Describe the anatomic position and its application

State the anatomic terms for the parts of the body

Name the body cavities, their covering membranes, and some organs within each cavity

Describe the four quadrants of abdominal regions and name organs in the areas

Name the four types of body tissues and give at least two examples for each tissue type

Describe the functions of the subtypes of epithelial tissues

Describe the functions of the connective tissues

Compare between skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle

Describe nerve tissue (structure of neuron and glia)

Describe the locations of the pleural membranes, the pericardial membranes, and the

peritoneum-mesentery

State the function of serous fluid in each of these locations

State the locations of mucous membranes and the functions of mucus

Explain the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands

Name the major layers of the skin and the tissues in each layer

Describe the location and function of keratinocytes and melanocytes

After this class you should be able to